Quiz_2_Notes
Quiz_2_Notes
TOOLS
Quality Management Tools
(American Society for Quality)
1. Stratification
2. Fishbone diagram
3. Check Sheets
4. Histogram
5. Pareto chart
6. Scatter diagram
7. Control chart
Stratification
• Stratification: The act of into
.
(American Society for Quality)
• Systematically segregated and sorted data can reveal the patterns for managerial decision making
100
99.8
Process 1 Process 2 Process 3
Input (x) Output (y) Input (x) Output (y) Input (x) Output (y) 99.6
– Equipment
– When data come from several sources or
conditions, such as shifts, days of the week, – Shifts
suppliers, or population groups. – Departments
– Materials
– When data analysis may require separating – Suppliers
different sources or conditions – Day of the week
– Time of day
– Products
Flow Charts
➢ When data can be observed and collected repeatedly by the same person or at the same
location
➢ When collecting data on the frequency or patterns of events, problems, defects, defect
location, defect causes, or similar issues
➢ When collecting data from a production process
Histograms
Use Histograms when you need to know:
• Central Tendency of the distribution
• Variation in the distribution
• Compare the two different
distribution
• If the shape of the distribution is
normal What if there
• if the data is falling in a are two peaks
predetermined pattern
Pareto Charts
■ The assumption:
– Often referred to as the 80–20 rule, the Pareto concept states that
approximately 80 percent of the problems come from 20 percent of the items.
For instance, 80 percent of machine breakdowns come from 20 percent of the
machines, and 80 percent of the product defects come from 20 percent of the
causes of defects.
■ When to use pareto Chart:
– When analyzing data about the frequency of problems or causes in a process
– When there are many problems or causes and you want to focus on the most
significant
– When analyzing broad causes by looking at their specific components
Pareto Charts
• Comparing current data to historical control limits leads to conclusions about whether the process
variation is consistent (in control) or is unpredictable (out of control, affected by special causes of
variation).
■ Preventive or corrective ?
Quality Appraisal
■ Inspection:
– Inspection is an appraisal activity that compares goods or services to a
given standard.
Process Control
Acceptance Sampling
Statistical Sampling to determine where to
accept or reject the production lot.
Inspection Methods
Non-destructive test
Destructive testing
How much inspection is adequate ?
■ How much effort one should make in inspection ?
■ Acceptance Sampling
– Used to infer the quality of a batch of products by sampling a specified number of items for testing.
– Collect Sample for measurement (one or multiple random samples)
– Size of sample and number of samples depend on how much risk is assiciated with the product
■ Process Control
– Define the type of measurements
– Variables: Measures on a continuous scale (e.g., 23.5mm, 0.35 gms, 36 seconds. )
– Attributes: Measured on a discrete scale (e.g., pass-fail, fraction of defectives, number of defects on
a surface, etc.)
Process Variability
■ Random Variations
– Chance or common causes inherent in every process
– Deviation in the process output are natural in every
process
– Created by countless minor factors
■ Non-Random Variations
– Deviations in the process output can be clearly identified
and managed
– Systematic or assignable causes present in the preocess
– Process need a corrective actions
– In manufacturing set-ups, some of the causes are variation
primarily include - operational inputs such as raw materials,
personnel, equipment, measurement methods, etc. and the
environmental conditions.
Statistical Process Control (SPC)
■ Periodic samples of process output are taken
■ Sample statistics, (e.g., sample means) are measured.
■ For example, if you have taken n = 50 samples, having a sample size of 100 units
– Their means may be denoted by �1, �2, �3, … �50,
– The variability in sampling statistics (��)can be described by its sampling distribution.
Sampling distribution
Sampling Distribution:
Non random
Variation
LCL: Lower Control Limit
*
*
*
(for ± 3σ)
values
*
*
*
*
*
*
LCL: Lower Control Limit
Non random Sample ID (sample number/time order)
Variation
Variation due to
random/chance causes
– Also known as
■ producer’s risk Normal
■ false rejection (Random)
■ There is always a probability that a value will fall inside the limits even though non-random variations are
present.
■ Type 2 Error:
– Concluding
■ non-random variations are not present, when they are
■ a process is in control when it is really out of control
– Also known as
■ consumer’s risk
■ false pass
§ The costs of making each error should be balanced by their
■ false acceptance probabilities
■ false negative
§ In practice, two-sigma limits and three-sigma limits are commonly
used as reference.
The Control Process
■ Define: The set of characteristics which are suppose to be controlled
■ Measure: Establish the measurement method
■ Compare: With the quality standard (e.g., upper and lower control limits)
■ Evaluate: Establish a definition of ‘out of control’
– Distinguish random from non-random variability
– Non-random variability indicates that the process is out of control
■ Correct: Eliminate the cause of non-random variability
■ Monitor: To ensure that corrective action has a sustained effect
Statistical Stability of a process
■ Type 1 Error:
– Probability that a value will fall outside the limits Normal
even though only random variations are present (Random)
– Concluding that non-random variations are
present even though only random variations are
present
– Concluding a process is not in control when it α: Probability of making type 1 error
actually is. = sum of probabilities in the two tails
– Also known as producer’s risk
Type 1 and Type 2 Errors
■ There is always a probability that a value will fall inside the limits even though non-random
variations are present.
■ Type 2 Error:
– Concluding non-random variations are not present, when they are
– Concluding a process is in control when it is really out of control
– Also known as consumer’s risk
Control Charts
■ Control chart detects variation in processing and warns if there is any deviation from the specified control
limit (Voice of the Process)
■ The purpose is to monitor and stabilize the process through detecting and controlling the non-random
causes of variations.
■ What to monitor ?
– Variable data: Measured (usually on a continuous scale amount of time needed to complete a task,
length or width of a component)
– Attribute data: Counted (e.g., the number of defective parts in a sample, the number of calls per
day)
Control
Charts
Control
Control Chart
Charts for
for Attributes
Variables
• p-chart • c-chart
• np-chart • U-chart
• When items are classified in two categories: • When items can’t be classified in two categories:
• e.g.; good/bad; pass/fail, acceptable & unacceptable, • e.g., number of accidents per year, number of bacterea in a
conforming & non-conforming, defective/nondefective water sample, number of scrateches on a polished surface, etc.
etc.
Grand Average
x-bar (mean) chart: When Process Deviation is not known
Sample Average
Sample Range R
Results are similar to the earlier case when
Average of process deviation was known
Sample
Range
Example: Range Charts
Control Limits for the Range Charts Control Limits for the Range Charts when
process Standard Deviation is known
Sample Range of
five samples are
§ Control limits are obtained on the basis of about 20-25 samples and standard deviation
from the samples is calculated for further production control.
p-chart continued
Control limits:
Where, ‘p’ is fraction defective in the population
If p is unknown:
§ it can be estimated from samples
§ p̅replaces p in the preceding formulas
Example:
An inspector counted the number of defective monthly billing statements of a telephone company in
each of 20 samples. Using the following information, construct a control chart that will describe 99.74
percent of the chance variation in the process when the process is in control. Each sample contained
100 statements.
?
Control Chat for Attributes: c-chart
§ Works with count type data, e.g. total number of nonconformities per unit
?
Are all variations within the control limit random ?
Trend
Bias
High Dispersion
– The number of runs up (U) and down (D) (The first value does not receive either a U or a D
■ U/D Runs =3 because nothing precedes it.)
7 runs
8 runs
Run Test
■ Transform the data into both As and Bs and Us and Ds
■ Count the actual number of runs (r) in for N observations
■ Calculate the expected number of runs (Er)
■ Calculate the standard deviation of number of runs (σ)
■ Calculate the z-score
■ Decide on the basis of z-score (assuming acceptable limit lies between +2 to -2)
Number or observations ?
N =20
Number or runs ?
Process Capability
At any given instance, the output of a process may or may not conform to
specifications even though the process may be in statistical control
• Process capability refers to the inherent variability of process output relative to the variation allowed by
the design specifications
• If the random variations that a process is capable to produce lies within an acceptable specifications,
the process is said to be “capable.” If it is not, the manager must decide how to correct the situation.
Capability Analysis
Voice of the Process Voice of the Customers
8.5 10 11.5
8.5 10 11.5
a) LSL = 8.5 & USL = 11.5 b) LSL = 7 & USL = 13
LCL= 8.5 & UCL = 11.5
LCL= 8.5 & UCL = 11.5
Lower Upper
Specification Specification
Process capability index a) Cp= 3/3 = 1
b) Cp= 6/3 = 2
c) Cp= 2/3 = 0.67
8.5 10 11.5
c) LSL = 9 & USL = 11
LCL= 8.5 & UCL = 11.5
Only B is capable (Cp ≥ 1.33)
■ Cpk = Smaller of
,
7.5
Process mean is centred between USL & LSL
4.6
= Smaller of
capable
Not capable
Not capable
In order to be capable, Cp & Cp k must be at least 1.33