UNIT TWO: CELL BIOLOGY

2.1 Definition; Cell biology is a branch of biology studying the structure and function of the cell,

also known as the basic unit of life. Cell biology encompasses both prokaryotic and eukaryotic

cells and can be divided into many sub-topics which may include the study of cell metabolism,

cell communication, cell cycle, and cell composition. The study of cells is performed using several

techniques such as cell culture, various types of microscopy, and cell fractionation.

2.2 History:

Cells were first seen in 17th century Europe with the invention of the compound microscope. In
1665, Robert Hooke termed the building block of all living organisms as "cells" after looking at a
piece of cork and observing a cell-like structure, however, the cells were dead and gave no
indication to the actual overall components of a cell. A few years later, in 1674, Anton Van
Leeuwenhoek was the first to analyze live cells in his examination of algae. All of this preceded
the cell theory which states that all living things are made up of cells and that cells are the
functional and structural unit of organisms. This was ultimately concluded by plant scientist,
Matthias Schleiden and animal scientist, Theodor Schwann in 1839, who viewed live cells in plant
and animal tissue, respectively. 19 years later, Rudolf Virchow further contributed to the cell
theory, adding that all cells come from the division of pre-existing cells. Although widely accepted,
there have been many studies that question the validity of the cell theory. Viruses, for example,
lack common characteristics of a living cell, such as membranes, cell organelles, and the ability to
reproduce by themselves. Scientists have struggled to decide whether viruses are alive or not and
whether they are in agreement with the cell theory.
2.3 Cell classification and composition

There are two fundamental classifications of cells:

prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are
distinguished from eukaryotic cells by the absence of a
cell nucleus or other membrane bound organelle.
Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells,
making them the smallest form of life. Prokaryotic cells

A typical prokaryote cell.

Prokaryotic cells include Bacteria and Archaea, and lack an enclosed cell nucleus. They both
reproduce through binary fission. Bacteria, the most prominent type, have several different shapes
which include mainly spherical, and rod-shaped. Bacteria can be classed as either gram positive or
gram negative depending on the cell wall composition.

Eukaryotic cells

Eukaryotic cells can either be unicellular or multi-

cellular. They include animal, plant, fungi, and protozoa
cells which all contain organelles with various shapes
and sizes. These cells are composed of the following
organelles:

A typical animal cell.

Nucleus: This functions as the genome and genetic information storage for the cell, containing all
the DNA organized in the form of chromosomes. It is surrounded by a nuclear envelope, which
includes nuclear pores allowing for transportation of proteins between the inside and outside of
the nucleus.
Nucleolus: (Spherical shape, Visible when cell is not dividing, Contains RNA for protein manufacture)
 This structure is within the nucleus, usually dense and
spherical in shape. It is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
synthesis, which is needed for ribosomal assembly.

Nuclear membrane,

Surrounds nucleus, it is composed of two layers and

numerous openings for nuclear traffic

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER):

This functions to synthesize, store, and secrete proteins to

the golgi apparatus.

Golgi apparatus (Protein 'packaging plant, a membrane structure found near nucleus, Composed of numerous
layers forming a sac)

This functions to further process, package, and secrete the

proteins to their destination. The proteins contain a signal
sequence which allows the Golgi apparatus to recognize and
direct it to the correct place

Lysosome: (Digestive 'plant' for proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates, transports undigested material to
cell membrane for removal, vary in shape depending on process being carried out, cell breaks down if
lysosome explodes)
The lysosome functions to degrade material brought in from the
outside of the cell or old organelles. This contains many acid
hydrolases, proteases, nucleases, and lipases, which breakdown
the various molecules. Autophagy is the process of degradation
through lysosomes which occurs when a vesicle buds off from the
ER and engulfs the material, then, attaches and fuses with the
lysosome to allow the material to be degraded.

Each cell contains thousands, they are miniature 'protein factories',

Ribosomes:
make up 25% of cell's mass, they also have the stationary type
embedded in rough endoplasmic reticulum. Mobile types injects
proteins directly into cytoplasm. Ribosomes functions to translate
RNA to protein.
Cytoskeleton (Cytoplasm- cytosol and Organelles): This functions to anchor organelles within the
cells and make up the structure and stability of the cell.
Centrioles: Function to produce spindle fibers which are used to separate chromosomes during
cell division.
Chromatin: This makes up chromosomes and is a mixture of DNA with various proteins.
Cilia: They help to propel substances and can also be used for sensory purposes.

Cell membrane (Plasma membrane- surrounds cell and

gives it form) the cell membrane can be described as a
phospholipid bilayer and is also consisted of lipids and
proteins. Because the inside of the bilayer is hydrophobic and
in order for molecules to participate in reactions within the
cell, they need to be able to cross this membrane layer to
get into cell via osmotic pressure, diffusion,
concentration gradients, and membrane channels.

Mitochondria: (Second largest organelle with unique genetic structure, double-layered outer
membrane with inner folds called cristae - energy-producing chemical reactions take place on cristae,
controls level of water and other materials in cell, recycles and decomposes proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates, and forms urea)

This functions for the production of energy or ATP within the cell.
Specifically, this is the place where the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle for
the production of NADH and FADH occurs. Afterwards, these
products are used within the electron transport chain (ETC) and
oxidative phosphorylation for the final production of ATP.

2.4 Functions of the Human Cell

Growth and metabolism: Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the functioning
of cellular metabolism. Cell metabolism is the process by which individual cells process nutrient
molecules. Metabolism has two distinct divisions: catabolism, in which the cell breaks down
complex molecules to produce energy and reducing power, and anabolism, in which the cell uses
energy and reducing power to construct complex molecules and perform other biological
functions
Creation: Cell division involves a single cell (called a mother cell) dividing into two daughter
cells. This leads to growth in multicellular organisms (the growth of tissue) and to procreation
(vegetative reproduction) in unicellular organisms.
Protein synthesis: Cells are capable of synthesizing new proteins, which are essential for the
modulation and maintenance of cellular activities. This process involves the formation of new
protein molecules from amino acid building blocks based on information encoded in DNA/RNA.
Protein synthesis generally consists of two major steps: transcription and translation.

Movement or motility: Cells can move during many processes, such as wound healing, the
immune response and cancer metastasis. For wound healing to occur, white blood cells and cells
that ingest bacteria move to the wound site to kill the microorganisms that cause infection.
Evolution: The origin of cells has to do with the origin of life, which began the history of life on
Earth.

 Activity

Now that you have been introduced to the different structure that make up the cell, To review
and learn more about the structure and functions of cellular structures Summarize the anatomy
and physiology of the following organelles; Mitochondrion, Endoplasmic reticulum,
Lysosomes, Ribosomes, plasma membrane, nucleus, Cilia

2.5 CELL DIVISION

Definition: is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells. Cell
division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle.
Types of cell division: In eukaryotes, there are two distinct types of cell division:
Mitosis: a vegetative division, whereby each daughter cell is genetically identical to the parent
cell. On a larger scale, mitotic cell division can create progeny from multicellular organisms,
such as plants that grow from cuttings. Mitotic cell division enables sexually reproducing
organisms to develop from the one-celled zygote, which itself was produced by meiotic cell
division from gametes. After growth, cell division by mitosis allows for continual construction
and repair of the organism. The human body experiences about 10 quadrillion cell divisions in a
lifetime.
Meiosis: this type of cell division results in four haploid daughter cells by undergoing one round
of DNA replication followed by two divisions. Homologous chromosomes are separated in the
first division, and sister chromatids are separated in the second division. Both of these cell
division cycles are used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in their life cycle.

Binary fission:

Prokaryotes (bacteria) undergo a vegetative cell division known

as binary fission, where their genetic material is segregated
equally into two daughter cells. While binary fission may be the
means of division by most prokaryotes, there are alternative
manners of division, such as budding, that have been observed.

All cell divisions, regardless of organism, are preceded by a single round of DNA replication.
For simple unicellular microorganisms such as the amoeba, one cell division is equivalent to
reproduction – an entire new organism is created.
In both types of cell division, the primary concern is the maintenance of the original cell's
genome. Before division can occur, the genomic information that is stored in chromosomes must
be replicated, and the duplicated genome must be separated cleanly between cells. A great deal
of cellular infrastructure is involved in keeping genomic information consistent between
generations.
Phases of eukaryotic cell division (mitosis and meiosis)
Mitotic spindle in a human cell major stages in mitosis
Interphase
Interphase is the process a cell must go through before mitosis, meiosis, and cytokinesis.
Interphase consists of three main phases: G1, S, and G2. G1 is a time of growth for the cell where
specialized cellular functions occur in order to prepare the cell for DNA Replication. There are
checkpoints during interphase that allow the cell to be either advance or halt further development.
In S phase, the chromosomes are replicated in order for the genetic content to be maintained.
During G2, the cell undergoes the final stages of growth before it enters the M phase, where
spindles are synthesized. The M phase, can be either mitosis or meiosis depending on the type of
cell. Germ cells, or gametes, undergo meiosis, while somatic cells will undergo mitosis. After
the cell proceeds successfully through the M phase, it may then undergo cell division through
cytokinesis. The control of each checkpoint is controlled by cyclin and cyclin-dependent kinases.
The progression of interphase is the result of the increased amount of cyclin. As the amount of
cyclin increases, more and more cyclin dependent kinases attach to cyclin signaling the cell
further into interphase.
 After cells have finished dividing their chromosomes, and cytokinesis has divided the cell
membrane, the two new cells enter the first stage of interphase,
Gap 1 or G1. During this stage, the cell performs its normal functions, and grows in size. The
cell replicates organelles as necessary. As seen in the graphic above, cells can sometimes leave
G1 and enter G0, or resting phase, as described above. If the cell is an actively dividing cell, it
will continue interphase by entering the next phase synthesis
Synthesis (S-phase):
During synthesis, the cell pauses its normal functioning. All resources are dedicated to replicating
the DNA. This process starts with the two entwined stands of DNA being “unzipped” by various
proteins. Other proteins, known as polymerase enzymes, start creating new strands to pair with
each half of the DNA. This is done on each chromosome, which creates an identical copy of
each, bound together as sister chromatids. If the cell is a somatic cell, it will enter mitosis after
interphase and the sister chromatids will be separated, creating two identical copies of the
genome in each cell. If the cell will give rise to a gamete it will enter meiosis after interphase. In
meiosis, homologous chromosomes are separated in one division, then sister chromatid in the
next, creating cells with only half of a full genome. These cells enter interphase, but synthesis
stage cannot occur until fertilization occurs with another gamete. Either way, after synthesis, the
cell must prepare for cell division.
Gap 2 (G2 – phase):
After the DNA has been replicated during synthesis stage, the cell enters a second gap stage,
known as Gap 2 or G2. During G2 the cell the cell adds volume to the cytoplasm, and replicates
many important organelles. In animals, the mitochondria are replicated to provide enough energy
for the dividing cell. The cell divides through mitosis, and the sequence starts again. If the cell
divides through meiosis, the gamete must become fertilized with more DNA before fully entering
into interphase and allowing the cycle to continue.
Prophase: Prophase is the first stage of division. The nuclear envelope is broken down, long
strands of chromatin condense to form shorter more visible strands called chromosomes, the
nucleolus disappears, and microtubules attach to the chromosomes at the kinetochores present in
the centromere. Microtubules associated with the alignment and separation of chromosomes are
referred to as the spindle and spindle fibers. Chromosomes will also be visible under a microscope
and will be connected at the centromere. During this condensation and alignment period in
meiosis, the homologous chromosomes undergo a break in their double-stranded DNA at the same
locations, followed by a recombination of the now fragmented parental DNA strands into non-
parental combinations, known as crossing over. This process is evidenced to be caused in a large
part by the highly conserved Spo11 protein through a mechanism similar to that seen with
toposomerase in DNA replication and transcription.
Metaphase: In metaphase, the centromeres of the chromosomes convene themselves on the
metaphase plate (or equatorial plate), an imaginary line that is at equal distances from the two
centrosome poles and held together by complex complexes known as cohesins. Chromosomes line
up in the middle of the cell by microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs) pushing and pulling on
centromeres of both chromatids thereby causing the chromosome to move to the center. At this
point the chromosomes are still condensing and are currently one step away from being the most
coiled and condensed they will be, and the spindle fibers have already connected to the
kinetochores. During this phase all the microtubules, with the exception of the kinetochores, are
in a state of instability promoting their progression towards anaphase At this point, the
chromosomes are ready to split into opposite poles of the cell towards the spindle to which they
are connected.
Anaphase: Anaphase is a very short stage of the cell cycle and occurs after the chromosomes
align at the mitotic plate. Kinetochores emit anaphase-inhibition signals until their attachment to
the mitotic spindle. Once the final chromosome is properly aligned and attached the final signal
dissipates and triggers the abrupt shift to anaphase. This abrupt shift is caused by the activation of
the anaphase-promoting complex and its function of tagging degradation of proteins important
towards the metaphase-anaphase transition. One of these proteins that is broken down is securin
which through its breakdown releases the enzyme separase that cleaves the cohesin rings holding
together the sister chromatids thereby leading to the chromosomes separating. After the
chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell, the spindle fibers will pull them apart. The
chromosomes are split apart while the sister chromatids move to opposite sides of the cell. As the
sister chromatids are being pulled apart, the cell and plasma are elongated by non-kinetochore
microtubules
Telophase: Telophase is the last stage of the cell cycle in which a cleavage furrow splits the cells
cytoplasm (cytokinesis) and chromatin. This occurs through the synthesis of a new nuclear
envelopes that forms around the chromatin gathered at each pole and the reformation of the
nucleolus as the chromosomes decondense their chromatin back to the loose state it possessed
during interphase. The division of the cellular contents is not always equal and can vary by cell
type as seen with oocyte formation where one of the four daughter cells possess the majority of
the cytoplasm
Cytokinesis: The last stage of the cell division process is cytokinesis. In this stage there is a
cytoplasmic division that occurs at the end or either mitosis or meiosis. At this stage there is a
resulting irreversible separation leading to two daughter cells. Cell division plays a important role
in determining the fate of the cell. This is due to there being the possibility of an asymmetric
division. This as a result leads to cytokinesis producing unequal daughter cells containing
completely different amounts or concentrations of fate-determining molecules