new chap 4 temp.

qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 119

4
Temperature Measurement

Principles of Temperature – ITS-90. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Comparative Characteristics of Thermometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Temperature Differences Between ITS-90, IPTS-68 and EPT-76 . . 123
Temperature Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Temperature Conversion Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Steady-State Heat Transfer Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
°F to °C Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Temperature Conversion Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
°F to Kelvin Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
°C to °F Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Thermocouples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Thermocouple Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Type E – Thermoelectric Voltage in mV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Type J – Thermoelectric Voltage in mV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Type K – Thermoelectric Voltage in mV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Type T – Thermoelectric Voltage in mV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Limits of Error for Thermocouples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Upper Temperature Limits for Protected Thermocouples . . . . . 147
RTDs (Resistive Temperature Detectors) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
RTD Material Resistivity Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Resistance Versus Temperature for Platinum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 120

120 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

Wheatstone Bridge – Effect of Bridge Nonlinearities . . . . . . . . . . . 154

Wheatstone Bridge – 3-wire Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Thermistor Temperature-Resistance Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Resistance Tolerance Percent for Thermistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Thermistor Voltage Drop Across a Wheatstone Bridge . . . . . . . . . 155
Stem Correction for a Total Immersion Thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Vapor Pressure Thermometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Radiation Pyrometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Planck’s Radiation Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Wien’s Radiation Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Stefan-Boltzmann Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Wien’s Displacement Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Total Emissivities of Metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Total Radiation Pyrometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Brightness Pyrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Johnson Noise Thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 121

Chapter 4/Temperature 121

Principles of Temperature – According to a detailed report by

ITS-90 B.W. Mangum, of NIST’s Center for
Chemical Technology, National
Shortly after adoption of the Inter-
Measurement Laboratory, and
national Practical Temperature
NIST guest scientist G.T. Furukawa,
Scale of 1968 (IPTS-68), it was real-
ITS-90 – when compared to IPTS-68
ized the scale had many deficien-
– extends upward from 0.65 K.
cies and limitations. Consequently,
Also, temperatures on the newer
the Comité Consultatif de Ther-
scale are in much better agreement
mométrie (CCT) – one of eight spe-
with thermodynamic values. In
cialized technical subcommittees of
addition, ITS-90’s continuity, non-
the Comité International des Poids
uniqueness and reproducibility
et Mesures (CIPM) – undertook the
throughout its ranges are much
development of a new scale. On 26-
improved over previous scales. The
28 September 1989, the CCT recom-
most complete and authoritative
mended ITS-90 be adopted. Follow-
document on ITS-90 from NIST is
ing approval by CIPM, ITS-90
Technical Note 1265 by Mangum
became the official international
and Furukawa. It is available as a
temperature scale on 1 January
pdf from NIST’s web site:
1990, when it also was imple-
http://www.cstl.nist.gov/div836/836.0
mented at the U.S. National Insti-
5/papers/magnum90ITS90guide.pdf
tute of Standards and Technology
(NIST).

Temperature Defining Points – IPTS-68 vs. ITS-90

IPTS-68 ITS-90
Temperature Defining Point ITPS-68°C ITS-90°C
Kelvin Kelvin
Triple Point of Hydrogen 13.81 -259.34 13.8033 -259.3467

Boiling (Vapor Pressure) 17.042 -256.108 ~17.0 ~ -256.15

Point of Hydrogen at 25/75
Standard Atmosphere

Boiling Point of Hydrogen 20.28 -252.87 ~20.3 ~ -252.85

Boiling Point of Neon 27.102 -246.048 — —
Triple Point of Neon — — 24.5561 -248.5939
Triple Point of Oxygen 54.361 -218.789 54.3584 -218.7916
Boiling Point of Oxygen 90.188 -182.962 — —
Triple Point of Water 273.16 0.01 273.16 0.01
Boiling Point of Water 373.15 100.00 — —
Freezing Point of Zinc 692.73 419.58 692.677 419.527
Freezing Point of Silver 1235.08 961.93 1234.93 961.78
Freezing Point of Gold 1337.58 1064.43 1337.77 1064.18
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 122

122 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

Comparative Characteristics of Thermometers

Range Resolution Accuracy of Drift in

Thermometer °C °C Absolute, % 20 khr, %

Thermocouples, 0-250 >0.1 0.3-0.8 1.3@650°C

Sheathed

Sheathed type K (C/A) 250-850 >0.1 1-1.5

1.7@
Sheathed type S(Pt-Rh) 0-1600 >0.1 0.1
1300°C

Platinum Resistance
Thermometers

-200 to
Industrial 0.01 0.5-0.1 0.02@ 650°C
650

-183 to 0.02@
Standard <0.01 0.0001-0.003
631 1063°C

-200 to
Thermistors 0.0005 0.03-1 0.02-0.03
600

-38 to
Mercury-in-Glass 0.01 0.002-0.25 0.05
400

Optical Pyrometer 700-3000 0.20 0.10 0

Johnson Noise -272 to 0.10 0.01-1.30 0

Thermometer 1500

Transistor Absolute -200 to 0.04 0.50

Thermometer 123
Nuclear Quadrupole
-183 to 0.0002 0.0004 <0.01@
Resonance 125 100°C
Thermometer
Ultrasonic Pulse Echo 0-2000 1-2 1
Thermometer

Fluidic Thermometers 0-1200 0.00001 105

Quartz Crystal -40 to 0.0001 <0.005 0.003@

Thermometer 230 100°C

Eddy Current 150-600 0.05 1-10

Thermometer (sodium)

Microwave Resonator 1370 0.05 1

new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 123

Chapter 4/Temperature 123

Differences Between ITS-90, IPTS-68 and EPT-76

where
ITS-90 = T90 or t90
IPTS-68 = T68 or t68
EPT-76 = T76

(T90 – T76)/mK
T90/K 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5
10 -0.6 -0.7 -0.8 -1.0 -1.1 -1.3 -1.4 -1.5 -1.8 -2.0
20 -2.2 -2.5 -2.7 -3.0 -3.2 -3.5 -3.8 -4.1

(T90 – T68)/K

T90/K 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 -0.006 -0.003 -0.004 -0.006 -0.008 -0.008

20 -0.009 -0.008 -0.007 -0.007 -0.006 -0.005 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006

30 -0.006 -0.007 -0.008 -0.008 -0.008 -0.007 -0.007 -0.007 -0.006 -0.006

40 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006 -0.007 -0.007 -0.007 -0.006 -0.006

50 -0.006 -0.005 -0.005 -0.004 -0.003 -0.002 -0.001 0.000 0.001 0.002

60 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.007

70 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008

80 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008

90 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.009 0.009

T90/K 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

100 0.009 0.011 0.013 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.012

200 0.011 0.010 0.009 0.008 0.007 0.005 0.003 0.001

new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 124

124 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

(T90 – T68)/°C

T90/°C 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -70 -80 -90

-100 0.013 0.013 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.010 0.008 0.008

0 0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.009 0.010 0.011 0.012 0.012

T90/°C 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

0 0.000 -0.002 -0.005 -0.007 -0.010 -0.013 -0.016 -0.018 -0.021 -0.024

100 -0.026 -0.028 -0.030 -0.032 -0.034 -0.036 -0.037 -0.038 -0.039 -0.039

200 -0.040 -0.040 -0.040 -0.040 -0.040 -0.040 -0.040 -0.039 -0.039 -0.039

300 -0.039 -0.039 -0.039 -0.040 -0.040 -0.041 -0.042 -0.043 -0.045 -0.046

400 -0.048 -0.051 -0.053 -0.056 -0.059 -0.062 -0.065 -0.068 -0.072 -0.075

500 -0.079 -0.083 -0.087 -0.090 -0.094 -0.098 -0.101 -0.105 -0.108 -0.112

600 -0.115 -0.118 -0.122 -0.125 -0.08 -0.03 0.02 0.06 0.11 0.16

700 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.31 0.33 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.35

800 0.34 0.32 0.29 0.25 0.22 0.18 0.14 0.10 0.06 0.03

900 -0.01 -0.03 -0.06 -0.08 -0.10 -0.12 -0.14 -0.16 -0.17 -0.18

1000 -0.19 -0.20 -0.21 -0.22 -0.23 -0.24 -0.25 -0.25 -0.26 -0.26

T90/°C 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

1000 -0.26 -0.30 -0.35 -0.39 -0.44 -0.49 -0.54 -0.60 -0.66

2000 -0.72 -0.79 -0.85 -0.93 -1.00 -1.07 -1.15 -1.24 -1.32 -1.41

3000 -1.50 -1.59 -1.69 -1.78 -1.89 -1.99 -2.10 -2.21 -2.32 -2.43
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 125

Chapter 4/Temperature 125

˚F ˚R K ˚C
1340 1800 1000 727

1000 538

˚F = 2(˚C)
Approx.

˚Rea

500 960 533 260 208

Water Boils 212 100 80

Room Temp 70
21 17
Water Freezes 32 273 0 0
0 460
-40 ˚C = ˚F -40

Absolute Zero
Temperature -460 0 0 -273 -218
Fahrenheit Rankin Kelvin Celsius Reaumur

Relation of Temperature Scales

Temperature Conversion °Fahrenheit to °Celsius

Equations Degree F - 32
Degree C =
°Celsius to °Fahrenheit 1.8
Degree F = (Degree C x 1.8) + 32
°Fahrenheit to °Rankine
°Celsius to °Rankine
Degree R = Degree F + 459.67
Degree R = (Degree C + 273.15) x
1.8
°Fahrenheit to Kelvin
°Celsius to Kelvin Degree F - 32
Degree C = + 273.1
Kelvin = Degree C + 273.15 1.8

°Rankine to °Fahrenheit
Degree F = Degree R - 459.67
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 126

126 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

°Rankine to Kelvin °Fahrenheit Add to °Celsius

Degree R 1 0.5556
Kelvin =
1 .8 2 1.1111
3 1.6667
Kelvin to °Celsius 4 2.2222
Degree C = Kelvin - 273.15 5 2.7778
6 3.3334
Kelvin to °Rankine
Degree R = Kelvin x 1.8 7 3.8889
8 4.4445
Interpolation Values 9 5.0000
10 5.5556
To interpolate for accurate temper-
atures between the various incre- 20 11.1112
mental changes in the following 30 16.6668
temperature conversion tables, the 40 22.2224
interpolation table below provides
50 27.7780
the values to add to the conversion
table values. Note that these values 60 33.3336
are to four decimal places. To use 70 38.8892
these add-on values correctly, cal- 80 44.4448
culate the add-on value, and then 90 50.0004
round to two decimal places.
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 127

Chapter 4/Temperature 127

Steady-State Heat Transfer In many applications, heat transfer

Analysis along all the coordinate axes is not
significant. In these cases the equa-
The performance of temperature
tions are:
sensors can depend on all the
modes of heat transfer – conduc-
Cartesian (one-dimensional)
tion, convection, and radiation.
∂2T
=0
The steady-state heat conduction ∂x 2
equation is:
∇ ⋅ kVT = 0 Cylinder (r only)
∂2T 1 ∂T
+ =0
where ∂r 2 r ∂r
∇ = geometry-dependent
differential operator
Cylinder (r,z)
k = thermal conductivity
∂2T 1 ∂T ∂2T
+ + =0
For constant thermal conductivity, ∂r 2 r ∂r ∂z 2
the conduction equation is:
∇2T = 0 Sphere (r only)
1 ∂  2 ∂T 
∇2T = r 
The differential operators for three r 2 ∂r  ∂r 
geometries are: ∂2T 2 ∂T
x,y,z (Cartesian) = +
∂r 2 r ∂r

∂2T ∂2T ∂2T

∇2T = + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 Convective Heat Transfer
Coefficients
r,z, θ (cylindrical) Dimensionless Quantities for
Sensors of Single Cylinders or
∂2T 1 ∂T 1 ∂2T ∂2T Spheres
∇2T = + + 2 2 + 2
∂r 2 r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z
hD
Nusselt number (Nu) =
k
r, θ, φ (spherical)
1 ∂  2 ∂T  ρ
∇2T =  r + Reynolds number (Re) = Du
r 2 ∂r ∂r  µ
1 ∂  ∂T  cµ
 sin θ +
r sin θ
2 ∂ θ ∂θ  Prandtl number (Pr) =
k
1 ∂2T
r sin θ ∂φ2
2 2
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 128

128 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

where Nonmetals Flowing Across a

h = film heat transfer coefficient Single Sphere
D = diameter of sensor Nu = 2.0 + 0.60 Re1/2 Pr1/2
k = thermal conductivity of fluid
ρ = fluid density Metals Flowing Normal to a
u = fluid velocity Single Cylinder
µ = fluid viscosity Nu = 0.8 Re0.5 Pr0.5
c = fluid specific heat capacity
Metals Flowing Across a
Single Sphere
General Form of the
Correlations Nu = 2.0 + 0.386 Re0.5 Pr0.5

Nu = a1 + a2 Rea3 Pra4

where
a = experimental data

Nonmetals Flowing Normal to a

Single Cylinder

Nu = (0.35 + 0.47 Re0.52) Pr0.3

for 0.1 <Re <1000
Nu = 0.26 Re0.6 Pr0.3
for 1000 < Re <50,000
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 129

Chapter 4/Temperature 129

Conversion Tables, °F to °C
°F °C °F °C °F °C
-500 -295.556 0 -17.778 70 21.111
-480 -284.444 1 -17.222 80 26.667
-460 -273.333 2 -16.667 90 32.222
-440 -262.222 3 -16.111 100 37.778
-420 -251.111 4 -15.556 110 43.333
-400 -240.000 5 -15.000 120 48.889
-380 -228.889 6 -14.444 130 54.444
-360 -217.778 7 -13.889 140 60.000
-340 -206.667 8 -13.333 150 65.556
-320 -195.556 9 -12.778 160 71.111
-300 -184.444 10 -12.222 170 76.667
-280 -173.333 11 -11.667 180 82.222
-260 -162.222 12 -11.111 190 87.778
-240 -151.111 13 -10.556 200 93.333
-220 -140.000 14 -10.000 210 98.889
-200 -128.889 15 -9.444 220 104.444
-180 -117.778 16 -8.889 230 110.000
-160 -106.667 17 -8.333 240 115.556
-140 -95.556 18 -7.778 250 121.111
-120 -84.444 19 -7.222 260 126.667
-100 -73.333 20 -6.667 270 132.222
-80 -62.222 30 -1.111 280 137.778
-60 -51.111 40 4.444 290 143.333
-40 -40.000 50 10.000 300 148.889
-20 -28.889 60 15.556 310 154.444
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 130

130 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

Conversion Tables, °F to °C (cont.)

°F °C °F °C °F °C
320 160.000 570 298.889 900 482.222
330 165.556 580 304.444 950 510.000
340 171.111 590 310.000 1000 537.778
350 176.667 600 315.556 1050 565.556
360 182.222 610 321.111 1100 593.333
370 187.778 620 326.667 1150 621.111
380 193.333 630 332.222 1200 648.889
390 198.889 640 337.778 1250 676.667
400 204.444 650 343.333 1300 704.444
410 210.000 660 348.889 1350 732.222
420 215.556 670 354.444 1400 760.000
430 221.111 680 360.000 1450 787.778
440 226.667 690 365.556 1500 815.556
450 232.222 700 371.111 1550 843.333
460 237.778 710 376.667 1600 871.111
470 243.333 720 382.222 1650 898.889
480 248.889 730 387.778 1700 926.667
490 254.444 740 393.333 1750 954.444
500 260.000 750 398.889 1800 982.222
510 265.556 760 404.444 1850 1010.000
520 271.111 770 410.000 1900 1037.778
530 276.667 780 415.556 1950 1065.556
540 282.222 790 421.111 2000 1093.333
550 287.778 800 426.667 2050 1121.111
560 293.333 850 454.444 2100 1148.889
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 131

Chapter 4/Temperature 131

Temperature Conversion Table

To Convert From To Multiply by:

°C heat unit Btu 1.8

°C heat unit Calorie 453.592

°C heat unit Joule 1899.10

°C/hr-kilocalorie °C / watt 0.859845

ft/°F m/°C 0.548640

in/°F mm/°C 45.72

Joule Calorie 0.238846

Joule/°C Btu/°F 0.000526565

kilocalorie Btu 3.968320

kilocalorie Joule 4186.80

liter-bar Joule 100.0

°C-temperature interval °F 1.8

°C-temperature interval °Rankine 1.8

°F-temperature interval °C 0.5555556

°F-temperature interval °Rankine 1.0

°F-temperature interval Kelvin 0.5555556

new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 132

132 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

Conversion Tables, °F to Kelvin

°F K °F K °F K

-500 -22.406 0 255.372 70 294.261

-480 -11.294 1 255.928 80 299.817

-460 -0.183 2 256.483 90 305.372

-440 10.928 3 257.039 100 310.928

-420 22.039 4 257.794 110 316.483

-400 33.150 5 258.150 120 322.039

-380 44.261 6 258.706 130 327.594

-360 55.372 7 259.261 140 333.150

-340 66.483 8 259.817 150 338.706

-320 77.594 9 260.372 160 344.261

-300 88.706 10 260.928 170 349.817

-280 99.817 11 261.483 180 355.372

-260 110.928 12 262.039 190 360.928

-240 122.039 13 262.594 200 366.483

-220 133.150 14 263.150 210 372.039

-200 144.261 15 263.706 220 377.594

-180 155.372 16 264.261 230 383.150

-160 166.483 17 264.871 240 388.706

-140 177.594 18 265.372 250 394.261

-120 188.706 19 265.928 260 399.817

-100 199.817 20 266.483 270 405.372

-80 210.928 30 272.039 280 410.928

-60 222.039 40 277.594 290 416.483

-40 233.150 50 283.150 300 422.039

-20 244.261 60 288.706 310 427.594

1
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 133

Chapter 4/Temperature 133

Conversion Tables, °F to Kelvin (cont.)

°F K °F K °F K

320 433.150 570 572.709 900 755.372

330 438.706 580 577.594 950 783.150

340 444.261 590 583.150 1000 810.928

350 449.817 600 588.706 1050 838.706

360 455.372 610 594.261 1100 866.483

370 460.928 620 599.817 1150 894.261

380 466.483 630 605.372 1200 922.039

390 472.039 640 610.928 1250 949.817

400 477.594 650 616.483 1300 977.594

410 483.150 660 622.039 1350 1005.372

420 488.706 670 627.594 1400 1033.150

430 494.261 680 633.150 1450 1060.928

440 499.817 690 638.706 1500 1088.706

450 505.372 700 644.261 1550 1116.483

460 510.928 710 649.817 1600 1144.261

470 516.483 720 655.372 1650 1172.039

480 522.039 730 660.928 1700 1199.817

490 527.594 740 666.438 1750 1227.594

500 533.150 750 672.039 1800 1255.372

510 538.706 760 677.594 1850 1283.150

520 544.261 770 683.150 1900 1310.928

530 549.817 780 688.706 1950 1338.706

540 555.372 790 694.261 2000 1366.483

550 560.928 800 699.817 2050 1394.261

560 566.483 850 727.594 2100 1422.039

new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 134

134 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

Conversion Tables, °C to °F
°C °F °C °F °C °F

-300 -508.0 -50 -58.0 20 68.0

-290 -490.0 -40 -40.0 25 77.0

-280 -472.0 -30 -22.0 30 86.0

-270 -454.0 -20 -4.0 40 104.0

-260 -436.0 -10 14.0 50 122.0

-250 -418.0 0 32.0 60 140.0

-240 -400.0 1 33.8 70 158.0

-230 -382.0 2 35.6 80 176.0

-220 -364.0 3 37.4 90 194.0

-210 -346.0 4 39.2 100 212.0

-200 -328.0 5 41.0 110 230.0

-190 -310.0 6 42.8 120 248.0

-180 -292.0 7 44.6 130 266.0

-170 -274.0 8 46.4 140 284.0

-160 -256.0 9 48.2 150 302.0

-150 -238.0 10 50.0 160 320.0

-140 -220.0 11 51.8 170 338.0

-130 -202.0 12 53.6 180 356.0

-120 -184.0 13 55.4 190 374.0

-110 -166.0 14 57.2 200 392.0

-100 -148.0 15 59.0 210 410.0

-90 -130.0 16 60.8 220 428.0

-80 -112.0 17 62.6 230 446.0

-70 -94.0 18 64.4 240 464.0

-60 -76.0 19 66.2 250 482.0

new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 135

Chapter 4/Temperature 135

Conversion Tables, °C to °F (cont.)

°C °F °C °F °C °F

260 500.0 510 950.0 760 1400.0

270 518.0 520 968.0 770 1418.0

280 536.0 530 986.0 780 1436.0

290 554.0 540 1004.0 790 1454.0

300 572.0 550 1022.0 800 1472.0

310 590.0 560 1040.0 810 1490.0

320 608.0 570 1058.0 820 1508.0

330 626.0 580 1076.0 830 1526.0

340 644.0 590 1094.0 840 1544.0

350 662.0 600 1112.0 850 1562.0

360 680.0 610 1130.0 860 1580.0

370 698.0 620 1148.0 870 1598.0

380 716.0 630 1166.0 880 1616.0

390 734.0 640 1184.0 890 1634.0

400 752.0 650 1202.0 900 1652.0

410 770.0 660 1220.0 910 1670.0

420 788.0 670 1238.0 920 1688.0

430 806.0 680 1256.0 930 1706.0

440 824.0 690 1274.0 940 1724.0

450 842.0 700 1292.0 950 1742.0

460 860.0 710 1310.0 960 1760.0

470 878.0 720 1328.0 970 1778.0

480 896.0 730 1346.0 980 1796.0

490 914.0 740 1364.0 990 1814.0

500 932.0 750 1382.0 1000 1832.0

new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 136

136 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

Thermocouples measured and the other end is con-

nected to the instrument. Since the
The thermocouple is the most pop-
thermocouple materials are not
ular type of sensor. Thermocouples
typically good materials for trans-
are based on the principle that two
mission, wires with similar charac-
wires made of dissimilar materials
teristics are used when the trans-
connected at either end will gener-
mitting instrument is remote.
ate a potential between the two
ends that is a function of the mate-
rials and temperature difference Thermocouple Types
between the two ends. Thermocouples come in different
combinations of metals and cali-
A number of material choices are in brations. Types J, K, T and E are the
common use. Base metal thermo- four most common calibrations.
couples are useful for measuring Types R, S, C and GB are high tem-
temperatures under 1000 degrees perature calibrations. Each calibra-
C. This class includes iron/constan- tion has a different temperature
tan (Type J), Chromel/Alumel (Type range and environment. However,
K) and a number of others. Nobel the maximum temperature varies
metal thermocouples are useful to with the diameter of the wire used
about 2000 degrees C. This class in the thermocouple.
includes tungsten-rhenium alloy
thermocouples and others. The letter type, e.g., type J, identi-
fies a specific temperature-voltage
The potential generated is in milli- relationship, not a particular chem-
volts and is a nonlinear function of ical composition. Thermocouples
temperature. In practice, one end is of a given type may have variations
placed near the material to be in composition as long as their

Thermocouples
Type Composition Temperature range, °C
B Pt-30% Rh versus Pt-6% Rh 0 to 1820
E Ni-Cr alloy versus a Cu-Ni alloy -270 to 1000
J Fe versus a Cu-Ni alloy -210 to 1200
K Ni-Cr alloy versus Ni-Al alloy -270 to 1372
N Ni-Cr-Si alloy versus Ni-Si-Mg alloy -270 to 1300
R Pt-13% Rh versus Pt -50 to 1768
S Pt-10% Rh versus Pt -50 to 1768
T Cu versus a Cu-Ni alloy -270 to 400

Courtesy: National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) ©1995 copyright by the U.S.
Secretary of Commerce on behalf of the United States of America. All rights reserved.
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 137

Chapter 4/Temperature 137

resultant temperature-voltage rela- where

tionships remain within specified
∆V
tolerances. All materials manufac- S=
tured in compliance with the estab- ∆T
lished thermoelectric voltage stan-
V = voltage
dards are equally acceptable.
T = temperature

Thermocouple Circuit Analysis The Basic Thermoelectric

Voltage Element
V = ∫ T2 (Sa − Sb )dT
T
1
A Simple Thermocouple
Circuit
Thermocouple Circuit Analysis

where:
V = open-circuit voltage
T1 = Temperature at one end of
wires S
T2 = temperature at other end of T1 T2
wires
Sa = absolute Seebeck coefficient ∆V
for material
Sb = absolute Seebeck coefficient
for material
T = temperature
The Basic Thermoelectric Voltage Element
Sa − Sb = Sab
Sab = −Sba
Sac = Sab − Scb
Sac = Sab + Sbc

Sa
where T1
Sab = relative Seebeck coefficient
for materials a and b
V T2

The Relation Between

Temperature Difference and T1
Voltage Sb

∆V = S (T2 − T1) A Simple Thermocouple Circuit

new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 138

138 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

Solutions also require specification Surface: Radiation

of boundary conditions at inter-
faces. Interfaces occur between ∂T
−k R =∈ σ(TR
4
− θR4 )
regions containing different materi- ∂r
als or surfaces. Since notation
becomes cumbersome if all geome-
where
tries are considered, only the com-
mon boundary conditions for cylin- Tr- = temperature at r as
drical (r only) geometry are given. approached from the interior
Tr+ = temperature at r as
approached from the exterior
Internal; Continuity of
Temperature k = thermal conductivity
k1 = thermal conductivity of
Tr- = Tr+
material interior to the interface at r
k2 = thermal conductivity of
Internal; Continuity of Heat material exterior to the interface at r
Flux
R = radius at the surface
∂T ∂T h = film heat transfer coefficient
k1 r−= k2 r+
∂r ∂r θ = temperature of fluid around
sensor
θR = temperature of medium
Internal; Finiteness of exchanging radiative energy with
Temperature the sensor
T (r ) ≠ ∞ TF = fixed temperature specified
for surface
∈ = emissivity
Surface; Convection σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant

∂T
−k R= h(TR − θ)
∂r

Surface: Fixed Surface

Temperature
TR = TF

Surface: Insulated Surface

∂T
R= 0
∂r
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 139

Chapter 4/Temperature 139

Type E - Thermoelectric 110 6.998

Voltage in mV 120 7.685
°C mV 130 8.379
270 -9.835 140 9.081
-260 -9.797 150 9.789
-250 -9.718
160 10.503
-240 -9.604
170 11.224
-230 -9.455
180 11.951
-220 -9.274
190 12.684
-210 -9.063
-200 -8.825 200 13.421
-190 -8.561 210 14.164
-180 -8.273 220 14.912
-170 -7.963 230 15.664
-160 -7.632 240 16.420
-150 -7.279 250 17.181
-140 -6.907 260 17.945
-130 -6.516 270 18.713
-120 -6.107
280 19.484
-110 -5.681
290 20.259
-100 -5.237
300 21.036
-90 -4.777
310 21.817
-80 -4.302
-70 -3.811 320 22.600
-60 -3.306 330 23.386
-50 -2.787 340 24.174
-40 -2.255 350 24.964
-30 -1.709 360 25.757
-20 -1.152 370 26.552
-10 -0.582 380 27.348
0 0.000 390 28.146
10 0.591
400 28.946
20 1.192
410 29.747
30 1.801
420 30.550
40 2.420
430 31.354
50 3.048
60 3.685 440 32.159
70 4.330 450 32.965
80 4.985 460 33.772
90 5.648 470 34.579
100 6.319 480 35.387
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 140

140 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

Type E - Thermoelectric 860 65.698

Voltage in mV (cont’d.) 870 66.473
880 67.246
°C mV
490 36.196 890 68.017
500 37.005 900 68.787
510 37.815 910 69.554
520 38.624 920 70.319
530 39.434 930 71.082
540 40.243 940 71.844
550 41.053 950 72.603
560 41.862 960 73.360
570 42.671 970 74.115
580 43.479 980 74.869
590 44.286 990 75.621
600 45.093 1000 76.373
610 45.900
620 46.705
630 47.509
640 48.313
650 49.116
660 49.917
670 50.718
680 51.517
690 52.315
700 53.112
710 53.908
720 54.703
730 55.497
740 56.289
750 57.080
760 57.870
770 58.659
780 59.446
790 60.232
800 61.017
810 61.801
820 62.583
830 63.364
840 64.144
850 64.922
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 141

Chapter 4/Temperature 141

Type J - Thermoelectric 110 5.814

Voltage in mV 120 6.360
°C mV 130 6.909
-210 -8.095 140 7.459
-200 -7.890 150 8.010
160 8.562
-190 -7.659
170 9.115
-180 -7.403
180 9.669
-170 -7.123
190 10.224
-160 -6.821
200 10.779
-150 -6.500
210 11.334
-140 -6.159 220 11.889
-130 -5.801 230 12.445
-120 -5.426 240 13.000
-110 -5.037 250 13.555
-100 -4.633 260 14.110
-90 -4.215 270 14.665
280 15.219
-80 -3.786
290 15.773
-70 -3.344
300 16.327
-60 -2.893
310 16.881
-50 -2.431
320 17.434
-40 -1.961
330 17.986
-30 -1.482 340 18.538
-20 -0.995 350 19.090
-10 -0.501 360 19.642
0 0.000 370 20.194
10 0.507 380 20.745
20 1.019 390 21.297
400 21.848
30 1.537
410 22.400
40 2.059
420 22.952
50 2.585
430 23.504
60 3.116
440 24.057
70 3.650
450 24.610
80 4.187 460 25.164
90 4.726 470 25.720
100 5.269 480 26.276
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 142

142 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

Type J - Thermoelectric 830 47.431

Voltage in mV (cont’d.) 840 48.074
850 48.715
°C mV
860 49.353
490 26.834
870 49.989
500 27.393
880 50.622
510 27.953
890 51.251
520 28.516
900 51.877
530 29.080
910 52.500
540 29.647
920 53.119
550 30.216
930 53.735
560 30.788
940 54.347
570 31.362
950 54.956
580 31.939
960 55.561
590 32.519
970 56.164
600 33.102
980 56.763
610 33.689
990 57.360
620 34.279
1000 57.953
630 34.873
1010 58.545
640 35.470
1020 59.134
650 36.071 1030 59.721
660 36.675 1040 60.307
670 37.284 1050 60.890
680 37.896 1060 61.473
690 38.512 1070 62.054
700 39.132 1080 62.634
710 39.755 1090 63.214
720 40.382 1100 63.792
730 41.012 1110 64.370
740 41.645 1120 64.948
750 42.281 1130 65.525
760 42.919 1140 66.102
770 43.559 1150 66.679
780 44.203 1160 67.255
790 44.848 1170 67.831
800 45.494 1180 68.406
810 46.141 1190 68.980
820 46.786 1200 69.553
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 143

Chapter 4/Temperature 143

Type K - Thermoelectric 70 2.851

Voltage in mV 80 3.267
°C mV 90 3.682
-270 -6.458 100 4.096
-260 -6.441 110 4.509
-250 -6.404 120 4.920
-240 -6.344 130 5.328
-230 -6.262 140 5.735
-220 -6.158 150 6.138
-210 -6.035 160 6.540
-200 -5.891 170 6.941
-190 -5.730 180 7.340
-180 -5.550 190 7.739
-170 -5.354 200 8.138
-160 -5.141 210 8.539

-150 -4.913 220 8.940

230 9.343
-140 -4.669
240 9.747
-130 -4.411
250 10.153
-120 -4.138
260 10.561
-110 -3.852
270 10.971
-100 -3.554
280 11.382
-90 -3.243
290 11.795
-80 -2.920
300 12.209
-70 -2.587
310 12.624
-60 -2.243
320 13.040
-50 -1.889
330 13.457
-40 -1.527
340 13.874
-30 -1.156 350 14.293
-20 -0.778 360 14.713
-10 -0.392 370 15.133
0 0.000 380 15.554
10 0.397 390 15.975
20 0.798 400 16.397
30 1.203 410 16.820
40 1.612 420 17.243
50 2.023 430 17.667
60 2.436 440 18.091
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 144

144 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

Type K - Thermoelectric 830 34.501

Voltage in mV (cont.) 840 34.908
°C mV 850 35.313
450 18.516 860 35.718
460 18.941 870 36.121
470 19.366 880 36.524
480 19.792 890 36.925
490 20.218 900 37.326
500 20.644 910 37.725
510 21.071 920 38.124
520 21.497
930 38.522
530 21.924
940 38.918
540 22.350
950 39.314
550 22.776
960 39.708
560 23.203
970 40.101
570 23.629
980 40.494
580 24.055
590 24.480 990 40.885
600 24.905 1000 41.276
610 25.330 1010 41.665
620 25.755 1020 42.053
630 26.179 1030 42.440
640 26.602 1040 42.826
650 27.025 1050 43.211
660 27.447 1060 43.595
670 27.869 1070 43.978
680 28.289 1080 44.359
690 28.710 1090 44.740
700 29.129 1100 45.119
710 29.548 1110 45.497
720 29.965
1120 45.873
730 30.382
1130 46.249
740 30.798
1140 46.623
750 31.213
1150 46.995
760 31.628
1160 47.367
770 32.041
1170 47.737
780 32.453
790 32.865 1180 48.105
800 33.275 1190 48.473
810 33.685 1200 48.838
820 34.093 1210 49.202
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 145

Chapter 4/Temperature 145

1220 49.565 Type T - Thermoelectric

1230 49.926 Voltage in mV
1240 50.286 °C mV
1250 50.644 -270 -6.258
1260 51.000 -260 -6.232
1270 51.355 -250 -6.180
1280 51.708 -240 -6.105
1290 52.060 -230 -6.007
1300 52.410 -220 -5.888
1310 52.759 -210 -5.753
1320 53.106 -200 -5.603
1330 53.451 -190 -5.439
1340 53.795 -180 -5.261
-170 -5.070
1350 54.138
-160 -4.865
1360 54.479
-150 -4.648
1370 54.819
-140 -4.419
-130 -4.177
-120 -3.923
-110 -3.657
-100 -3.379
-90 -3.089
-80 -2.788
-70 -2.476
-60 -2.153
-50 -1.819
-40 -1.475
-30 -1.121
-20 -0.757
-10 -0.383
0 0.000
10 0.391
20 0.790
30 1.196
40 1.612
50 2.036
60 2.468
70 2.909
80 3.358
90 3.814
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 146

146 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

Type T - Thermoelectric
Voltage in mV
°C mV
100 4.279
110 4.750
120 5.228
130 5.714
140 6.206
150 6.704
160 7.209
170 7.720
180 8.237
190 8.759
200 9.288
210 9.822
220 10.362
230 10.907
240 11.458
250 12.013
260 12.574
270 13.139
280 13.709
290 14.283
300 14.862
310 15.445
320 16.032
330 16.624
340 17.219
350 17.819
360 18.422
370 19.030
380 19.641
390 20.255
400 20.872
Source: NIST ITS-90 Database
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 147

Chapter 4/Temperature 147

Limits of Error for Thermocouples

Thermocouple Temperature Standarda Error Speciala Error

Type Range °C Limit Limit
0.5°C
T -59 to 93 1.0°C 93 to 371
1.1°C
J 0 to 277 2.2°C 277 to 1260
1.0°C
E 0 to 316 1.7°C 316 to 817
1.1°C
K 0 to 277 2.2°C 277 to 1260
0.6°C
R or S 0 to 538 1.5°C 538 to 1482
B 871 to 1705 0.50% n.a.

aLimits of error are expressed in percentage of Celsius temperature. Limits of error are
material tolerances, not accuracies.

Recommended Upper Temperature Limits for

Protected Thermocouples, °C (°F)
Type 8 Gauge 14 Gauge 20 Gauge 24 Gauge 28 Gauge
T 370 (770) 260 (500) 200 (400) 200 (400)
J 760 (1400) 590 (1100) 480 (900) 370 (700) 370 (700)
E 870 (1600) 650 (1200) 540 (1100) 430 (800) 430 (800)
K 1260 (2300) 1090 (2000) 980 (1800) 870 (1600) 870 (1600)
R or S 1480 (2700)
B 1700 (3100)

RTDs (Resistive Temperature Detectors)

RTDs are made of metal wire, fiber, or semiconductor material that
responds to temperature change by changing its resistance. Platinum,
nickel, tungsten and other metals are used that have high resistivity, good
temperature coefficient of resistance, good ductile or tensile strength, and
chemical inertness with packaging and insulation materials. When the
material is a semiconductor, the sensor is called a thermistor.
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 148

148 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

RTD Material Resistivity All types of temperature measuring

Levels devices suffer from slow response,
since it is necessary for heat to con-
Metal Resistivity
(Ohm/CMF) duct through the protective sheath,
CMF = Circular and through any installed well.
Mil Foot) Locating the well (or unprotected
Copper 9.26 sensor) so it sees as high a veloc-
ity of process material as possible
Gold 13.00
helps reduce this lag, as does hav-
Nickel 36.00 ing the sensor contact the well. A
Platinum 59.00 bare thermocouple touching the
sheath and/or well, however, gen-
Silver 8.8 erates a ground and requires an
Tungsten 30.00 isolated amplifier.

The resistivity (r) is proportional to

Change in resistance can be deter- the length (L) and inversely propor-
mined using a bridge circuit. Since tional to the cross-section area (A).
resistance changes in the connec-
tion wire due to ambient tempera- r (L)
ture changes can also affect the R=
A
resistance reading, a third wire is
used from another leg in the bridge
to balance that change. where
R = resistance, ohms
RTDs are generally more accurate r = resistivity, ohm cm
than thermocouples, but are less
L = length, cm
rugged and cannot be used at as
high temperatures. A = cross-section area, cm2
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 149

Chapter 4/Temperature 149

4.0

3.8

3.6
3.4 Basis: German Standard DIN 43760
3.2
3.0

2.8
2.6
Resistance/resistance ˚C

2.4
2.2
2.0

1.8
1.6
1.4
Linear approximation for -200 to 600˚C
1.2
1.0
0.8

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Temperature ˚C

Resistance vs. Temperature for Platinum

new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 150

150 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

Resistance Versus Temperature and Tolerance for 100 Ohm

Platinum RTDs According to DIN 43760
°C Temp. °C Temp.
T°C R Ohm T°C R Ohm
Tolerance Tolerance
-220 10.41 1.8 30 111.67
-210 14.36 40 115.54
-200 18.53 1.2 50 119.40
-190 22.78 60 123.40
-180 27.05 70 127.07
-170 31.28 80 130.89
-160 35.48 90 134.70
-150 39.65 100 138.50 0.6
-140 43.80 110 142.28
-130 47.93 120 146.06
-120 52.04 130 149.82
-110 56.13 140 153.57
-100 60.20 0.7 150 157.32
-90 64.25 160 161.04
-80 68.28 170 164.76
-70 72.29 180 168.47
-60 76.28 190 172.16
-50 80.25 200 175.84 1.2
-40 84.21 210 179.51
-30 88.17 220 183.17
-20 92.13 230 186.82
-10 96.07 240 190.46
0 100.00 0.3 250 194.08
10 103.90 260 197.70
20 107.79 270 201.30
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 151

Chapter 4/Temperature 151

Resistance Versus Temperature and Tolerance for 100 Ohm

Platinum RTDs According to DIN 43760 (cont.)
°C Temp. ° Temp.
T°C R Ohm T°C R Ohm
Tolerance Tolerance
280 204.88 530 290.87
290 208.46 540 294.16
300 212.03 1.8 550 297.43
310 215.58 560 300.70
320 219.13 570 303.95
330 222.66 580 307.20
340 226.18 590 310.43
350 229.69 600 313.65 3.6
360 233.19 610 316.86
370 236.67 620 320.05
380 240.15 630 323.24
390 243.61 640 326.41
400 247.06 2.4 650 329.57
410 250.50 660 332.72
420 253.93 670 335.86
430 257.34 680 338.99
440 260.75 690 342.10
450 264.14 700 345.21 4.2
460 267.52 710 348.30
470 270.89 720 351.38
480 274.25 730 354.45
490 277.60 740 357.51
500 280.93 3.0 750 360.55
510 284.26 800 375.61 4.8
520 287.57 850 390.38 5.1
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 152

152 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

Resistance Versus Temperature for 100 Ohm (Nominal)

Platinum RTD According to SAMA RC21-4-1966
T °C R Ohm T °C R Ohm
-200 16.666 20 105.920
-190 20.972 30 109.799
-180 25.244 40 113.665
-170 29.483 50 117.521
-160 33.691 60 121.365
-150 37.871 70 125.197
-140 42.023 80 129.018
-130 46.151 90 132.827
-120 50.255 100 136.625
-110 54.337 110 140.412
-100 58.399 120 144.187
-90 62.441 130 147.950
-80 66.466 140 151.702
-70 70.474 150 155.442
-60 74.465 160 159.171
-50 78.442 170 162.889
-40 82.405 180 166.595
-30 86.355 190 170.289
-20 90.292 200 173.972
-10 94.216 210 177.644
0 98.129 220 181.304
10 102.030 230 184.953
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 153

Chapter 4/Temperature 153

Resistance Versus Temperature for 100 Ohm (Nominal)

Platinum RTD According to SAMA RC21-4-1966 (cont.)

T °C R Ohm T °C R Ohm
240 188.581 430 255.512
250 192.215 440 258.919
260 195.829 450 262.315
270 199.432 460 265.699
280 203.023 470 269.072
290 206.603 480 272.434
300 210.171 490 275.784
310 213.728 500 279.122
320 217.273 510 282.449
330 220.807 520 285.784
340 224.329 530 289.068
350 227.840 540 292.361
360 231.339 550 295.642
370 234.827 560 298.911
380 238.303 570 302.169
390 241.768 580 305.416
400 245.221 590 308.651
410 248.663 600 311.875
420 252.093
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 154

154 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

Wheatstone Bridge – Effect of Thermistor Temperature-

Bridge Nonlinearities Resistance Relationship

 R RS  R 1 1 
E = Eo  T −  = β − 
 R + RT RS + R  Ro T To 

where where
E = voltage drop R = unknown resistance
Eo = output voltage Ro = known resistance
RT = fixed resistor β = Kelvins
RS = adjustable resistor T = unknown temperature
To = known temperature
Wheatstone Bridge 3-Wire
Measurement The Steinhart and Hart
Equation for NTC Thermistors
 R RS 
E = Eo  T − 
 R + R RS +R 1
T = ao + a1(1n R ) + a3 (1n R )3
T

R
Rs where
T = temperature
R = resistance
Eo E
ao = 1.1252 x 10-3 K-1
a1 = 2.3476x10-4 K-1
R a3 = 8.5262 x 10-8 K-1
RT

Basic Wheatstone Bridge (2-wire) Thermistor Temperature Error

Due to Self-Heating

I 2R
Lead 1 ∆T =
Rs 1000(DC )
R
RL
Lead 2 where
Eo E
RL ∆T = temperature measurement
error, °C
R
RT I = sensing current, mA
Lead 3
R = thermistor resistance, Ω
Wheatstone Bridge for 3-Wire Measurements DC = dissipation constant, mW/°C
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 155

Chapter 4/Temperature 155

Resistance Tolerance Percent for Thermistors (MIL-T-23648A)

Temperature Type F Type G Type J Type K
°C + or -1% + or -2% + or -5% + or -10%
-55 10 12 15 20
-15 5 6 9 14
0 3 4 7 12
25 1 2 5 10
50 3 4 7 12
75 5 6 9 14
100 7 9 12 17
125 10 12 15 20
200° 15 18 25 30
275° 20 25 35 40
aThe percent tolerance indicated with each thermistor type is the resistance at 25°C.

Thermistor Voltage Drop Stem Correction for a Total

Across a Wheatstone Bridge Immersion Thermometer

E ∆T = Kn(TB − T )
= K + F (T )
Eo
where
where ∆T = temperature correction
R K = temperature correction factor
K =−
R + Rs n = number of degrees on scale
1 between surface of fluid and end
F (T ) = of fluid column in the capillary
RT RTo
1+ TB = bulb temperature
RTo R
RTo = resistance at a reference T = average temperature of the
temperature portion of the thermometer
between the fluid surface and end
of fluid column in the capillary
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 156

156 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

Vapor Pressure Thermometers

Rs R

Eo E
T

Vapor
Wheatstone Bridge for Thermistor Readout

Volatile Liquid

Vapor Pressure
Thermometers
Cross Ambient Effect

PG = PB + ∆PC

where
PG = pressure on the Bourdon
Volatile Liquid
tube
PB = pressure in the bulb
Vapor
PC = pressure in the capillary

Radiation Pyrometers
Planck’s Radiation Law

C1
H (λT ) = c2λT
λ (e
5
− 1)

where
H(λT) = radiant power density
λ = wavelength, cm
T = temperature, K
C1 = 3.74 x 10-12, Wcm2
C2 = 1.44, cmK
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 157

Chapter 4/Temperature 157

Wien’s Radiation Law (lower Wien’s Displacement Law

temperatures)
0.2898
T =
C1e −C2 / λT λm
H (λT ) =
λ5
where
Stefan-Boltzmann Law T = temperature, K
(total radiation power) λm = wavelength where maximum
radiation power density occurs
H (T ) = σT 4

where
H(T) = total radiation power per
unit area
σ = 5.669 x 10-12, W/cm2 K4
T = temperature, K
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 158

158 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

Location of Peak
(see Wien's Displacement Law)
0.15

0.14

0.13

0.12

0.11 1300 K, 1880˚F

0.10 1200 K, 1700˚F

Relative Spectral Radiant Power

0.09
1100 K, 1520˚F
0.08
1000 K, 1340˚F
0.07

0.06 900 K, 1160˚F

0.05 800 K, 960˚F

0.04 700 K, 800˚F

0.03

0.02

0.01

0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Wavelength λ, microns

Radiation Power Density as a Function of Wavelength and

Temperature (Plank’s Law for a Blackbody)
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 159

Chapter 4/Temperature 159

Total Emissivities of Metals, Surface Unoxidized

Material 25°C 100°C 500°C 1000°C 1500°C 2000°C
Aluminum 0.022 0.028 0.060
Bismuth 0.048 0.061
Carbon 0.81 0.81 0.79
Chromium 0.08
Cobalt 0.13 0.23
Columbium 0.19 0.24
Copper 0.02 0.15
Liquid
Gold 0.02 0.03
Iron 0.06
Lead 0.05
Mercury 0.10 0.12
Molybdenum 0.13 0.19 0.24
Nickel 0.045 0.06 0.12 0.19
Platinum 0.037 0.047 0.095 0.152 0.191
Silver 0.02 0.035
Tantalum 0.21 0.26
Tin 0.043 0.05
Tungsten 0.024 0.032 0.071 0.15 0.23 0.28
Brass 0.035 0.035
Cast Iron 0.21 0.29
Liquid

Steel 0.08 0.28

Liquid
new chap 4 temp.qxd 3/2/2006 8:56 AM Page 160

160 ISA Handbook of Measurement Equations and Tables

Total Radiation Pyrometer Johnson Noise Thermometer

True Temperature vs. Indicated Relationship Between Noise Volt-
Temperature age and Absolute Temperature

T = TI (∈)1 / 4 V 2 = 4kTR ∆f

where where
T = true temperature V = noise voltage
TI = indicated temperature k = Boltzmann’s constant
∈ = material radiation emissivity T = absolute temperature
R = electrical resistance of sensor
Brightness Pyrometer ∆f = frequency band-width over
which the noise voltage is
True Temperature vs. Brightness measured
Temperature

TB
T =
λTB
1+ 1n ∈ (λ)
1.44

where
T = true temperature
TB = brightness temperature