PROBABILITY

1. Random Experiment: An experiment whose results or out comes cannot be predicted without
performing the experiment is called a random experiment.

2. Non-Random experiment: An experiment whose out comes can be predicted before performing
the experiment is called a non-random experiment.

Ex : 1) Throwing a coin is a random experiment

2) Throwing a die is also a random experiment

3) test of litmus paper with acid (or) base

4) Any experiment of chemistry these two are non-random example

3. Sample Space (S) : The set of all out comes of a random experiment is called the sample space
associated with that experiment we donote this set by ‘S’.

Ex : Tossing a coin is a random experiment in this results (or) out comes are head and tail S = {4,
7].

The number of elements in the sample space is denoted by n(s) here n (s) = 2.

4. Sample point : The elements of the sample space associated with a random experiment are called
sample points

Ex1 : Consider the experiment of tossing a coin twice sample space is shown below

Sample space = { HH, HT, TH, TT}

n(s) = 4 = 22

Ex 2: Consider the experiment of tossing a coin thrice

S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT}

n(s) = 8 = 23

Ex 3: Consider an experiment of tossing a coin ‘n’ times the sample space

S = {a1 , a2 , a3 .......an / ai ∈{H , T }} when I = 1, 2, 3

n( s ) = 2 n

Note : If a coin is tossed n times the no. of sample points in the associated sample space is 2n

Finite sample space: If the number of sample points in the sample space is finite then it is called
a finite sample space

Infinite sample space: A sample space which is not finite is said to be infinite
 Event of a sample space : Any subset of a sample space is called an event associated with a
random experiment or event of a sample space

TYPES OF EVENTS :-

1) Impossible event : We know that empty set is a subset of every set hence φ is an event. This
event is called the impossible event

2) Certain event : We know that every set is a subset of it self hence the entire sample space ‘S’
is an event this entire sample space is called a certain event

Ex : The event of getting a natural number less than 7 when a die is thrown once

3) Simple event : Any single ton subset of a sample space is called a simple event

Ex : In the experiment of throwing a die take the event of getting

4) Compound events : Any subset of a sample space with more than one sample point is called a
compound event

Ex : In the experiment of throwing a die once consider the event of getting an event
number E = {2, 4, 6} E is a compound event

5) Mutually exclusive events: Two events A and B are said to be mutually exclusive if A ∩ B = φ

Ex : In the event of throwing a die twice let A be the event of getting a sum of 4 and B be
the event of getting a sum of 6.

A = { (1, 3) (2, 2) (3, 1)}, B = { (1, 5), (2, 4), (3, 3), (4, 2), (2, 4), (5, 0)}

A ∩ B = φ hence A and B are mutually exclusive

6) Collectively exhaustive: Two event A and B are said to be collectively exhaustive iff
A ∪ B = S where ‘S’ is the sample space.

Note 1: Two events may be collectively exhaustive without being mutually exclusive

Note 2: Two events may be mutually exclusive without being collectively exhaustive

Note 3: Two events may be both collectively exhaustive and mutually exclusive

Note 4: Two events may be neither collectively exhaustive nor mutually exclusive

Equally likely events : The events are said to be equally likely events when there is no reason to
expect any one of them rather than any one of the other
Definition of Probability or Probability Function :

Let S = {01 , 02 , 03...........0n } be a finite sample space let P = S → » be a probable function satsfying the
following axious

i) 0 ≤ P (01 ) ≤ 1 , ∀ i = 1, 2,3,.......n

ii) if φ ≠ A ≤ S then P ( A) = Σ P (01 )∀ 01 ∈ A

iii) P(S) = 1 i.e. P(01 ) + p(02 ) + ..... + p (0n ) = 1

Probability space : If s is a sample space P(S) is the power set of S, p is the probability function then (S,
P(S), p)

Note : Unless and other wise mentioned we take the probability space as equiprobable spaces

n( A)
Theorem (1) : In an equi probable space if φ ≠ A ≤ S then show that P( A) =
n( S )

Theorem (2) : If A and B are mutually exclusive events then P ( A ∪ B ) = P ( A) + P ( B )

Theorem (3) : If A, B are two events in a sample space S, then P ( A ∪ B ) = P ( A) + P ( B ) − P ( A ∪ B )

Proof : i) suppose A ∩ B = φ

From the definition of probability P ( A ∪ B ) = P ( A) + P ( B ) − P ( A ∩ B )

Case ii) : Suppose A ∩ B ≠ φ

From the, it can be observed that ( B − A) ∪ ( A ∩ B) = B, ( B − A) ∩ ( A ∩ B) = φ

∴ P ( B ) = P[( B − A) ∪ ( A ∩ B ) = P ( B − A) + P ( A ∩ B )

⇒ P ( B − A) = P ( B ) − P ( A ∩ B )

Again from the figure, it can be observed that A ∪ ( B − A) = A ∪ B, A ∩ ( B − A) = φ

∴ P ( A ∪ B ) = P[ A ∪ ( B − A)] = P ( A) + P ( B − A) = P ( A) + P ( B ) − P ( A ∩ B )

Note : If A, B are two disjoint events in a sample space S, then A ∩ B = φ and hence
P ( A ∪ B ) = P ( A) + P ( B )

Note : If A, B are two events in a sample space S, then P( B − A) = P( B) − P( A ∩ B) and

P( A − B) = P( A) − P( A ∩ B)

Theorem 4: If A is any event of the sample space ‘S’ associated to a random experiment then the
probability of A i.e P( A) = 1 − P ( A)
Theorem 5: If φ is an impossible event of a sample space ‘S’ associated with a random experiment then
P (φ ) = 0 ,

Theorem 6: If A and B are two events of a sample space ‘S’ then show that P ( A ∩ B′) = P ( A) − P ( A ∩ B )

COROLLARY : If A, B are three events in a sample space s, then

P ( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = P ( A) + P ( B ) + P (C ) − P ( A ∩ B ) − P (C ∩ A) − P (C ∩ A) + P ( A ∩ B ∩ C )

CONTITIONAL PROBABLITY :

Def 1: If A, B are two events in a sample space then the event of happening B after the events A happing
is called conditional event. It is denoted by B/ A.

Def 2: If A, B are two events in a sample space S and P ( A) ≠ 0 , then the probability of B after the events
A has occurred is called conditional probability of B given A. it is denoted by P ( B / A) .

RandoConditiom Experiment : Drawing a card from a well shuffled pack.

Independent events : Two events E1 and E2 of a sample space are such that the occurrence of the events
E2 is not effected by the occurrence non-occurrence of E1 then the events are said to independent
events (or)

Two events E1 , E2 are such that called independent events if and only if

P ( E1 ∩ E2 ) = P ( E1 ) P ( E2 )

Dependent events :Two events E1 , E2 of a sample space are such that the occurrence of E2 is effected
by the occurrence (or) non occurrence of the event E1 then the two events are dependent events

Theorem 7: State and prove multiplication theorem on probability

Statement : If E1 , E2 are the two events of a sample space ‘S’ such that P ( E1 ) ≠ 0 ; P ( E2 ) ≠ 0 then show
that

E  E 
i) P( E1 ∩ E2 ) = P( E1 ), P  2  ii) P( E2 ∩ E1 ) = P( E2 ), P  2 
 E1   E1 

Note : In a sample space if E denotes the occurrence or happening or favourable (or) odds in favour of E
then E denotes the non-occurrence or not happening or not favourable or odds against

Same Extra Information :

i) If A ≤ B then show that P( A) ≤ P( B)

we know that P ( B ∩ A) = ( B ) − P ( B ∩ A)

A≤ B A∩ B= A
 ∴ P ( B ∩ A) = P ( B ) − P ( A)

But P( B ∩ A) = 0

P ( B ) = P ( A) ≥ 0 , P( B) ≥ P( A)

P ( A) ≤ P ( B )

ii) Prove that i) P ( A ∩ B ) ≤ P ( A) ii) P ( B ) ≤ P ( A ∪ B ) ≤ P ( A) + P ( B )

Theorem : If A, B, C are any three events of a sample space then show that
P( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = P( A) + P ( B ) + P (C ) − P ( A ∩ B ) − P ( B ∩ C ) − P (C ∩ A _ + P ( A ∩ B ∩ C )

Booli’s inequality : If A1 , A2 ,...... An are n events of a sample space then

P( A1 ∪ A2 ∪ ..... ∪ An ) ≤ P( A1 ) + P( A2 ) + P( A3 ) + ..... + P( An )

This can be proved by mathematical induction

1st step : Let us verify the result from = 1

We have P ( A1 ) = P ( A2 ) hence P ( A1 ) ≤ P ( A2 )

In n = 2 then we have

P ( A1 ∪ A2 ) ≤ P ( A1 ) + P ( A2 )

2nd step: Let us assume result for n = k and prove it for n = k + 1….

Given : P( A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 ..... Ak ) ≤ P( A1 ) + P( A2 ) + .... + P( Ak )

RTP P ( A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 ..... A( k +1) ) ≤ P ( A1 ) + P ( A2 ) + .... + PA( k +1) )

≤ P ( A1 ) + P ( A2 ) + P ( A3 ) + ..... + P( Ak )] + P( Ak +1 ) hence the result is tree n = k + 1

Odds in favour of an event and odds against of an vent : If E is any event then P( E ) : P( E ) is called
odds in favour of the event. P ( E ): P ( E ) is called odds against the events E.

p q
Result : If P( E ): P( E ): p : q then show that P( E ) = ; p( E ) =
p+q p+q

Theorem : If A,B, C are three events of a sample space then

P[ A ∪ B / C ] = P( A / C ) + P ( B / C ) − P[ A ∩ B / C ]

Multiplication Theorem Of Probability or Theorem of Compound Probability

Theorem 1: Let A, B be two events in a sample space S such that P ( A) ≠ 0, P ( B ) ≠ 0 . Then

i) P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A) P ( B / A) ii) P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( B ) P ( A / B )
Independent And Dependent Events

Def 3: Two events A, B in a sample space S are said to be independent if P( B / A) = P( B)

Corollary 1: Two events A, B in a sample space S are independent iff P ( B / A) = P ( B )

Theorem 2: If A, B are two independent events in a sample space S, then

i) A , B are independent ii) A, B are independent iii) A, B are independent.

Theorem 3: If A1 , A2 ,.... An are mutually exclusive and exhaustive events in a sample space S such that
n
P( Ai ) > 0 for i = 1, 2, …n and E is any event then P( E ) = ∑ P( Ai ) p( E / Ai ) .
i =1

Note 1: If A1 , A2 are two mutually exclusive and exhaustive events and E is any event then
P ( E ) = P ( A1 ) P ( E / A1 ) + P ( A2 ) P ( E / A2 )

Note 2: If A1 , A2 , A3 are three mutually exclusive and exhaustive events and E is any event then
P( E ) = P( A1 ) p( E / A1 ) + P ( A2 ) P ( E / A2 ) + P ( A3 ) P ( E / A3 )

Theorem 4: If A1 , A2 ,.... An are mutually exclusive and exhaustive events in a sample space S such that
P ( A ) P( E / Ak )
P( Ai ) > 0 for i = 1, 2,.. n and E is any event with P(E) > 0 then P( Ak / E ) = n k for
∑ P( Ai ) P( E / Ai )
i =1

k = 1, 2……n

EXERCISE-8(A)
I. In the experiment of throwing a die, consider the following events :

1. A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6}, C = {1, 2, 3} are these events equally likely ?

Sol. Since the events A, B, C has equal chance to occur hence they are equally likely events.

2. In the experiment of throwing a die, consider the following events:

A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {2, 4} C = {6}
Are these events mutually exclusive ?

Sol. Since the happening of one of the given events A, B, C prevents the happening of other two, hence
the given events are mutually exclusive. Otherwise A ∩ B = φ, B ∩ C = φ, C ∩ A = φ hence they are
mutually exclusive events.
3. In the experiment of throwing a die, consider the events. A = {2, 4, 6}, B = {3, 6}, C =
{1, 5, 6} are these events exhaustive ?
Sol. A = {2, 4, 6}, B = {3, 6}, C = {1, 5, 6}
Let S be the sample space for the random experiment of throwing a die then S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
∴ A ⊂ S, B ⊂ S and C ⊂ S, and A∪ B ∪ C =S
 Hence events A, B, C are exhaustive events.

II.
1. Give two examples of mutually exclusive and exhaustive events.
Sol. Examples of mutually exclusive events :
i) The events {1, 2}, {3, 5} are disjoint in the sample space S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
ii) When two dice are thrown, the probability of getting the sums of 10 or 11.
Examples of exhaustive events :
i) The events {1, 2, 3, 5}, {2, 4, 6} are exhaustive in the sample space
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
ii) The events {HH, HT}, {TH, TT} are exhaustive in the sample space S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}
[∵ tossing two coins]

2. Give examples of two events that are neither mutually exclusive nor exhaustive.
Sol. i) Let A be the event of getting an even prime number when tossing a die and let B be the event of
getting even number.
∴ A, B are neither mutually exclusive nor exhaustive.
ii) Let A be the event of getting one head tossing two coins. Let B be the event of getting at least one
head tossing two coins.
∴ A, B are neither mutually exclusive nor exhaustive.
3. Give two examples of events that are neither equally likely nor exhaustive.
Sol. i) Two coins are tossed let A be the event of getting at least one tail.
∴ A, B are neither equally likely nor exhaustive.
ii) When a die is tossed
Let A be the event of getting an odd prime number and
Let B be the event of getting odd number.
∴ A, B are neither equally likely nor exhaustive.

EXERCISE-8(B)
I.
1. If 4 fair coins are tossed simultaneously, then find the probability that 2 heads and 2 tails
appear.
Sol. 4 coins are tossed simultaneously.
Total number of ways = 24 = 16
n(S) = 16
From 4 heads we must get 2 heads.
Number of ways of getting 2 heads.
4.3
= 4 C2 = =6
1.2
∴ n(E) = 6
n (E) 6 3
P(E) = = =
n ( S) 16 8
∴ Probability of getting 2 heads and 2 tails
 3
=
8
2. Find the probability that a non-leap year contains i) 53 Sundays ii) 52 Sundays only
Sol. A non - leap year contains 365 days 52 weeks and 1 day more.
i) We get 53 Sundays when the remaining day is Sunday.
Number of days in week = 7
∴ n(S) = 7
Number of ways getting 53 Sundays.
n(E) = 1
n (E) 1
∴ p(E) = =
n ( S) 7
1
∴ Probability of getting 53 Sundays =
7
ii) Probability of getting 52 Sundays
1 6
p(E) = 1– p(E) = 1 − =
7 7
3. Two dice are rolled. What is the probability that none of the dice shows the number 2 ?
Sol. Random experiment is rolling 2 dice.
n(S) = 62 = 36
Let E be the event of not getting 2
n(E) = 5× 5 = 25
n ( E ) 25
∴P (E) = =
n ( S) 36
4. In an experiment of drawing a card at random from a pack, the event of getting a spade is
denoted by A and getting a pictured card (King, Queen or Jack ) is denoted by B. Find the
probability of A, B, A ∩ B and A ∪ B.
Sol. A is the event of getting a spade from the pack
13 1
∴P (A) = =
52 4
B is the event of getting a picture card
4×3 3
P(B) = =
52 13
A ∩ B is the event of getting a picture card in spades.
n(A ∩ B) = 3, n(s) 52
3
P(A ∩ B) =
52
A∪ B is the event of getting spade or a picture card.
P(A∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
1 3 3 13 + 12 − 3 22 11
= + − = = =
4 13 52 52 52 26
5. In a class of 60 boys and 20 girls, half of the boys and half of the girls know cricket. Find the
probability of the event that a person selected from the class is either a boy or a girl who knows
cricket.
Sol. Let A be the event that the selected person is a boy and B be the event that the selected person knows
a cricket. When a person is selected from the class and S be the sample space.
Now, n(S) = 80C1 = 80, n(A) = 60C1 = 60
n(B) = 40C1 = 40 : n(A ∩ B) = 30C1 = 30
60 40 30
∴ P ( A ) = , P ( B) = , P ( A ∩ B) =
80 80 80
 ∴ P ( A ∪ B) = P ( A ) + P ( B) − P ( A ∩ B)
60 40 30 70 7
= + − = =
80 80 80 80 8
6. Forany two events A and B, show that
P(AC ∩ BC) = 1 + P(A ∩ B) – P(A) – P(B).
Sol. A C ∩ BC = A ∪ B
( ) (
P A C ∩ BC = P A ∪ B )
= 1 – P(A ∪ B)
= 1 – [P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)]
= 1 + P(A ∩ B) – P(A) – P(B)
7. Two persons A and B are rolling two dice on the condition that the person who gets 3 will win
the game. If A starts the game, then find the probabilities of A and B respectively to win the
game.
1
Sol. P = Pr obability of getting 3 =
6
1 5
q = 1− p = 1− =
6 6
1
Probability success (p) =
6
5
Probability of failure (q) =
6
A may win the game either in I trail or in III trial or in V trial etc.
Probability of A win
= p + q. q. p + q. q. q. q. p + …
1
 
∴P (A) =
p
=  6  = 1 × 36 = 6
1− q 2
5
2
6 11 11
1−  
6
∴ Probability of B’s win = 1 – p(A)
6 5
p ( B) = 1 − =
11 11
6 5
Hence p ( A ) = and p ( B ) =
11 11
8. A, B, C are 3 newspaper from a city. 20% of the population read A, 16% read B, 14% read C,
8% both B and C, 2% all the three. Find the percentage of the population who read atleast one
newspaper.
20
Sol. Given p ( A ) = = 0.2
100
16
p ( B) = = 0.16
100
14
p (C) = = 0.14
100
8
p ( A ∩ B) = = 0.08
100
A B
4
p ( B ∩ C) = = 0.04
100
C
 5
p ( A ∩ C) = = 0.05
100
2
p ( A ∩ B ∩ C) = = 0.02
100
p ( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = p ( A ) + p ( B ) + p ( C ) − p ( A ∩ B) − p ( B ∩ C) − p ( C ∩ A ) + p ( A ∩ B ∩ C)

= 0.2 + 0.16 + 0.14 − 0.08 − 0.04 − 0.05 + 0.02

= 0.52 − 0.17 = 0.35
Percentage of population who read atleast one newspaper = 0.35 × 100 = 35%
9. If one ticket is randomly selected from tickets numbered 1 to 30. Then find the probability that
the number on the ticket is
i) a multiple of 5 or 7
ii) a multiple of 3 or 5

Sol. i) Number of ways drawing one ticket

= n(S) = 30C1 = 30
Suppose A is the event of getting a multiple of 5 and B is the event of getting a multiple of 7
A = {5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30}
B = {7, 14, 21, 28}
A ∩ B = φ ⇒ A and B are mutually exclusive
P(A∪ B) = P(A) + P(B)
6 4 10 1
= + = =
30 30 30 3
1
Probability of getting a multiple of 5 or 7=
3
ii) Suppose A is the event of getting a multiple of 3 and B is the event of getting a multiple of 5.
A = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30}
B = {5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30}
A ∩ B = {15, 30}
10 6 2
P ( A ) = ; P ( B) = ; P ( A ∩ B) =
30 30 30
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
10 6 2
= + −
30 30 30
10 + 6 − 2 14 7
= = =
30 30 15
7
Probability of getting a multiple of 3 or 5 =
15
10. If two numbers are selected randomly from 20 consecutive natural numbers, find the
probability that the sum of the two numbers is (i) an even number (ii) an odd number.

Sol. i) Let A be the event that the sum of the numbers is even when two numbers are selected out of 20
consecutive natural numbers.
In 20 consecutive natural numbers, we have 10 odd and 10 even natural number.
∵ The sum of two odd natural numbers is an even number and the sum of two even natural numbers
is also an even number
2 (10 × 9 ) 20 ×19 n ( A ) 90 9
n ( A ) = 10C2 + 10C2 = = 190 n ( S ) = 20C2 = = 190 P ( A ) = = =
1× 2 1× 2 n ( S) 190 19
 ii) Probability that the sum of two numbers is an odd number
( )
P A = 1− P (A) = 1− =
9 10
19 19

II.
1. A pair of dice rolled 24 times. A person wins by not getting a pair of 6’s on any of the 24 rolls.
What is the probability of his winning ?
Sol. Random experiment is tossing two dice 24 times
= 36× 36× ……… 36 = (36)24
∴ n(S) = (36)24
Let A be the event of not getting a pair of 6’s on any of the 24 rolls.
∴ number of ways favourable to an event A
= 35× 35× ……… × 35 = (35)24
n(A) = (35)24

∴P (A) =
( 35 )
24
 35 
= 
24

( 36 )24  36 

2. If P is a probability function, then show that for any two events A and B.
P(A ∩ B) ≤ P(A) ≤ P(A ∪ B) ≤ P(A) + P(B)
Sol. For any sets A, B we have

A A∩B B

A∩B≤A≤A∪B
P(A ∩ B) ≤ P(A) ≤ P(A ∪ B) …(1)
By addition theorem of probability
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
≤ P(A) + P(B) …(2)
From (1), (2) we get
P(A ∩ B) ≤ P(A) ≤ P(A ∪ B) ≤ P(A) + P(B)

3. In a box containing 15 bulbs, 5 are defective. If 5 bulbs are selected at random from the box,
find the probability of the event, that
i) None of them is defective
ii) Only one of them is defective.
iii) Atleast one of them is defective.
5 1
Sol. Out of 15 bulbs, 5 are defective probability of selecting a defective bulb = P = =
15 3
We are selecting 5 bulbs n(S) = 15C5
i) None of them is defective. All the 5 bulbs must be selected from 10 good bulbs. This can be done
in 10C5 ways.
10C5 10.9.8.7.6 12
= P(A) = = =
15C5 15.14.13.12.11 143
 ii) Only one of them is defective in 4 good and 1 defective balls.
This can be done in 10C4 5C1
10.9.8.7
= .5 = 210 × 5 = 1050.
1.2.3.4
Probability of selecting one defective
1050
=
15C5
1.2.3.4.5 50
= (1050 ) =
15.14.13.12.11 143

iii) Probability atleast one of them is defective

12 131
= P(A) = 1 − P ( A ) = 1 − =
143 143
4. A and B are seeking admission into I.I.T. the probability for A to be selected is 0.5 and that
both to be selected is 0.3. is it possible that the probability of B to be selected is 0.9 ?
Sol. Given P(A) = 0.5 ; P(A ∩ B) = 0.3
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
= 0.5 + P(B) – 0.3
= 0.2 + P(B)
P(A ∪ B) ≤ 1
0.2 + P(B) ≤ 1
P(B) ≤ 0.8
∴ It is not possible to have P(B) = 0.9
5. The probability for a contractor to get a road contract is 2/3 and to get a building contract is
5/9 the probability to get atleast on contract is 4/5. Find the probability to gets both the
contracts.
Sol. Suppose A is the event of getting a road contract. B is the event of getting a building contract
2 5 4
Given P ( A ) = ; P ( B ) = ; P ( A ∪ B ) =
3 9 5
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
P(A ∩ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∪ B)
2 5 4 30 + 25 − 36 19
= + − = =
3 9 5 45 45
19
Probability to get both contracts =
45
6. In a committee of 25 members, each member is proficient either in mathematics or in statistics
or in both. If 19 of these are proficient in mathematics, 16 in statistics, find the probability that
a person selected from the committee is proficient in both.
Sol. When a person is chosen at random from the academy consisting of 25 members, let A be the event
that the person is proficient in mathematics, B be the event that the person is proficient in statistics
and S be the sample space. Since 19 members are proficient in mathematics and 16 members are
proficient in statistics.
19 16
P ( A ) = , P ( B) =
25 25
Since every one is either proficient in mathematics or statistics or in both
A∪B=S
⇒ P(A ∩ B) = P(S)
⇒ P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B) = P(S)
19 16
⇒ + − P ( A ∩ B) = 1
25 25
 19 16 19 + 16 − 25 10
= P ( A ∩ B) = + −1 = =
25 25 25 25
2
∴ P ( A ∩ B) =
5

7. A, B, C are three horse in a race. The probability of A to win the race is twice that of B and
probability of B is twice that of C. what are the probabilities of A , B and C to win the race ?
Sol. Let A, B, C be the events that the horses A, B, C win the race respectively.
Given P(A) = 2P(B), P(B) = 2P(C)
∴ P(A) = 2P(B) 2[2P(C)] = 4P(C)
Since the horses A, B and C run the race,
A∪B∪C = S and A, B, C are mutually disjoint
P(A ∪ B∪ C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C)
⇒ P(S) = 4p(C) +2p(C) + P(C)
⇒ 1 = 7P(C)
1
∴ P (C) =
7
1 4
P ( A ) = 4P ( C ) = 4 × =
7 7
1 2
P ( B ) = 2P ( C ) = 2 × =
7 7
4 2 1
∴ P ( A ) = , P ( B) = , P ( C ) =
7 7 7

8. A bag contains 12 two rupee coins, 7 one rupee coins and 4 half rupee coins. If 3 coins are
selected at random find the probability that
i) The sum of the 3 coins is maximum
ii) The sum of the 3 is minimum
iii) Each coin is of different value.
Sol. In the bag, there are 12 two rupee, 7 one rupee and 4 half rupee coins.
Total number of coins = 12 + 7 + 4 = 23
Number of ways drawing 3 coins 23C3
n(S) = 23C3
i) We get maximum amount, if the coins are 2 rupee coins.
Number of drawing 3 two rupee coins
= 12C3
n(E1) = 12C3
n ( E1 ) 12C3
P ( E1 ) = =
n ( S) 23C3
ii) We get minimum amount if 3 coins are taken from 4 half rupee coins. Number of ways of drawing
3 half rupee coins = 4C3
n(E2) =4C3
n ( E 2 ) 4C3
P ( E2 ) = =
n ( S) 23C3
iii) Each coin is of different value is we must draw one coin each.
This can be done in 12C1, 7C1, 4C1 ways
n(E3) = 12C1× 7C1× 4C1 = 12 × 7 × 4
n ( E3 ) 12 × 7 × 4
P ( E3 ) = =
n ( S) 23C3
9. The probabilities of three events A, B, C are such that P(A) = 0.3, P(B) = 0.4, P(C) = 0.8, P(A ∩
B) = 0.08, P(A ∩C) = 0.28, P(A ∩ B ∩ C) = 0.09 and P(A ∪ B ∪ C) ≥ 0.75. Show that P(B ∩ C)
lies in the interval [0.23, 0.48].
Sol. P(A ∪ B ∪ C) ≥ 0.75
0.75 ≤ P(A ∪ B ∪ C) ≤ 1
⇒ 0.75 ≤ P(A) + P(B) + P(C) − P(A ∩ B) − P(B ∩ C) − P(C ∩ A) + P(A ∩ B ∩ C) ≤ 1
⇒ 0.75 ≤ 0.3 + 0.4 + 0.8 − 0.08 − 0.28 − P(B ∩ C) + 0.09 ≤ 1
⇒ 0.75 ≤ 1.23 − P(B ∩ C) ≤ 1
⇒ −0.75 ≥ P(B ∩ C) − 1.23 ≥ −1
⇒ 0.48 ≥ P(B ∩ C) ≥ 0.23
⇒ 0.23 ≤ P(B ∩ C) ≤ 0.48
∴ P(B ∩ C) lies in the interval [0.23, 0.48].

EXERCISE-8(C)

I.
1. Three screws are drawn at random from a lot of 50 screws, 5 of which are defective. Find the
probability of the event that all 3 screws are non-defective assuming that the drawing is (a)
with replacement, (b) without replacement.
Sol. Let S be the sample space
∴ The total number of screws = 50
The number of defective screws is 5 and the remaining 45 screws are non-defective.
Let A be the event of getting drawing of the 3 screws are non-defective.
a) With replacement
45
C 45 C 45 C
P(A) = 50 1 × 50 1 × 50 1
C1 C1 C1
3
45 45 45 9 9 9  9 
= × × = × × = 
50 50 50 10 10 10  10 
3
9
P(A) =  
 10 

b) Without replacement
45
C 44 C 43 C
P(A) = 50 1 × 49 1 × 48 1
C1 C1 C1
45 44 43 1419
= × × ⇒ P(A) =
50 49 48 1960
 1
2. If A, B, C are three independent events such that P(A ∩ BC ∩ CC ) =
4
1 1
P(A C ∩ B ∩ CC ) = , P(A C ∩ BC ∩ CC ) = then find P(A), P(B) and P(C).
8 4
Sol. Since A, B, C are independent events.
1
P(A ∩ BC ∩ CC ) =
4
1
⇒ P(A) ⋅ P(BC ) ⋅ P(CC ) = ...(1)
4
1
P(A C ∩ B ∩ CC ) =
8
1
⇒ P(A C ) ⋅ P(B) ⋅ P(CC ) = ...(2)
8
1
P(A C ∩ BC ∩ CC ) =
4
1
⇒ P(A C ) ⋅ P(BC ) ⋅ P(CC ) = ...(3)
4
(1) P(A) 1/ 4
⇒ = =1
(3) P(A C ) 1/ 4
P(A)
⇒ = 1 ⇒ P(A) = 1 − P(A)
1 − P(A)
1
⇒ 2P(A) = 1 ⇒ P(A) =
2
(2) P(B) 1/ 8 P(B) 1
⇒ = ⇒ =
(3) P(B ) 1/ 4 1 − P(B) 2
C

⇒ 2P(B) = 1 − P(B) ⇒ 3P(B) = 1

1
∴ P(B) =
3
1
From (1) ⇒ P(A) ⋅ P(BC ) ⋅ P(CC ) =
4
 1  1  1
⇒   1 −  P(CC ) =
 2  3  4
1 3 3
⇒ P(CC ) = × 2 × =
4 2 4
3 1
∴ P(C) = 1 − P(CC ) = 1 − =
4 4
1 1 1
∴ P(A) = , P(B) = , P(C) =
2 3 4

3. There are 3 black and 4 white balls in one bag. 4 black and 3 white balls in the second bag. A
die is rolled and the first bag is selected if it is 1 or 3 and the second bag for the rest. Find the
probability of drawing a black ball from the bag thus selected.
2 1
Sol. Probability of selecting first bag = =
6 3
1 2
Probability of selecting second bag = 1 − =
3 3
 3
Probability of getting a black ball from first bag =
7
4
Probability of getting a black ball from the second bag =
7
Probability of drawing a black ball =
1 3 2 4 3 + 8 11
= ⋅ + ⋅ = =
3 7 3 7 21 21

4. A, B, C are aiming to shoot a balloon. A will succeed 4 times out of 5 attempts. The chance of B
to shoot the balloon is 3 out of 4 and that of C is 2 out of 3. If three aim the balloon
simultaneously, then find the probability that atleast two of them hit the balloon.
4 3 2
Sol. Given P(A) = , P(B) = , P(C) =
5 4 3
4 1
P(A) = 1 − P(A) = 1 − =
5 5
3 1
P(B) = 1 − P(B) = 1 − =
4 4
2 1
P(C) = 1 − P(C) = 1 − =
3 3
P(A ∩ B ∩ C) = P(A)P(B)P(C)
4 3 1 1
= ⋅ ⋅ =
5 4 3 5
P(A ∩ B ∩ C) = P(A)P(B)P(C)
4 1 2 2
= ⋅ ⋅ =
5 4 3 15
P(A ∩ B ∩ C) = P(A)P(B)P(C)
1 3 2 1
= ⋅ ⋅ =
5 4 3 10
P(A ∩ B ∩ C) = P(A)P(B)P(C)
4 3 2 2
= ⋅ ⋅ =
5 4 3 5
1 2 1 2 25 5
Probability that atleast two of them hit the balloon = + + + = =
5 15 10 3 30 6

A  A 
5. If A, B are two events, then show that P   P(B) + P  C  P(BC ) = P(A) .
B B 
 A  P(A ∩ B)
Sol. P   =
B P(B)
 A  P(A ∩ B)
Hint : P   =
B P(B)
A
⇒ P   P(B) = P(A ∩ B) ...(1)
B
 A  P(A ∩ B )
C
P C  = ...(2)
B  P(BC )
 A  A 
(1) + (2) ⇒ P   P(B) + P  C  P(BC )
B B 
= P(A ∩ B) + P(A ∩ BC )
A B

A∩BC

Hint : A ∩ BC = A − (A ∩ B)
= P(A ∩ B) + P(A) − P(A ∩ B) = P(A)

6. A pair of dice are rolled. What is the probability that they sum to 7, given that neither die
shows a 2?
Sol. Let A be the event that the sum of the two dice is 7, then
A = {(1, 6), (2,5), (3, 4), (4,3), (5, 2), (6,1)}
Let B be the event that neither die shows a 2
B = {(1,1), (1,3)(1, 4), (1,5), (1, 6),
(3,1), (3,3), (3, 4), (3,5), (3, 6),
(4,1), (4,3), (4, 4), (4,5), (4, 6),
(5,1), (5,3), (5, 4), (5,5), (5, 6),
(6,1), (6,3), (6, 4), (6,5), (6, 6)}
n(B) = 25
A ∩ B = {(1, 6), (3, 4), (4,3), (6,1)}
n(A ∩ B) = 4
Required probability
 A  P(A ∩ B) n(A ∩ B) 4
P  = = =
B P(B) n(B) 25

7. A pair of dice are rolled. What is the probability that neither die shows a 2, given that they sum
to 7?
Sol. Let A be the event that the sum on two dice is 7.
A = {(1, 6), (2,5), (3, 4), (4,3), (5, 2), (6,1)}
∴ n(A) = 6
Let B be the event that neither die shows a 2
B = {(1,1), (1,3)(1, 4), (1,5), (1, 6),
(3,1), (3,3), (3, 4), (3,5), (3, 6),
(4,1), (4,3), (4, 4), (4,5), (4, 6),
(5,1), (5,3), (5, 4), (5,5), (5, 6),
(6,1), (6,3), (6, 4), (6,5), (6, 6)}
n(B) = 25
A ∩ B = {(1, 6), (3, 4), (4,3), (6,1)}
n(A ∩ B) = 4
Required probability
 B  P(A ∩ B) n(A ∩ B) 4 2
P  = = = =
A P(A) n(A) 6 3
8. If A, B are any two events, in an experiment, and P(B) ≠ 1. Show that
 A  P(A) − P(A ∩ B)
P C  =
B  1 − P(B)
Hint : P(A ∩ BC ) = P(A) − P(A ∩ B)
Sol. By definition of condition probability
A B

 A  P(A ∩ B ) P(A) − P(A ∩ B)

C
P C  = =
B  P(BC ) 1 − P(B)
∵ P(BC ) = P(B) = 1 − P(B)

9. An urn contains 12 red balls and 12 green balls. Suppose two balls are drawn one after another
without replacement. Find the probability that the second ball drawn is green given that the
first ball drawn is red.
Sol. Total number of balls in an urn n(S) = 24
12
C1 1
Let E1 be the event of drawing a red ball in first draw P(E1 ) = =
24 2
Now the number of balls remaining are 23
E  E  12
Let 2 be the events of drawing a green ball in the second drawn P  2  = .
E1  E1  23
∴ Required probability
E 
P(E1 ∩ E 2 ) = P(E1 ) ⋅ P  2 
 E1 
1 12 6
= × =
2 23 23
∴ The probability true the second ball drawn is green given that the first ball drawn is red
6
=
23

10. A single die is rolled twice in succession. What is the probability that the number showing on
the second toss is greater than that on the first rolling?
Sol. A single die is rolled twice. Let S be the sample space n(S) = 62 = 36.
Let A be the event of getting the required event.
A = {(1, 2), (1,3)(1, 4), (1,5), (1, 6),
(2,3), (2, 4), (2,5), (2, 6), (3, 4),
(3,5), (3, 6), (4,5), (4, 6), (5, 6)}
n(A) = 15
n(A) 15 5
∴ P(A) = = =
n(S) 36 12
11. If one card is drawn at random from a pack of cards then show that event of getting an ace and
getting heart are independent events.
Sol. Suppose A is the event of getting an ace and B is the event of getting a heart.
4 1 13 1
∴ P(A) = = , P(B) = =
52 13 52 14
A ∩ B is the event of getting a Heart’s ace
1 1 1
∴ P(A ∩ B) = = ⋅ = P(A) ⋅ P(B)
52 13 4
∴ A and B are independent events.

12. The probability that a boy A will get a scholarship is 0.9 and that another boy B will get is 0.8.
What is the probability that atleast one of them will get the scholarship?
Sol. Suppose E1 is the event of boy A getting scholarship and E2 is the event of another boy B getting the
scholarship.
Given P(E1) = 0.9, P(E2) = 0.8
E1 and E2 are independent events.
P(E1 ∩ E 2 ) = P(E1 ), P(E 2 ) = (0.9)(0.8) = 0.72
Probability that atleast one of them will give a scholarship
= P(E1 ∪ E 2 )
= P(E1 ) + P(E 2 ) − P(E1 ∩ E 2 )
= (0.9) + (0.8) − (0.72) = 0.98

13. If A, B are two events with P(A ∪ B) = 0.65 and P(A ∩ B) = 0.15, then find the value of
P(AC) + P(BC).
Sol. By addition theorem on probability
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B)
P(A) + P(B) = P(A ∪ B) + P(A ∩ B)
= 0.65 + 0.15 = 0.8
P(A C ) + P(BC ) = 1 − P(A) + 1 − P(B)
= 2 − [P(A) + P(B)] = 2 − 0.8 = 1.2

14. If A, B, C are independent events, show that A ∪ B and C are independent events.
Sol. ∵ A, B, C are independent events.
⇒ A, B ; B, C ; C, A are also independent events.
P(A ∩ B ∩ C) = P(A)P(B)P(C)
P(A ∩ C) = P(A)P(C)
P(B ∩ C) = P(B)P(C)
P(A ∩ B) = P(A)P(B)
P[(A ∪ B) ∩ C] = P[(A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C)]
= P(A ∩ C) + P(B ∩ C) − P[(A ∩ C) ∩ (B ∩ C)]
= P(A)P(C) + P(B)P(C) − P(A ∩ B ∩ C)
= P(A)P(C) + P(B)P(C) − P(A)P(B)P(C)
= [P(A) + P(B) − P(A)P(B)]P(C)
= P(A ∪ B) ⋅ P(C)
∴ A ∪ B and C are independent events.
15. A and B are two independent events such that the probability of the both the events to occur is
1/6 and the probability of both the events do not occur is 1/3. Find the probability of A.
Sol. A and B are independent events.
1
P(A ∩ B) = P(A)P(B) = ...(1)
6
1 1
P(A ∩ B) = ⇒ P(A ∪ B) =
3 3
1 2
P(A ∪ B) = 1 − P(A ∪ B) = 1 − =
3 3
2
P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B) =
3
2
P(A) + P(B) = P(A ∩ B) +
3
2 1 4 +1 5
= + = = ...(2)
3 6 6 3
Suppose P(A) = x and P(B) = y so that
5 1
x + y = , xy = [from (1) and (2)]
6 6
(x − y) = (x + y) 2 − 4xy
2

2
5 1 25 4 25 − 24 1
=   − 4⋅ = − = =
 
6 6 36 6 36 36
1
x−y=±
6
1 5
Case(i) : x − y = , x + y =
6 6
1
Adding ⇒ 2x = 1 ⇒ x =
2
1
∴ P(A) =
2
1 4 1
Case(ii) : x − y = − ⇒ 2x = ⇒ x =
6 6 3
1
∴ P(A) =
3
1 1
P(A) = (or)
2 3
16. A fair die is rolled. Consider the events. A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {2, 3} and C = {2, 3, 4, 5}. Find
A B
i) P(A ∩ B), P(A ∪ B) ii) P   , P  
B A
A C  B C
iii) P   , P   iv) P   , P  
C A C B
Sol. A fair die is rolled
3 1
P(A) = =
6 2
2 1
P(B) = =
6 3
4 2
P(C) = =
6 3
n(S) = 61 = 6
Given A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {2, 3}, C = {2, 3,4,5}
1
i) A ∩ B = {3}P(A ∩ B) = P{3} =
6
1
∴ P(A ∩ B) =
6
P(A ∪ B) = {1, 2,3,5}
n(A ∪ B) = 4
n(S) = 6
4 2
P(A ∪ B) = =
6 3

 A  P(A ∩ B) 1/ 6 1
ii) P   = = =
B P(B) 1/ 3 2
 B  P(B ∩ A) 1/ 6 1
P  = = =
A P(A) 1/ 2 3
 A  P(A ∩ C) 2 / 6 1
iii) P   = = =
C P(C) 4/6 2
∴ A ∩ C = {3, 5}
 C  P(A ∩ C) 2 / 6 2
P  = = =
A P(A) 3/ 6 3
 B  P(B ∩ C) 2 / 6 1
iv) P   = = =
C P(C) 4/6 2
∴ B ∩ C = {2, 3}
 C  P(C ∩ B) 2 / 6
P  = = =1
B P(B) 2/6
17. If A, B, C are three events in a random experiment, prove the following.
A
i) P   = 1
A
 A  P(A ∩ A) P(A)
Sol. P   = = =1
A P(A) P(A)

φ
ii) P  = 0
A
 φ  P(φ ∩ A) 0
Sol. P   = = =0
A P(A) P(A)

A  B
iii) A ⊂ B ⇒ P   ≤ P  
C C
Sol. We know that
 A  P(A ∩ C)
P  =
C P(C)
B
C

 B  P(B ∩ C) A
P  =
C P(C)
A⊆B
A ∩C ≤ B∩C
P(A ∩ C) ≤ P(B ∩ C)
P(A ∩ C) P(B ∩ C)
≤
P(C) P(C)
A  B
∴P   ≤ P 
C C
iv) P(A – B) = P(A) – P(A ∩ B)
Sol. A − B = {x / x ∈ A ∋ x ∉ B}
A − B = A − (A ∩ B)
S

A B

P(A − B) = P[A − (A ∩ B)] = P(A) − P(A ∩ B)

A
v) If A, B are mutually exclusive and P(B) > 0 then P   = 0 .
B
 A  P(A ∩ B) 0
Sol. We know P   = = =0
B P(B) P(B)
[∵ A, B are mutually exclusive events]
Hint : A, B are mutually exclusive than A ∩ B = φ, ⇒ P(A ∩ B) = 0.
  A  P (A)
vi) If A, B are mutually exclusive then P  C  = ; when P(B) ≠ 1.
 B  1 − P(B)
Sol. Given P(A ∩ B) = 0 (∵ A and B are mutually exchange)
 A  P(A ∩ B ) P[A − (A ∩ B)]
C
P C  = =
B  P(BC ) P(BC )
P(A) − P(A ∩ B) P(A) − 0
= =
1 − P(B) 1 − P(B)
A P(A)
∴P   =
 B  1 − P(B)
∵ P(B) ≠ 1

 A  P(A)
vii) If A, B are mutually exclusive and P(A∪B)≠0 then P  = .
 A ∪ B  P(A) + P(B)
Hint : A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
 A  P[A ∩ (A ∪ B)]
Sol. P  =
 A∪B P(A ∪ B)
P[(A ∩ A) ∪ (A ∩ B)]
=
P(A ∪ B)
[P(A ∩ A) + P(A ∩ B)] P(A) + 0
= =
P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B) P(A) + P(B) − 0
 A  P(A)
∴P  =
 A ∪ B  P(A) + P(B)

II.
1. Suppose A and B are independent events with P(A) = 0.6, P(B) = 0.7 compute
(i) P(A ∩ B) (ii) P(A ∪ B)
B
(iii) P   (iv) P(A C ∩ BC )
A
Sol. Given A, B are independent events and
P(A) = 0.7, P(B) = 0.7
i) P(A ∩ B) = P(A)P(B) = 0.6 × 0.7 = 0.42
ii) P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
= 0.6 + 0.7 – 0.42 = 0.88
B
iii) P   = P(B) = 0.7
A
iv) P(A C ∩ BC ) = P(A C ) ⋅ P(BC )
(AC and BC are also independent events)
= [1 − P(A)][(1 − P(B)]
= (1 − 0.6)(1 − 0.7) = 0.4 × 0.3 = 0.12
2. The probability that Australia wins a match against India in a cricket game is given to be 1/3. If
India and Australia play 3 matches, what is the probability that,
i) Australia will loose all the three matches?
ii) Australia will win atleast one match?
Sol. Suppose A is the event of Australia winning the match.
1
Given P(A) =
3
1 2
∴ P(A) = 1 − P(A) = 1 − =
3 3
i) Probability that Australia will loose the all three matches.
3
2 8
= [P(A)] =   =
3
3 27
ii) Probability that Australia will win atleast one match
8 19
= 1 − [P(A)]3 = 1 − =
27 27

3. Three boxes numbered I, II, III contains balls as follows

White Black Red
I 1 2 3
II 2 1 1
III 4 5 3
One box is randomly selected and a ball is drawn from it. If the ball is red, then find the
probability that it is from box II.
Sol. Let B1, B2, B3 be the events of selecting 1st, 2nd and 3rd box respectively.
1
Then P(B1 ) = P(B2 ) =
3
3 R
Probability of selecting a red ball from the first box = = P  
6  B1 
1  R 
Probability of selecting a red ball from the second box = = P 
4  B2 
3 R 
Probability of selecting a red ball from the third box = = P 
12  B3 
Assuming that the ball is red, probability it is from box II,
B  P(B2 )P(R / B2 )
P 2  =
 R  P(B1 )P(R / B1 ) + P(B2 )P(R / B2 )
+ P(B3 )P(R / B3 )
1 1 1
⋅
3 4 4 1
= = =
1 3 1 3  1 1 1 4
 + +  + +
3  6 4 12  2 4 4
III.
1. Three Urns have the following composition of balls.
Urn I : 1 white, 2 black
Urn II : 2 white, 1 black
Urn III : 2 white, 2 black
One of the Urn is selected at random and a ball is drawn. It turns out to be white. Find the
probability that it come from Urn III.
Sol. Let Ei be the event of choosing the Urn i = 1, 2, 3 and P(Ei) be the probability of choosing the Urn i =
1, 2, 3. Then P(E1) = P(E2) = P(E3) = 1/3.
Having chosen the Urn i, the probability of drawing a white ball, P(W/Ei), is given by
W 1 W 2 W 2
P  = ; P  = ; P  =
 E1  3  E 2  3  E3  4
E 
We have to find the probability P  3  by Baye’s theorem.
W
W
P(E3 )P  
E   E3 
P 3  =
W W W W
P(E1 )P   + P(E 2 )P   + P(E 3 )P  
 E1   E2   E3 
1 2 1 1
⋅
3 4 2 1
= = =2=
1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 3 3
⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅ + +
3 3 3 3 3 4 3 3 2 2
1 2 3
2. In a shooting test the probability of A, B, C hitting the targets are , and respectively. It
2 3 4
all of them fire at the same target. Find the probability that
i) Only one of them hits the target.
ii) Atleast one of them hits the target.
Sol. The probabilities that A, B, C hitting the targets are denoted by
1 2 3
P(A) = , P(B) = and P(C) =
2 3 4
1 1
∴ P(A) = 1 − P(A) = 1 − =
2 2
2 1
P(B) = 1 − P(B) = 1 − =
3 3
3 1
P(C) = 1 − P(C) = 1 − =
4 4
i) Probability that only one of them hits the target
= P(A ∩ B ∩ C) + P(A ∩ B ∩ C) + P(ABC)
= P(A) ⋅ P(B) ⋅ P(C) + P(A) ⋅ P(B) ⋅ P(C) + P(A) ⋅ P(B) ⋅ P(C)
(∵ A, B, C are independent events)
1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3
= ⋅ ⋅ + ⋅ ⋅ + ⋅ ⋅
2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4
1+ 2 + 3 6 1
= = =
24 24 4
ii) Probability that atleast one of them hits the target = P(A ∪ B ∪ C)
= 1 – Probability that none of them hits the target.
 = 1 − P(A B C)
= 1 − P(A) ⋅ P(B) ⋅ P(C)
1 1 1 1 23
= 1− ⋅ ⋅ = 1− =
2 3 4 24 24

3. In a certain college, 25% of the boys and 10% of the girls are studying mathematics. The girls
constitute 60% of the student strength. If a student selected at random is found studying
mathematics, find the probability that the student is a girl.
60 6
Sol. Probability that a student select to be a girl P(G) = =
100 10
⇒ Probability that a student select to be a boy
40 4
= P(B) = =
100 10
Probability that a boy studying mathematics
 M  25 1
P  = =
 B  100 4
 M  10 1
Similarly probability that a girl studying mathematics : P   = =
 G  100 10
We have to find P(G/M) By Baye’s theorem.
M
P(G) ⋅ P  
 
G G
P  =
 M  P(B) ⋅ P  M  + P(G) ⋅ P  M 
   
B G
6 1 6
⋅
10 10 6 3
= = 100 = =
4 1 6 1
⋅ + ⋅
1
+
6 10 + 6 8
10 4 10 10 10 100

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
I.
1. A number x is drawn arbitrarily from the set {1, 2, 3, … 100}. What is the probability that
 100 
x +  > 29 .
 x 
Sol. Here the total number of cases is 100.
100
Let A be the event that x selected from the set {1, 2, 3, …100} has the property x + > 29
x
100
Now x + > 29
x
⇔ x 2 − 29x + 100 > 0
⇔ (x − 4)(x − 25) > 0
⇔ x > 25 or x > 4
⇔ x ∈ {1, 2,3, 26, 27,...100} = A(say)
so that the number of cases favourable to A is 78.
 78
∴ The required probability P(A) =
100
2. Two squares are chosen at random on a chess board. Show that the probability that they have a
side in common is 1/18.
Sol. The number of ways of choosing the first square is 64 and that of the second is 63.
∴ The number of ways of choosing the first and second squares = 64 × 63
∴ n(S) = 64 × 63
Let E be the event that these squares have a side in common.
If the first square happens to be one of the squares in the four corners of the chess board, the
second square (with common side) can be choosen in 2 ways.
If the first square happens to be any one of the remaining 24 squares along the four sides of the
chess board other than the corner, the second square can be choosen in 3 ways.
If the first square happens to be any one of the remaining 36 inner squares, then the second square
can be choosen in 4 ways.
Hence the number of cases favourable to E is (4 × 2) + (24 × 3) + (36 × 4) = 224
∴ The required probability =
n(E) 224 1
= =
n(S) 64 × 63 18

3. A fair coin is tossed 200 times. Find the probability of getting a head an odd number of times.
Sol. The total number of cases is 2200
The number of favourable cases is
= 200C1 + 200C3 + 200C5 + ... + 200C199
2200
= = 2199
2
2191 1
∴ Probability = .
2200 2

4. A and B are among 20 persons sit at random along a round table. Find the probability that
there are any 6 persons between A and B.
Sol. Let A occupy any seat around the table. Then there are 19 seats available for B. But if there are to be
six persons between A and B, then B has only two ways to sit.
2
∴ Probability =
19
5. Out of 30 consecutive integers two are drawn at random. Then what is the probability that
their sum is odd.
Sol. The total number of ways of choosing 2 out of 30 numbers = 30C2
Out of these 30 numbers, 15 are even and 15 are odd.
For the sum of the choosen two numbers to be odd, one should be odd and the other even.
∴ The number of cases favourable
= 15 C1 × 15C1
15
C1 × 15C1 15 ×15 15
∴ Probability = = 2× =
30
C2 30 × 29 29
6. What is the probability of throwing a total score of 7 with two dice?
Sol. Let S be the sample space and A be the event of getting a total score of 7 when two dice are thrown
S = {(1, 1),(1, 2)…(1,6),(2,1)…(2,6)…
(6,1),(6,2)…(6,6)}
n(S) = 36
Hint : 62 = 36
A = {(1, 6) (6, 1) (2, 5) (5, 2) (3, 4) (4, 3)}
n(A) = 6
n(A) 6 1
∴ P(A) = = =
n(S) 36 6

7. What is the probability of obtaining two tails and one head when three coins are tossed?
Sol. Let S be the sample space and A be the event of getting two tails and one head when three coins are
tossed.
n(S) = 23 = 8
A = [ HTT, THT, TTH ]
n(A) = 3
3
P(A) =
8
8. A page is opened at random from a book containing 200 pages. What is the probability that the
number of the page is a perfect square?
Sol. Let S be the sample space. Let A be the event of getting on the page is perfect square.
n(S) = 200
Let A be the event of drawing a page whose number is perfect square.
A = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144, 169, 196}
n(A) = 14
14 7
P(A) = = = 0.07
200 100

9. Find the probability of drawing on ace or a spade from a well shuffled pack of 52 cards?
Sol. Hint : A pack of cards means of pack containing 52 cards, 26 of them are red and 26 of them are
black coloured. These 52 cards are divided into 4 sets namely Hearts, Spades, Diamonds and Clubs.
Each set contains of 13 cards names A, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, K, Q,J.
Let E1 be the event of drawing a space and E2 be the event of drawing an ace. E1, E2 are not mutually
exclusive.
n(A) = 13, n(B) = 4, n(A ∩ B) = 1
∴ P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B)
13 4 1 16 4
= + − = =
52 52 52 52 13

10. If A and B are two events, show that

i) P(A ∩ BC) = P(A) – P(A ∩ B) and
ii) the probability that one of them occurs is given by P(A) + P(B) – 2P(A ∩ B).
Sol. i) We have A = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ BC)
and (A ∩ B) ∩ (A ∩ BC) = φ
 ∴ P(A) = (A ∩ B) + P(A ∩ BC )
∴ P(A ∩ BC ) = P(A) − P(A ∩ B) ...(1)
ii) Let E be the event that exactly one of them, (i.e.) either A or B occurs. Given
E = (A − B) ∪ (B − A) = (A ∩ BC ) ∪ (B ∩ A C )
So P(E) = P(A ∩ BC ) + P(B ∩ A C )
∵ (A ∩ BC ) ∩ (B ∩ A C ) = φ
⇒ P(E) = P(A) − P(A ∩ B) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B)
by (1)
∴ P(E) = P(A) + P(B) − 2P(A ∩ B)

11. Suppose A and B are events with P(A) = 0.5, P(B) = 0.4 and P(A ∩ B) = 0.3. Find the
probability that (i) A does not occur, (ii) neither A nor B occurs.
Sol. We have AC = the event “A does not occur”
(A ∪ B)C = neither A nor B occurs
∴ P(AC) = 1 – P(A) = 1 – 0.5 = 0.5
Since P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
= 0.5 + 0.4 – 0.3 = 0.6
P[(A ∪ BC)] = 1 – P(A ∪ B) = 1 – 0.6 = 0.4

12. If A, B, C are three events. Show that

P(A ∪ B ∪ C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) − P(A ∩ B) − P(B ∩ C) − P(C ∩ A) + P(A ∩ B ∩ C)
Sol. Write B ∪ C = D then
P(A ∪ B ∪ C) = P(A ∪ D)
∴ P(A ∪ D) = P(A) + P(D) − P(A ∩ D)
= [P(A) + P(B ∪ C) − P(A ∩ (B ∪ C)]
= P(A) + P(B) + P(C) − P(B ∩ C) − [P(A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)]
= P(A) + P(B) + P(C) − P(B ∩ C) − [P(A ∩ B) + P(A ∩ C) − P(A ∩ B ∩ D ∩ C)]
P(A ∪ B ∪ C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) − P(A ∩ B) − P(B ∩ C) − P(C ∩ A) + P(A ∩ B ∩ C)

13. Suppose there are 12 boys and 4 girls in a class. If we choose three children one after another in
succession, what is the probability that all the three are boys?
Sol. Let Ei be the event of choosing a boy child in ith trial (i = 1, 2, 3). We have to find
Here
12  E  11  E  5
P(E1) = , P  2  = , P  3 ∩ E1  =
16  E1  15  E2  7
P(E1 ∩ E 2 ∩ E3 ) by the multiplication theorem
 E   E3 
P(E1 ∩ E 2 ∩ E3 ) = P(E1 )P  2  P  
 E1   E1 ∩ E 2 
12 11 10 11
= × × =
16 15 14 28
14. A speaks the truth in 75% of the cases, B is 80% cases. What is the probability that their
statements about an incident do not match?
Sol. Let E1, E2 be the events that A and B respectively speak truth about an incident.
75 3 80 4
Then P(E1 ) = = , P(E 2 ) = =
100 4 100 5

( ) 1
So that P E1C = , P E C2 =
4
( ) 1
5
Let E be the event that their statements do not match about the incident. Then this happens in two
mutually exclusive ways.
i) A speaks truth, B tells lie
ii) A tells lie, B speaks truth. These two events are represented by E1 ∩ E C2 , E1C ∩ E 2 .
∴ P(E) = P(E1 ∩ E C2 ) + P(E1C ∩ E 2 )
= P(E1 )P(E C2 ) + P(E1C )P(E 2 )
(∵ E1 , E 2 are independent)
3 1 1 4 7
= × + × =
4 5 4 5 20
15. A problem in Calculus is given to two students A and B whose chances of solving it are 1/3 and
1/4. What is the probability that the problem will be solved if both of them try independently?
Sol. Let E1 and E2 denote the events that the problems is solved by A and B respectively.
1 1
Given that P(E1 ) = and P(E 2 )
3 4
Note that these two are independent events.
Therefore the required probability
P(E1 ∪ E 2 ) = P(E1 ) + P(E 2 ) − P(E1 ∩ E 2 ) = P(E1 ) + P(E 2 ) − P(E1 )P(E 2 )
(∵ E1 , E 2 are independent)
1 1 1 1
= + − =
3 4 12 2

16. If A and B toss a fair coin 50 times each simultaneously. Then show that the probability that
both of them will not get tails at the same toss is (3/4)50.
Sol. In each toss there are four choices
i) A gets H, B gets H
ii) A gets T, B gets H
iii) A gets H, B gets T
iv) A gets T, B gets T
Therefore the total number of choices is 450
Out of the four cases listed above, (i), (ii) and (iii) are favourable.
(iv) is not favourable to the occurrence of the required event, say E.
50
350  3 
∴ P(E) = 50 =  
4 4
17. Let A and B be two events of an experiment with P(A) = 0.2, P(A ∪ B) = 0.8 and P(B) = x. Find
x so that A and B are independent.
Sol. Given A and B are independent. Then
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A)P(B)
i.e. 0.8 = 0.2 + x − 0.2 × x
0.6 3
∴x = =
0.8 4

18. If A and B are independent events of a random experiment show that AC and BC are also
independent.
Sol. If A and B are independent then

P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B)

Now P(A C ∩ BC ) = P[(A ∪ B)C ]
= 1 − P(A ∪ B)
= 1 − [P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B)]
= 1 − [P(A) + P(B) − P(A)P(B)]
= [1 − P(A)][1 − P(B)] = P(A C )P(BC )
∴ A C , BC are indenpendent.

19. Three boxes B1, B2 and B3 contain balls detailed below.

White Black Red
B1 2 1 2
B2 3 2 4
B3 4 3 2
A die is thrown, B1 is chosen if either 1 or 2 turns up, B2 is chosen if 3 or 4 turns up and B3 is
chosen if 5 or 6 turns up. Having chosen a box in this way, a ball is chosen at random from this
box. If the ball drawn is of red colour, what is the probability that it comes from box B2?

Sol. Let P(Ei) be the probability of choosing the box Bi (i = 1, 2, 3).

2 1
Then P(Ei) = = ; for i = 1, 2, 3
6 3

Having chosen the box Bi, the probability of drawing a red ball, say, P(R/Ei) is given by

R 2  R  4 R  2
P  = , P  = and P   =
 E1  5  E 2  9  E3  9

We have to find the probability P(E2/R)

By Bayer’s theorem, we get

 E  P(E 2 )P(R / E 2 )
P 2  =
 R  R  R  R 
P(E1 )P   + P(E 2 )P   + P(E3 )P  
 E1   E2   E3 
1 4 4
×
3 9 18 5
= = =
1  2 4 2  18 + 20 + 10 12
 + +  5× 9× 3
3 5 9 9 
20. An urn contain w white balls and b black balls. Two players Q and R alternately draw a with
replacement from the urn. The player that draws a white ball first wins the game. If Q begins
the game, find the probability that Q wins the game.

Sol. Let W denote the event of drawing a white ball at any draw and B that of a black ball. Then
W b
P(W) = , P(B) =
w+b w+b
Let E be the event that Q wins the game
= P(W P(E) BBW P(E) BBBBW P(E)...)
= P(W) + P(BBW) + P(BBBBW) + ...
= P(W) + P(B)P(B)P(W) +
P(B)P(B)P(B)P(B)P(W) + ...
= P(W)(1 + P(B)2 + P(B)4 + ...)
W
P(W) w+b w+b
= = =
1 − P(B)2  b 
2
2 + 2b
1−  
w+b

Theorem : Addition Theorem on Probability.

1. If A, B are two events in a sample space S, then P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B).
Sol. From the figure(venn diagram)it can be observed that (B – A) ∪ (A ∩ B) = B, (B – A) ∩ (A ∩ B) =
φ.

P(A∩B
A B
B–A

∴ P(B) = P[(B − A) ∪ (A ∩ B)]

= P(B − A) + P(A ∩ B)
⇒ P(B − A) = P(B) − P(A ∩ B) ...(1)
 Again from the figure, it can be observed that
A ∪ (B − A) = A ∪ B, A ∩ (B − A) = φ
∴ P(A ∪ B) = P[A ∪ (B − A)]
= P(A) + P(B − A)
= P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B) since from (1)
∴ P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B)

Theorem : Multiplication Theorem on Probability.

2. Let A, B be two events in a sample space S such that P(A) ≠ 0, P(B) ≠ = 0, then
B
i) P(A ∩ B) = P(A)P  
A
A
ii) P(A ∩ B) = P(B)P  
B
Sol. Let S be the sample space associated with the random experiment. Let A, B be two events of S show
that P(A) ≠ 0 and P(B) ≠ 0. Then by def. of confidential probability.
 B  P(B ∩ A)
P  =
A P(A)
B
∴ P(B ∩ A) = P(A)P  
A
Again, ∵ P(B) ≠ 0
 A  P(A ∩ B)
P  =
B P(B)
A
∴ P(A ∩ B) = P(B) ⋅ P  
B
B A
∴ P ( A ∩ B ) = P(A) ⋅ P   = P ( B ) ⋅ P  
A B