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Ch.
6 Nutrition in humans
6.2 Process of human nutrition
 Why does food need to be broken down?
The membrane of our cells are differentially permeable, complex food molecules cannot pass
through. They have to be broken down into small, soluble molecules, in order to enter our
cells.
Food molecules are structurally different from our body molecules. We need to break them
down into smaller molecules to build our own.
 What are the five main processes of human nutrition?
Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, Assimilation, Egestion
6.4 Digestion
 What do physical and chemical digestion do?
Physical digestion breaks food into smaller pieces with physical actions. It increases the
surface area of the food for digestive juice to act on but does not change the chemical
structure of the food.
Chemical digestion breaks large, complex food into small, soluble molecules with chemical
reactions. Digestive enzymes like carbohydrase, lipases and proteases are involved so that the
food molecules are small enough for absorption.
Water, vitamins, and minerals do not need to be further broken down as they are already small
enough.
Mouth Cavity
Food is chewed by teeth into smaller pieces mixed with saliva. surface area
Saliva is produced in salivary glands (digestive juice).
Substance Function
Salivary amylase (carbohydrase) Starch > maltose
Mucus: it helps lubricate the passage of the Bind food molecules together
food secreted from digestive glands from Moisten and lubricate
walls of alimentary canal Easier to be chewed and swallowed
Water Dissolves soluble substances for tasting
Bolus is swallowed down the oesophagus through pharynx.
Swallowing
Tongue rises to push the bolus towards the pharynx.
Soft palate moves up to prevent it from entering the nasal cavity.
Larynx rises. Epiglottis covers the entrance to the trachea.
Enters the oesophagus.
Peristalsis
along the alimentary canal
circular muscles, longitudinal muscles
contract and relax alternatively to push the bolus down the stomach
produces a wave-like movement
lumen becomes smaller when circular muscles contract and longitudinal muscles relax,
squeezing it forward
lumen becomes larger and bolus can slide through
Stomach
churning gastric juice produced by gastric glands
involved peristalsis
cardiac sphincter and pyloric sphincter
prevent food from flowing back
release food to the duodenum
Substance Function
Pepsin (acidic) Proteins > peptides
Hydrochloric acid Acidic medium for pepsin to act on
Kills most bacteria in food
Mucus Prevent stomach wall from being digested
by pepsin and hydrochloric acid
bolus becomes chyme
Pyloric sphincter relaxes to release food a little at a time into the duodenum which prevents
overloading of duodenum and allows time for digestion.
Small intestine
duodenum and ileum
contains partially digested food
Peristalsis allows the mixing of food and digestive juices for digestion.
Bile
Bile (green alkaline fluid excreted from the liver)
stored in gall bladder release by bile duct
no digestive enzymes
Substance Function
Bile salts (Physical digestion) Emulsify lipids into smaller droplets
Facilitate chemical digestion increasing
surface area of lipids for lipase to act on
Bile pigment Not take part in digestion
Waste product breakdown of haemoglobin
from red blood cells
Excreted in faeces
Sodium hydrogen carbonate (alkaline) Neutralizes the acidic chyme to protect
small intestine from being damaged
Provide alkaline medium for enzymes
Pancreatic juice
produced from pancreas released from pancreatic duct
Substance Function
Pancreatic amylase Starch > maltose
Pancreatic lipase Lipids > fatty acids + glycerol
Protease Proteins > peptide
Peptides > amino acid
Sodium hydrogen carbonate Neutralizes acidic chyme
Provides alkaline medium for action of
enzymes
Intestinal juice
slightly alkaline
contains water, mucus, sodium hydrogen carbonate
There are specialized cells with enzymes on the epithelium cell membranes
Enzymes Function
Carbohydrase Maltose > glucose
Sucrose > glucose + fructose
Lactose > glucose + galactose
Proteases Peptides > amino acids
6.5 Absorption
absorbed into circulatory system through the wall of the alimentary canal
 Listed out the characteristics of the small intestine
- Wall is highly folded; longitudinal and circular muscles are present in it
- finger-like projections called villi; network of capillaries surrounding the lacteal in the
center (lymph vessel)
- one-cell thick
- many microvilli presented on the cell membrane of the epithelium
Water-soluble food molecules can be absorbed through diffusion and active transport.
This increases water potential of the contents in small intestine; water is absorbed through
osmosis.
Lipid-soluble food molecules (fatty acids and glycerol) enter the villi by diffusion. They
recombine into fine lipid droplets which enter the lymph in the lacteal (including lipid-soluble
vitamins).
Adaptation of small intestine

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Adaptation of small intestine

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