Metal Processing Module

User’s Guide
Metal Processing Module User’s Guide
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C o n t e n t s

Chapter 1: Introduction

About the Metal Processing Module 8

What Can the Metal Processing Module Do? . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries? . . . . 9

Overview of the User’s Guide 13

Chapter 2: Metal Processing Modeling

Selecting Physics Interfaces 16

Metal Phase Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Austenite Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Alpha–Beta Phase Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Carburization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Study Types 19

Modeling Phase Transformations 20

Metallurgical Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Phase Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Calibration of Phase Transformation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Defining Multiphysics Models 28

Heat Transfer with Phase Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Steel Quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Phase Transformation Latent Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Phase Transformation Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Annealing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Selecting Discretization 32
Phase Transformation Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

CONTENTS |3
 Carburization Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Using Effective Material Properties 33

Importing Material Properties and Phase Transformation Data

34
Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Phase Transformation Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Modeling Carburization 36
Defining a Carburization Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Modeling Carbon Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

References 38

Chapter 3: Metal Processing Theory

Metal Phase Transformation Theory 40

Metallurgical Phase Transformations 41

Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Phase Transformation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Parameterized TTT Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Transformation Temperatures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Equilibrium Phase Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Compound Material Properties 59

Heat Transfer Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Electromagnetic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Phase Transformation Strains 63

Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Transformation-Induced Plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

4 | CONTENTS
 Total Strain Contribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Phase Transformation Latent Heat 66

Carburization 67
Carbon Potential Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

References 70

Chapter 4: Metal Phase Transformation

The Metal Phase Transformation Interface 74

Metallurgical Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Phase Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Transformation Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Additional Source Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Steel Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Chapter 5: Austenite Decomposition

The Austenite Decomposition Interface 90

Chapter 6: Alpha–Beta Phase Transformation

The Alpha–Beta Phase Transformation Interface 94

Chapter 7: Carburization

The Carburization Interface 98

Carburization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

CONTENTS |5
 Carbon Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Zero Carbon Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Carbon Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Chapter 8: Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings

Heat Transfer with Phase Transformations 102

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Steel Quenching 103

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Phase Transformation Latent Heat Multiphysics Coupling 104

Phase Transformation Strain Multiphysics Coupling 106

Annealing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Index 109

6 | CONTENTS
 1

Introduction

This guide describes the Metal Processing Module, an optional add-on package
for the COMSOL Multiphysics® simulation software. The module is designed to
perform transient analyses of processes involving metallurgical (solid-solid) phase
transformations in, mainly, steels. This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of
the Metal Processing Module and includes a summary of the physics interfaces and
where you can find the documentation.

In this chapter:

• About the Metal Processing Module

7
 About the Metal Processing Module
In this section:

• What Can the Metal Processing Module Do?

• Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

What Can the Metal Processing Module Do?

The Metal Processing Module can be used to model different physical phenomena
related to heat treatment of metals. Using this module, you can study how
metallurgical phase transformations change the microstructure of a metallic material
during a heating or cooling process. One example is the quenching of automotive steel
transmission components, where the resulting microstructure is tailored to meet
specific demands on strength and durability. Other examples include the study of phase
transformations that occur during additive manufacturing of metal components and
phase transformations in the heat-affected zone during welding.

There are five physics interfaces in the Metal Processing Module:

• The Metal Phase Transformation interface for studying diffusive and displacive
metallurgical phase transformations in materials like steels.
• The Austenite Decomposition interface for specifically studying the cooling of steel
from an austenitic state.
• The Alpha-Beta Phase Transformation interface for specifically studying thermal
transients in α-β titanium alloys.
• The Carburization interface for studying the heat treatment process of
carburization.
• The Heat Transfer with Phase Transformations interface for modeling thermal
processes involving metallurgical phase transformations.
• The Steel Quenching interface for modeling coupled thermal and mechanical
processes involving metallurgical phase transformations.

Throughout the Metal Processing User’s Guide, the Metal Phase Transformation, the
Austenite Decomposition, and the Alpha-Beta Phase Transformation physics interfaces
are collectively referred to as phase transformation physics interfaces.

8 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The physics interfaces in the Metal Processing Module can be added from the Model
Wizard’s Select Physics page under Heat Transfer>Metal Processing. The physics
interfaces can also be added by right-clicking a Component node and selecting Add
Physics.

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

ACCESSING THE METAL PROCESSING MODULE DOCUMENTATION

The Metal Processing Module feature information, including theory and modeling
details, is included in the Metal Processing Module User’s Guide.

When you install COMSOL Multiphysics, the documentation sets are installed in
several locations, both on your computer and most easily accessible while you are
working in COMSOL Multiphysics. The next section details where to access it.

ACCESSING COMSOL DOCUMENTATION AND APPLICATION LIBRARIES

A number of online resources have more information about COMSOL, including
licensing and technical information. The electronic documentation, topic-based (or
context-based) help, and the Application Libraries are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.

If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer,

the blue links do not work to open an application or content
referenced in a different guide. However, if you are using the Help
system in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to open other
modules, application examples, and documentation sets.

THE DOCUMENTATION AND ONLINE HELP

The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes the core physics interfaces
and functionality included with the COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also has
instructions on how to use COMSOL Multiphysics and how to access the electronic
Documentation and Help content.

Opening Topic-Based Help

The Help window is useful as it is connected to the features in the COMSOL Desktop.
To learn more about a node in the Model Builder, or a window on the Desktop, click
to highlight a node or window, then press F1 to open the Help window, which then
displays information about that feature (or click a node in the Model Builder followed

ABOUT THE METAL PROCESSING MODULE | 9

 To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder, Application Builder, or Physics Builder, click a node

or window and then press F1.
• On any toolbar (for example, Home, Definitions, or Geometry), hover the
mouse over a button (for example, Add Physics or Build All) and then
press F1.
• From the File menu, click Help ( ).
• In the upper-right corner of the COMSOL Desktop, click the Help ( )
button.

Opening the Documentation Window

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• From the File menu, select Help>Documentation ( ).

THE APPLICATION LIBRARIES WINDOW

Each model or application includes documentation with the theoretical background
and step-by-step instructions to create a model or application. The models and
applications are available in COMSOL Multiphysics as MPH-files that you can open
for further investigation. You can use the step-by-step instructions and the actual
models as templates for your own modeling. In most models, SI units are used to
describe the relevant properties, parameters, and dimensions, but other unit systems
are available.

Once the Application Libraries window is opened, you can search by name or browse
under a module folder name. Click to view a summary of the model or application and
its properties, including options to open it or its associated PDF document.

The Application Libraries Window in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

10 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Opening the Application Libraries Window
To open the Application Libraries window ( ):

From the File menu, select Application Libraries.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the File>Help menu
select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Libraries.

From the File or Windows menu, select Application Libraries.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the Help menu
select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Libraries.

CONTACTING COMSOL BY EMAIL

For general product information, contact COMSOL at info@comsol.com.

COMSOL ACCESS AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT

To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to
support@comsol.com. An automatic notification and a case number will be sent to you
by email. You can also access technical support, software updates, license information,
and other resources by registering for a COMSOL Access account.

ABOUT THE METAL PROCESSING MODULE | 11

 COMSOL ONLINE RESOURCES

COMSOL website www.comsol.com

Contact COMSOL www.comsol.com/contact
COMSOL Access www.comsol.com/access
Support Center www.comsol.com/support
Product Download www.comsol.com/product-download
Product Updates www.comsol.com/product-update
COMSOL Blog www.comsol.com/blogs
Discussion Forum www.comsol.com/forum
Events www.comsol.com/events
COMSOL Application Gallery www.comsol.com/models
COMSOL Video Gallery www.comsol.com/videos
Support Knowledge Base www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase

12 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Overview of the User’s Guide
TABLE OF CONTENTS AND INDEX
To help you navigate this guide, see the Contents and Index sections.

MODELING WITH THE METAL PROCESSING MODULE

The Metal Processing Modeling chapter discusses how to model different problems
involving phase transformations. The content covers the topics Selecting Physics
Interfaces, Study Types, Modeling Phase Transformations, Defining Multiphysics
Models, Selecting Discretizations, and Using Effective Material Properties.

METAL PROCESSING THEORY

The Metal Processing Theory chapters outlines the theory for the interfaces present in
the Metal Processing Module. The chapter covers the topics Metallurgical Phase
Transformations, Compound Material Properties, Phase Transformation Strains,
Phase Transformation Latent Heat, and Carburization.

THE METAL PHASE TRANSFORMATION INTERFACE

The Metal Phase Transformation chapter describes the Metal Phase Transformation
interface and its feature nodes.

THE AUSTENITE DECOMPOSITION INTERFACE

The Austenite Decomposition chapter describes the Austenite Decomposition
interface and how it is based on the Metal Phase Transformation interface.

THE ALPHA-BETA PHASE TRANSFORMATION INTERFACE

The Alpha-Beta Phase Transformation chapter describes the Alpha-Beta Phase
Transformation interface, and how it is based on the Metal Phase Transformation
interface.

THE CARBURIZATION INTERFACE

The Carburization chapter describes the Carburization interface and its feature nodes.

OVERVIEW OF THE USER’S GUIDE | 13

 MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS
The Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings chapter describes two multiphysics
interfaces found under the Metal Processing branch when adding a physics interface:

• The Heat Transfer with Phase Transformations interface combines a Metal Phase
Transformation interface with a Heat Transfer in Solids interface. The coupling of
the interfaces appears on a domain level, where produced latent heat from the
(temperature-dependent) phase transformations gives rise to a heat source in the
heat equation. Optionally, phase-composition-dependent thermal material
properties can be used in the heat transfer analysis.
• The Steel Quenching Interface combines an Austenite Decomposition interface
with a Heat Transfer in Solids interface and a Solid Mechanics interface. There are
two domain-level multiphysics couplings: In the first coupling, produced latent heat
from the (temperature-dependent) phase transformations gives rise to a heat source
in the heat equation. In the second coupling, phase transformation strains that result
from thermal expansion or transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) are transferred
to the Solid Mechanics interface as inelastic strain contributions for the computation
of stresses. In the case of plasticity, the coupling also involves equivalent plastic
strains and hardening functions. Optionally, phase-composition-dependent thermal
and mechanical properties can be used in the heat transfer and solid mechanics
analyses.
• The Phase Transformation Latent Heat multiphysics coupling adds the latent heat
that is produced during phase transformations, as a heat source term, to the heat
equation in a Heat Transfer interface.
• The Phase Transformation multiphysics coupling adds the transformation strains
that are produced during phase transformations, as an inelastic strain contribution,
to the equation for stress in a Solid Mechanics interface. The coupling also transfers
stresses and the equivalent plastic strain from a Solid Mechanics interface to the
coupled phase transformation interface.

14 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 2

Metal Processing Modeling

The goal of this chapter is to show you how to model different problems involving
phase transformations in steels and how to include various physical phenomena that
may be relevant in specific situations.

In this chapter:

• Selecting Physics Interfaces

• Study Types
• Modeling Phase Transformations
• Defining Multiphysics Models
• Selecting Discretization
• Using Effective Material Properties
• Importing Material Properties and Phase Transformation Data
• Modeling Carburization

15
 Selecting Physics Interfaces
The Metal Processing Module contains three basic physics interfaces and two
multiphysics interfaces. The three basic physics interfaces are:

• Metal Phase Transformation — For modeling general metallurgical phase

transformations
• Austenite Decomposition — For modeling the specific case of austenite
decomposing into a combination of destination phases, on cooling
• Alpha–Beta Phase Transformation — For modeling phase transformations in α–β
titanium alloys.
• Carburization — For modeling carburization; the process by which carbon from a
surrounding carbon rich environment diffuses into a component.

Metal Phase Transformation

The Metal Phase Transformation interface provides a basic way to model phase
transformations in metals. Four common models for phase transformations in steels are
provided. The Leblond–Devaux, the Johnson–Mehl–Avrami–Kolmogorov (JMAK),
the Kirkaldy–Venugopalan, and the Hyperbolic rate models are used to model
time-dependent (diffusion-controlled) phase transformations, such as the
transformation of austenite into pearlite during steel hardening. In contrast, the
Koistinen–Marburger model is used to model the transformation of austenite into
martensite, where the amount of undercooling below the so-called martensite start
temperature controls the formation of martensite. In addition to these five types of
phase transformations, you can define your own phase transformation models and let
them coexist with other active phase transformations in your analysis. You can use an
arbitrary number of phase transformations in a model. The Metal Phase
Transformation interface lets you generate a compound material whose properties are
phase composition dependent. This material can be used by other physics interfaces,
such as Solid Mechanics and Heat Transfer in Solids.

• Modeling Phase Transformations

• Metallurgical Phase Transformations

16 | CHAPTER 2: METAL PROCESSING MODELING

Austenite Decomposition
The Austenite Decomposition interface is a specialized interface that considers
hardening of steel from an austenitic state. During hardening of steels, the material is
heated above the austenitizing temperature. It is then cooled, and depending on the
rate of cooling, a combination of destination phases such as ferrite, pearlite, bainite,
and martensite can form. The Austenite Decomposition interface automatically creates
corresponding phase nodes and phase transformation nodes. You can also define an
arbitrary number of additional phases and phase transformations. Optionally, you can
define your own phase transformation models and let them coexist with other active
phase transformations in the analysis. The Austenite Decomposition interface lets you
generate a compound material whose properties are phase-composition dependent.
This material can be used by other physics interfaces, such as Solid Mechanics and Heat
Transfer in Solids.

• Modeling Phase Transformations

• Metallurgical Phase Transformations

Alpha–Beta Phase Transformation

The Alpha–Beta Phase Transformation interface is a specialized interface that is used
to model phase transformations in α–β titanium alloys, such as Ti–6Al–4V. These
alloys find uses in welding as well as additive manufacturing. In these applications, the
material typically undergoes both heating and cooling, and depending on the rates at
which this happens, different fractions of beta phase and alpha phases can form. The
Alpha–Beta Phase Transformation interface automatically creates phase nodes and
phase transformation nodes. In addition, transformation conditions are imposed the
phase transformation nodes to, for example, restrict phase transformations to cooling
or heating. The Alpha–Beta Phase Transformation interface lets you generate a
compound material whose properties are phase-composition dependent. This material
can be used by other physics interfaces, such as Solid Mechanics and Heat Transfer in
Solids.

• Modeling Phase Transformations

• Metallurgical Phase Transformations

SELECTING PHYSICS INTERFACES | 17

 Carburization
The Carburization interface provides a way to model the heat treatment process of
carburization. The process involves placing a component in a carbon rich environment,
at an elevated temperature. Over time, carbon is transferred into the surface of the
component, and then progresses to the interior via diffusion. You can specify the
carbon potential (the carbon concentration of the surrounding environment) as a
function of time, to emulate a particular process. Or, you can use a simplified
boost-diffuse carburization cycle that is provided by the interface. You can model the
mass transfer of carbon into the surface of the component in different ways. You can
prescribe the carbon concentration at the surface, or use a convective, thermally
activated carbon mass transfer. Additionally, you can model selective carburization by
prescribing zero carbon flux in certain regions of the component surface.

18 | CHAPTER 2: METAL PROCESSING MODELING

Study Types
Metallurgical Phase transformations are inherently time dependent. Phase
transformations are defined by a set of ordinary differential equations in time. The
Carburization interface solves the time-dependent diffusion of carbon in a component.
The only supported study type for the Metal Processing physics interfaces is therefore
Time Dependent.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Time-Dependent Solver
• Studies and Solvers

STUDY TYPES | 19
 Modeling Phase Transformations
This section describes how to model metallurgical solid-solid phase transformations.
When you simulate processes such as hardening of steel, these phase transformations
are fundamental because they ultimately determine the final properties of the material.
In the phase transformation interfaces, each phase transformation is defined by a
certain evolution equation that defines the time rate of change of the algebraic
proportion of a destination phase at the expense of a source phase. In the following,
the two modeling concepts of phases and phase transformations are discussed.

Metallurgical Phases
When you model phase transformations in a material, each transformation defines how
a source phase transforms into a destination phase as a function of time. When you
create a metallurgical phase node, you have to define its initial phase fraction. This is
the value from which the phase fraction evolves during the analysis.

You have the option, at the physics interface level, to compute effective thermal,
electromagnetic, and mechanical properties for the compound material. If you have
opted to do this, you also need to define the corresponding properties of each phase.
At each phase node, you can choose to create a component-level phase material. This
material can be populated with properties that define the behavior of the phase. As an
alternative, you can use imported material properties. This is described in Importing
Material Properties and Phase Transformation Data.

The phase material properties are averaged (phase-fraction averaged) into effective
material properties of a compound material that can be used in other physics interfaces.
This is described in Using Effective Material Properties.

Phase Transformations
When you have created a phase transformation node, you have to choose a source
phase and a destination phase. These are the two phases that are fundamentally
involved in the phase transformation. You also have the option of specifying additional
source phases that contribute to the formation of the destination phase. The selected
phase transformation model defines the underlying type of phase transformation. They
are described below.

20 | CHAPTER 2: METAL PROCESSING MODELING

THE LEBLOND–DEVAUX MODEL
Phase transformations in steels are based on diffusion of carbon, and the Leblond–
Devaux phase transformation model is suitable to model this. You can choose between
four formulations for the model — General coefficients, Time and equilibrium, TTT
diagram data, and Parameterized TTT diagram. The first and second formulations
require generally temperature-dependent functions that determine the characteristics
of the phase transformation. The functions will be different for different phase
transformations. The TTT diagram data formulation requires information that can be
extracted from a TTT diagram, namely the time it takes at each temperature to reach
a specified relative phase fraction. Typically, you would choose the transformation start
line (for example, 1%). The Parameterized TTT diagram formulation is used to input
three points from a TTT diagram, and let COMSOL Multiphysics construct a
simplified TTT diagram using these points and additional curve shape parameters. The
constructed TTT diagram is used internally to calculate the required parameters for the
phase transformation model.

The Leblond–Devaux Model

THE JOHNSON–MEHL–AVRAMI–KOLMOGOROV (JMAK) MODEL

You can choose between five formulations for the model — Time, equilibrium, and
exponent; TTT diagram data; TTT diagram data, fixed exponent; Parameterized TTT
diagram; and Parameterized TTT diagram, fixed exponent. The first formulation can be
viewed as a generalization of the Time and equilibrium form of the Leblond–Devaux
model. In addition to the generally time-dependent functions describing the
equilibrium phase fraction and the time constant, a time-dependent exponent is used.
The exponent is called the Avrami exponent, and it alters the characteristic of the phase
transformation. The TTT diagram data and TTT diagram data, fixed exponent
formulations require information that can be extracted from the curves in a TTT
diagram, namely the time it takes at each temperature to reach a specified relative phase
fraction. The former requires two times to calculate the time constant and the Avrami
exponent, at two respective relative phase fractions. These can represent, for example
the transformation start (for example, 1%) and finish (for example, 90%) times, at each
temperature. The TTT diagram data, fixed exponent formulation requires that you
specify the Avrami exponent separately, and then use a single transformation time, such
as the transformation start. The Parameterized TTT diagram and Parameterized TTT
diagram, fixed exponent formulations are used to input points from a TTT diagram, and

MODELING PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS | 21

 let COMSOL Multiphysics construct a simplified TTT diagram using these points and
additional curve shape parameters. The constructed TTT diagram is used internally to
calculate the required parameters of the phase transformation model. In the former,
two TTT curves are used. These can represent, for example, the start and finish curves
of the transformation. In the latter, a single TTT curve is used to internally calculate
the time constant, and the Avrami exponent is specified separately.

The Johnson–Mehl–Avrami–Kolmogorov (JMAK) Model

THE KIRKALDY–VENUGOPALAN MODEL

This phase transformation model is suitable for diffusion-based phase transformations,
such as occur in steels during quenching. You can choose between three formulations
for the model — Rate coefficient, TTT diagram data, and Parameterized TTT diagram. The
first formulation requires a rate coefficient that represents a lumped effect of
temperature and chemical composition on the rate equation for the phase
transformation. The TTT diagram data formulation requires information that can be
extracted from a TTT diagram, namely the time it takes at each temperature to reach
a given relative phase fraction. This information is then used internally to calculate the
required parameters for the phase transformation model. The Parameterized TTT
diagram formulation is used to input three points from a TTT diagram, and let
COMSOL Multiphysics construct a simplified TTT diagram using these points and
additional curve shape parameters. The constructed TTT diagram is used internally to
calculate the required parameters for the phase transformation model.

The Kirkaldy–Venugopalan Model

THE KOISTINEN–MARBURGER MODEL

This phase transformation model is suitable to model the displacive martensitic
transformation in steel, on rapid cooling. You can choose between two formulations
for the model — Koistinen-Marburger coefficient and Martensite finish temperature. In
the first formulation, you specify the Martensite start temperature Ms and the
Koistinen–Marburger coefficient β. The martensite start temperature defines the onset of
the phase transformation, and the Koistinen–Marburger coefficient defines how
rapidly the phase transformation progresses as the temperature decreases. The
martensite start temperature Ms can be experimentally obtained from dilatometry

22 | CHAPTER 2: METAL PROCESSING MODELING

experiments. If the integrated form of the phase transformation model is used
(Equation 3-22), a value for the Koistinen-Marburger coefficient β can be correlated to
the temperature at which the martensitic transformation is considered complete (see,
for example, Ref. 8). In the second formulation, the phase transformation is defined
by the Martensite start temperature Ms and the Martensite finish temperature M90. The
latter is the temperature corresponding to 90% martensite formation, using the
integrated form of the phase transformation model.

The Koistinen–Marburger Model

For an example how to model phase transformations, see Phase

Transformations in a Round Bar: Application Library path
Metal_Processing_Module/Tutorial_Examples/phase_transformations_in_a_ro
und_bar.

THE HYPERBOLIC RATE MODEL

This phase transformation model can be used for example to model dissolution of α
phase in titanium, on heating. The model assumes that the rate of formation of the
destination phase is inversely proportional to the phase fraction of the destination
phase.

Calibration of Phase Transformation Models

During a thermal transient, a material point may undergo varying rates of cooling and
heating. During this transient, several phase transformations can be active at the same
time. This suggests that it is difficult to calibrate phase transformation models
individually, as they tend to affect one another. For example, in the case of austenite
decomposition, it is common in practice to present the complicated nature of phase
transformations as continuous cooling transformation (CCT) or time-temperature
transformation (TTT) diagrams; see Figure 2-1 and Figure 2-2 for schematic
examples. Both diagrams show the start temperatures for the formation of a small
fraction of different phases (Fs for the start temperature of ferrite, and so on). The

MODELING PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS | 23

 fraction can be chosen arbitrarily but is often 0.1% or 1%. The difference between the
two diagram types, as their names imply, is the following:

• A CCT diagram is constructed by performing experiments where a small specimen

is cooled at a specified, constant, temperature rate.
• A TTT diagram is constructed by performing experiments where a small specimen
is rapidly cooled to a temperature T0 that is subsequently kept constant.

One method to measure the actual start temperatures required to draw each diagram
is to use dilatometry experiments. Metallurgical phase transformations are
accompanied by a change in volume, owing to the density difference between phases.
In a dilatometer, a specimen is cooled (or heated), and its length is monitored. The
specimen length will change according to basic thermal expansion, but phase
transformations will induce additional length changes that can be measured.

In a real quenching situation, it is clear that material points do not experience either of
the two extremes represented by the CCT and TTT diagrams (constant temperature
rate versus constant temperature). Nevertheless, because experimentally obtained
CCT and TTT diagrams are very common in the heat treatment community, phase
transformation models must in practice be calibrated using them.

It is here useful to examine one formulation of the Leblond–Devaux model:

d d
·d ξ eq – ξ
ξ = -------------------
-
τs → d

In this equation, the phase fraction for the destination phase tends toward an
d
equilibrium value ξ eq , and the rate at which this occurs is characterized by the time
constant τ s → d . Note here that the equilibrium phase fraction and the time constant
are in general both temperature dependent, and that temperature in turn varies with
time. At constant temperature, the equation can be integrated analytically, giving

ξ = ξ eq  1 – exp  – -------------
d d t - 
τ s → d 

The equilibrium phase fraction can be deduced from an (equilibrium) iron-carbon

diagram (Ref. 1) or from dilatometry experiments at a very low temperature rate (or
at constant temperature after a rapid temperature drop). If we know this equilibrium
phase fraction at a given temperature t1, we can compute the temperature dependent
time constant from knowing the time it takes to reach a specific phase fraction
(isothermally):

24 | CHAPTER 2: METAL PROCESSING MODELING

 t1
τ s → d = – -----------------------------
-
 ξ
d
ln  1 – --------
 ξ 
d
eq

Alternatively, if we know the time to reach, for example, 1% of the equilibrium phase
fraction, that is, the relative phase fraction

d
ξ-
X = -------
d
ξ eq

the time constant is obtained without knowing the equilibrium phase fraction. Thus,
a TTT diagram showing curves of transformation times corresponding to relative
phase fractions X can straightforwardly be used to compute the temperature
dependent time constant. In this sense, a TTT diagram is easier to use for phase
transformation model calibration than a CCT diagram. This method to the calibration
of phase transformation models to TTT diagram data can be used also for the
Johnson–Mehl–Avrami–Kolmogorov (JMAK) and Kirkaldy–Venugopalan models. It
should be pointed out that given a set of phase transformation model parameters, it is
straightforward to compute both types of diagrams and to adjust the model parameters
based on comparisons of the computed diagrams and experimental information. It is
sometimes necessary to iterate in this manner to find a sufficiently accurate set of
model parameters.

As a final alternative to performing the calibration using TTT or CCT diagrams, you
can import computed phase transformation data. This is described in Importing
Material Properties and Phase Transformation Data.

MODELING PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS | 25

 Figure 2-1: A CCT diagram showing how phases appear during cooling at two different
rates. The temperatures corresponding to 1% formed fraction of ferrite, pearlite, and
bainite are shown. The martensite start temperature is shown as a straight line. The time
is shown on a logarithmic axis.

26 | CHAPTER 2: METAL PROCESSING MODELING

Figure 2-2: A TTT diagram showing how the temperature is rapidly decreased to a fixed
value T0 and then kept constant.

For an example how to compute CCT and TTT diagrams, see

Transformation Diagram Computation: Application Library path
Metal_Processing_Module/Transformation_Diagrams/transformation_diagram
_computation.

For an example how to calibrate a phase transformation model based on

experimental TTT diagram data, see Transformation Diagram
Computation: Application Library path
Metal_Processing_Module/Transformation_Diagrams/calibration_against_ttt_
data.

MODELING PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS | 27

 Defining Multiphysics Models
This chapter describes how two couple the phase transformation interfaces to the Heat
Transfer in Solids and Solid Mechanics interfaces. A good place to start reading is in
Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

In this chapter:

• Heat Transfer with Phase Transformations — For modeling phase transformations

coupled to heat transfer.
• Steel Quenching — For modeling the specific case of austenite decomposition
coupled to heat transfer and solid mechanics.
• Phase Transformation Latent Heat — A predefined unidirectional coupling that
adds latent heat from phase transformations as a heat source term in the coupled
heat transfer interface.
• Phase Transformation Strain — A predefined bidirectional coupling that is used to
transfer strains and stresses to, and from, the coupled solid mechanics interface.

Heat Transfer with Phase Transformations

The Heat Transfer with Phase Transformations multiphysics interface combines the
Metal Phase Transformation interface with the Heat Transfer in Solids interface. Phase
transformations are generally temperature dependent, and this interface is a suitable
starting point for modeling metallurgical phase transformations that occur during a
thermal transient. Latent heat is generated during phase transformations, and the
interface transfers this generated heat to the heat equation that is used by the Heat
Transfer in Solids interface, as shown in Figure 2-3. This is done using the Phase
Transformation Latent Heat multiphysics coupling.

Figure 2-3: The constituent interfaces of the Heat Transfer with Phase Transformations
interface.

28 | CHAPTER 2: METAL PROCESSING MODELING

Steel Quenching
The Steel Quenching multiphysics interface combines the Austenite Decomposition
interface with the Heat Transfer in Solids and the Solid Mechanics interfaces. This is
the most specialized interface of the Metal Processing Module. It can be used to study
heat treatment processes by which steel parts, which have been heated to a fully
austenitic state, are quenched. The multiphysics interface couples the constituent
interfaces so that effects of latent heat and phase transformation strains can be included
in the analysis. Phase compositions, distortions, and residual stresses can be computed
using the Steel Quenching multiphysics interface. Figure 2-4 shows how this
information is passed to, and from, the Austenite Decomposition interface. Note that,
for example, material properties used in Solid Mechanics can be temperature
dependent, and that plastic dissipation can act as a heat source in Heat Transfer in
Solids (this is not shown in Figure 2-4). The Steel Quenching multiphysics interface
uses the Phase Transformation Latent Heat multiphysics coupling and the Phase
Transformation Strain multiphysics coupling.

Figure 2-4: The constituent interfaces of the Steel Quenching interface.

For an example how to use the Steel Quenching interface, see

Carburization and Quenching of a Steel Gear: Application Library path
Metal_Processing_Module/Steel_Quenching/carburization_and_quenching_of_
a_steel_gear.

DEFINING MULTIPHYSICS MODELS | 29

 Phase Transformation Latent Heat
This unidirectional multiphysics coupling generates a heat source term in the heat
equation of the coupled Heat Transfer in Solids interface. The heat source term
corresponds to the latent heat produced during phase transformations.

See Phase Transformation Latent Heat in the theory chapter.

Phase Transformation Strain

This bidirectional multiphysics coupling is used to transfer strains and stresses to, and
from, the coupled Solid Mechanics interface.

• If Enable transformation-induced plasticity is selected, the stress tensor from the Solid
Mechanics interface is used to compute TRIP strains during phase transformations.
These strains are used by the Solid Mechanics interface as an inelastic strain
contribution.
• If Enable thermal strains is selected, the thermal strains are used by the Solid
Mechanics interface as an inelastic contribution.

When you use this coupling, you should not use the Thermal Expansion
node to compute thermal strains to be used in the Solid Mechanics
interface.

• If Enable phase plasticity is selected, and if the Plasticity subnode under Linear Elastic
Material is used by the coupled Solid Mechanics interface, the equivalent plastic
strain is transferred to the phase transformation interface. This way, the individual
hardening function for each phase can be evaluated.

30 | CHAPTER 2: METAL PROCESSING MODELING

Annealing
An Annealing subnode can be added to the Phase Transformation Strain multiphysics
coupling. This subnode is used to specify an annealing temperature above which plastic
hardening variables (equivalent plastic strains) are set to zero.

• The Annealing multiphysics subnode must be used in conjunction with the Annealing
subnode to Plasticity in the coupled Solid Mechanics interface, operating on the
same selection.
• TRIP strains, thermal strains, and the plastic strain tensor are unaffected by the
Annealing subnode.

DEFINING MULTIPHYSICS MODELS | 31

 Selecting Discretization
Phase Transformation Modeling
The Metal Phase Transformation, Austenite Decomposition, and Alpha-Beta Phase
Transformation interfaces provide a Discretization for phase fractions setting. This is
used to set the shape function order for the phase fractions, and it should match the
settings for the temperature field used by the Heat Transfer in Solids interface. It is set
to quadratic by default, to match the default setting of the Heat Transfer in Solids
interface.

Carburization Modeling
The discretization setting for Carburization interface controls the shape function order
for the carbon concentration. The Element order is set to quadratic by default.

32 | CHAPTER 2: METAL PROCESSING MODELING

Using Effective Material Properties
When a material undergoes phase transformations during a thermal transient, its
material properties will change. The properties are typically temperature dependent
and tend to be phase dependent, too. For example, the initial yield stress at a given
temperature will be higher in martensite than in ferrite — two metallurgical phases that
appear during hardening of steel. When the Metal Phase Transformation, Austenite
Decomposition, or Alpha-Beta Phase Transformation interface is used with Heat
Transfer in Solids or Solid Mechanics, it can compute effective material properties that
can be utilized by these interfaces. The benefit is that the Heat Transfer in Solids and
Solid Mechanics interfaces themselves do not need to perform phase averaging of the
material properties that are used.

You can generate a compound material that can be used by other physics interfaces as
a domain material. The compound material is created if you use the Create Compound
Material option at the physics interface level. This material contains effective material
properties that are computed from the corresponding material properties defined for
each phase.

Compound Material Properties

Note that if Enable phase plasticity has been selected at the physics
interface level, the User defined option should be used for the Isotropic
hardening model in the Plasticity node in Solid Mechanics.

USING EFFECTIVE MATERIAL PROPERTIES | 33

 Importing Material Properties and
Phase Transformation Data
When the Metal Phase Transformation, Austenite Decomposition, or Alpha-Beta
Phase Transformation interface is used, parameters for the different phase
transformations have to be defined. Additionally, if the interface is used with Heat
Transfer in Solids or Solid Mechanics, the material properties of the metallurgical
phases have to be defined. Phase transformations and material properties are typically
temperature dependent. In the case of plasticity, the material properties also depend
on plastic strain and plastic strain rate.

The effort involved in obtaining material properties and phase transformation data
experimentally, or by consulting literature sources, can be time consuming and
expensive. As an alternative, material properties and phase transformation data for
general steels can be imported from the software JMatPro®. The following sections
describe how this is done.

Material Properties
When you import material properties, one material is created for each of the
metallurgical phases austenite, ferrite, pearlite, bainite, and martensite. These materials
can then be used as Phase Material in the Metallurgical Phase nodes in the Metal Phase
Transformation, Austenite Decomposition, and Alpha-Beta Phase Transformation
interfaces. In addition to material properties for the individual metallurgical phases,
effective material properties that represent a compound material behavior are collected
and imported into a separate material. This material can be merged into, for example,
a created compound material, see Using Effective Material Properties.

To merge a material with effective properties into a compound material,

use either Merge Into from the context menu, or use the Merge Into menu
in the Materials toolbar. See Merging a Material Into Another Material for
details.

34 | CHAPTER 2: METAL PROCESSING MODELING

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menu
With Global Definitions or a Component selected:

Materials>Import

Phase Transformation Data

When you import phase transformation data, one phase transformation node is created
for each of the phase transformations involved in the decomposition of austenite:

• austenite to ferrite
• austenite to pearlite
• austenite to bainite
• austenite to martensite

In addition to data that describe the phase transformation kinetics, other data is
imported and added to each phase transformation node. They are:

• phase transformation latent heat

• the parameter for transformation induced plasticity (TRIP)

The import can be performed under the Metal Phase Transformation, Austenite
Decomposition, and Alpha-Beta Phase Transformation interfaces, although the Austenite
Decomposition interface is the natural interface to perform the import from.

Note that you need to manually select the source phase and destination
phase that participate in each imported phase transformation.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menu
With Metal Phase Transformation or Austenite Decomposition interface selected:

Import Phase Transformations

IMPORTING MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND PHASE TRANSFORMATION DATA | 35

 Modeling Carburization
This section describes how to model the heat treatment process of carburization. The
process typically involves placing a component in a carbon rich environment, and
letting carbon diffuse into the component over time. When you use the Carburization
interface, you need to specify the characteristics of the surrounding carburization
environment, specify the way in which carbon can move across the component surface,
and finally specify how carbon is able to diffuse internally in the component. This is
described below.

Defining a Carburization Environment

When you use the Carburization interface, you can define the carbon concentration of
the environment surrounding the component to be carburized. This is done by
selecting the type of Carburizing Cycle. You can either specify the carbon concentration
directly, as a function of time, or you can use the built-in Boost-diffuse cycle. In the
latter situation, you use a simple cycle where the carbon potential cpot is at a high value
for an initial time ( t ≤ t boost ), and after this boost period, the carbon potential is
lowered, and the diffuse stage begins.

See Carbon Potential Model in the theory chapter.

Modeling Carbon Diffusion

The diffusion of carbon into a component is modeled using Fick’s second law of
diffusion. When you solve the carbon diffusion problem, you need to specify the initial
carbon concentration in the component using the Initial Values node. You then need
to define the diffusion coefficient to be used in the diffusion equation. This diffusion
coefficient can either be specified as an expression, or specified using a provided
thermally activated (Arrhenius type) form.

See Carburization in the theory chapter.

36 | CHAPTER 2: METAL PROCESSING MODELING

Boundary Conditions
You can model the exchange of carbon with the surrounding environment in different
ways. You can apply two types boundary conditions to model the carbon mass transfer.
They are of Dirichlet (prescribed carbon concentration) or of Neumann (prescribed
carbon flux) types. In the case of a prescribed carbon flux, you have the option of using
a thermally activated (Arrhenius type) description for the carbon mass transfer
coefficient. By default, the external surfaces of a component have zero flux, which
means that they do not transfer any carbon from or to the surrounding environment.
The zero flux boundary conditions are replaced by the boundary conditions discussed
previously. In a situation where you model selective carburization, you may want to
leave parts of the external component surface with a zero carbon flux condition, as this
would correspond to partially masking the surface from the surrounding environment.

See Boundary Conditions in the theory chapter.

MODELING CARBURIZATION | 37
 References
1. T. Holm, P. Olsson, and E. Troell (Eds.), “Steel and its heat treatment — A
handbook”, Swerea IVF, Mölndal, 2012.

38 | CHAPTER 2: METAL PROCESSING MODELING

 3

Metal Processing Theory

This chapter introduces you to the theory for the Metal Processing Module.
In this chapter:

• Metallurgical Phase Transformations

• Phase Transformation Strains
• Phase Transformation Latent Heat
• Compound Material Properties
• Carburization

39
 Metal Phase Transformation Theory
In the following, the theory for the Metal Phase Transformation physics interface is
described. This section also covers the theory for the Austenite Decomposition physics
interface. These physics interfaces can be used to model metallurgical phase
transformations in metals. They can be coupled to Heat Transfer in Solids and Solid
Mechanics, where, for example, quenching of steel components can be performed.

40 | CHAPTER 3: METAL PROCESSING THEORY

Metallurgical Phase Transformations
Definitions
The material consists of a number of metallurgical phases. The fraction of each phase
i is denoted ξi. There are in general N phases, where

ξ
i
= 1
i=1

The initial phase fraction must be defined for each phase, and the sum of initial phase
fractions should be one. At the onset of an analysis, some phases may not be present,
and have zero initial phase fraction.

• The phase fractions are defined in the material frame.

• Because of the employed weighting scheme for the effective mass
density of the compound material, the phase fractions become
algebraic fractions.
• See Compound Material Properties.

Each phase transformation describes how a source phase s transforms into a

destination phase d. A phase transformation is formally defined by the rate A s → d at
which the destination phase d forms at the expense of the source phase s. This can be
expressed as

·d ·s
As → d = ξ = –ξ (3-1)

Note that this equation describes only a single contribution to the total rates at which
the destination phase forms, and the source phase decomposes. With several
simultaneous phase transformations, some phases may receive more than one
contribution. As an example, consider the case of three phases and two phase
transformations, where phase 1 transforms into phases 2 and 3. Using the terminology
above, the total rate equations for the three phases can be expressed as

·1
ξ = –A1 → 2 – A1 → 3

METALLURGICAL PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS | 41

 ·2
ξ = A1 → 2

·3
ξ = A1 → 3

Note that these rate equations satisfy

N
·i
ξ = 0
i=1

In COMSOL Multiphysics, a weak contribution is generated for each phase i:

·i 
 Aj → i δξ
i
ξ –

j

where the summation is done over every phase transformation for which phase j
transforms into phase i.

In some situations, you may want to lump several phase transformations into one, so
that several source phases decompose using the same phase transformation kinetics.
One example is a simplified description of austenitization, if you are not concerned
with the exact order in which phases like martensite and pearlite transform into
austenite. Here, the destination phase is taken to form according to

·d
ξ = As → d

The negative of this rate is taken to be the sum of the rates of the (now several) source
phases so that

·j
–As → d = ξ
j

where the summation is taken over the participating source phases. The contribution
of each source phase to the total rate is arbitrary, and a modeling decision has to be
made with regard to this indeterminacy. In COMSOL Multiphysics, the use of
multiple source phases in a phase transformation is handled by assuming that each
source phase rate is proportional to – A s → d through its own current phase fraction
divided by the phase fraction sum of all participating source phases. For each source
phase, the rate contribution is therefore

42 | CHAPTER 3: METAL PROCESSING THEORY

 ·s s As → d
ξ = – ξ ---------------- (3-2)

j
ξ
j

By using Equation 3-2, the correct sum of the source phase rates is ensured, and the
indeterminacy of their respective contributions is eliminated. Moreover, Equation 3-2
reduces to the standard form given by Equation 3-1 in the case of a single source
phase.

Phase Transformation Models

In this section, the different types of phase transformations are described.

T H E L E B L O N D –D E V A U X M O D E L
This phase transformation model is based on the work of Leblond and Devaux
(Ref. 1). The model primarily considers carbon-diffusion-based phase transformations
that occur in steels during heat treatment. Such transformations include austenite to
ferrite, and austenite to bainite. There are four formulations for the Leblond–Devaux
model:

• General coefficients
• Time and equilibrium
• TTT diagram data
• Parameterized TTT diagram

General coefficients
Using this form, the transformation of a source phase into a destination phase is given
by

·d s d
ξ = Ks → d ξ – Ls → d ξ (3-3)

·d
where the phase transformation is active only when ξ > 0 ; that is, when the
right-hand side of Equation 3-3 is strictly positive. In general, the functions K s → d
and L s → d are functions of temperature T. It was shown in Ref. 1 that the bainitic
·
transformation additionally depends on the rate of cooling, T . In this case, the
·
functions K s → d and L s → d are functions of both T and T .

METALLURGICAL PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS | 43

 Time and Equilibrium
This form is a special case of the general-coefficients form. The phase transformation
d
is defined by an equilibrium phase fraction for the destination phase ξ eq and a time
constant τ s → d . The phase transformation is given by

d d
·d ξ eq – ξ
ξ = -------------------
- (3-4)
τs → d
·d
where the phase transformation is active only when ξ > 0 ; that is, when the right side
d
of Equation 3-4 is strictly positive. The equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq and the time
constant τ s → d are typically functions of temperature.

TTT Diagram Data

At constant temperature, the time-temperature formulation of the Leblond–Devaux
phase transformation model can be integrated analytically:

ξ = ξ 0 + ( ξ eq – ξ 0 )  1 – exp  – -------------
d d d d t -  (3-5)
τ s → d 
d
where ξ 0 is the initial phase fraction. This enables straightforward calibration of the
model parameters from TTT diagram data. At a given temperature, and assuming that
the initial phase fraction is zero, the equilibrium phase fraction of the destination phase
d
is ξ eq . A relative phase fraction of the destination phase is defined such that it is 1.0
as the equilibrium phase fraction is reached. The relative phase fraction X is given by

d
ξ-
X = ------- (3-6)
d
ξ eq

In the TTT diagram in Figure 3-1, a curve representing a fixed destination phase
d
fraction ξ 1 is shown. At a fixed temperature T, this destination phase fraction is
reached at time t1, so that

d d
ξ1 = ξ ( t1 ) (3-7)

The characteristic time is then expressed as

t1
τ s → d = – --------------------------
- (3-8)
ln ( 1 – X 1 )

where t1 will vary with temperature, and the relative phase fraction X1 is understood
d
to be the relative phase fraction corresponding to ξ 1 .

44 | CHAPTER 3: METAL PROCESSING THEORY

Figure 3-1: Constant phase fraction curve in a TTT diagram.

This way of fitting the Leblond–Devaux model to TTT diagram data will be most
accurate near the chosen phase fraction curve in the TTT diagram. If, for example, the
0.1% curve is used, the phase transformation model will likely predict the onset of
destination phase formation well, but it will show poorer agreement with the TTT
diagram near completion.

Parameterized TTT Diagram

The Leblond–Devaux model can use a parameterized TTT diagram as input, in which
a single TTT curve is used to identify the time constant. See Parameterized TTT
Diagram.

THE JOHNSON–MEHL–AVRAMI–KOLMOGOROV (JMAK) MODEL

This phase transformation model is based on the work by Leblond and others (Ref. 3).

There are five formulations for the JMAK model:

• Time, equilibrium, and exponent

• TTT diagram data
• TTT diagram data, fixed exponent
• Parameterized TTT diagram
• Parameterized TTT diagram, fixed exponent

METALLURGICAL PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS | 45

 Time, Equilibrium, and Exponent
The first formulation can be viewed as a generalization of the time-temperature
formulation for the Leblond–Devaux model. It is based on an Avrami law of the form

d   
ns → d
ξ = ξ 0 + ( ξ eq – ξ 0 )  1 – exp  –  --------------
d d d t
 (3-9)
  τs → d 
d
In the equation above, the initial phase fraction is ξ 0 , and the equilibrium phase
d
fraction ξ eq , the time constant τ s → d and the Avrami exponent n s → d are typically
functions of temperature. On rate form, Equation 3-9 can be expressed as

1 -
1 – --------------
d d d d ns → d
·d ξ eq –ξ   ξ eq – ξ 0 
ξ = -------------------- n s → d  ln  -------------------
-  (3-10)
τs → d   ξ deq – ξ d 

where the explicit time dependence has been eliminated. The phase transformation is
·d
active only when ξ > 0 ; that is, when the right side of Equation 3-10 is strictly
positive. For the special case of n s → d = 1 , the equation reduces to the
time-and-equilibrium form of the Leblond–Devaux model (Equation 3-4). The
JMAK phase transformation model in Equation 3-10 has a mathematical disadvantage
in that an initial destination phase fraction equal to zero will yield a trivial zero
solution, as the logarithm will evaluate to zero. There are different ways to circumvent
this problem. One way is to require the initial phase fraction be assigned a small, but
finite, value. Another way is to modify the rate equation itself, so that a zero initial
phase fraction does not yield a trivial zero solution. In the phase transformation
interfaces, the JMAK phase transformation model in Equation 3-10 is modified for
d d
phase fractions ξ in the vicinity of ξ 0 . Below a certain threshold, the argument for
the logarithm is modified so that the logarithm does not produce a zero value. This
threshold phase fraction is set to 10-5 by default. A problem can arise in the case of
nonzero initial phase fractions. Namely, if other phase transformations in the model
operate such that the metallurgical phase that is the destination phase fraction above
d d
decreases, the JMAK model would run into problems as ξ < ξ 0 , whereby the
argument in the logarithm becomes negative. One way to handle this is to exclude the
effect of the initial phase fraction in the rate expression in Equation 3-10. This is done

46 | CHAPTER 3: METAL PROCESSING THEORY

in COMSOL Multiphysics. A judgment has to be made in each situation whether this
is a proper modeling assumption.

The phase fraction threshold variable used by the JMAK phase

transformation model can be modified in the Equation View of the Phase
Transformation node. Typically, the default value of 10−5 should not have
to be changed.

Note that the Avrami exponent used by the JMAK phase transformation
model should be greater than or equal to one. If a smaller value is
encountered, it will be replaced by an exponent of one.

TTT Diagram Data

As in the case of the Leblond–Devaux model, the JMAK model can be calibrated using
TTT diagram data. The integrated form in Equation 3-9 is used to calibrate the time
constant τ s → d and the Avrami exponent n s → d . To calibrate these two phase
transformation model parameters, two curves are needed from a TTT diagram; see
Figure 3-2. As for the Leblond–Devaux model, a zero initial phase fraction is assumed
when calibrating the JMAK model. At a fixed temperature T, the two destination phase
fractions are reached at times t1 and t2, respectively, so that

d d
ξ1 = ξ ( t1 ) (3-11)

d d
ξ2 = ξ ( t2 ) (3-12)

After some algebra, the time constant and Avrami exponent can be expressed as

ln ( 1 – X 1 ) t1
n s → d = ln  --------------------------- ⁄ ln  ---- (3-13)
 ln ( 1 – X 2 )  t 2

1 -
---------------
ns → d
τ s → d = t 1 ⁄ ( – ln ( 1 – X 1 ) ) (3-14)

where the relative phase fractions X1 and X2 are understood to be the relative phase
d d
fractions corresponding to ξ 1 and ξ 2 , respectively. The transformation times t1 and
t2 will vary with temperature.

METALLURGICAL PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS | 47

 Parameterized TTT Diagram
The JMAK model can use a parameterized TTT diagram as input, in which two TTT
curves are used to identify the time constant and the Avrami exponent. See
Parameterized TTT Diagram.

Parameterized TTT Diagram, Fixed Exponent

The JMAK model can use a parameterized TTT diagram as input, in which a single
TTT curve is used to identify the time constant. Using this formulation, you specify
the Avrami exponent separately. See Parameterized TTT Diagram.

Figure 3-2: Constant phase fraction curves in a TTT diagram.

THE KIRKALDY–VENUGOPALAN MODEL

This phase transformation model is based on the work by Kirkaldy and Venugopalan
(Ref. 10), and extended and modified by several others. There are two formulations
for the Kirkaldy–Venugopalan phase transformation model:

• Rate coefficient
• TTT diagram data
• Parameterized TTT diagram

Rate Coefficient
The rate form describing the phase transformation model is given by

2 ( 1 – X )- 2X
--------------------- --------
3 3
·d d · dX (1 – X)
ξ = ξ eq ξ 0 ----------------------------------------------
2
- (3-15)
exp ( C r X )

48 | CHAPTER 3: METAL PROCESSING THEORY

 d ·d
where ξ eq is the equilibrium phase fraction; ξ 0 is a reference rate that in principle
depends on temperature, chemical composition, and grain size; and Cr is a retardation
coefficient. The relative phase fraction X is defined as

d
ξ-
X = ------- (3-16)
d
ξ eq

so that the rate of formation of the destination phase approaches zero as the relative
phase fraction approaches one; that is, when the phase transformation nears
completion. The Kirkaldy–Venugopalan phase transformation model shares the
mathematical disadvantage with the JMAK model in that an initial destination phase
fraction of zero will yield a trivial zero solution. Similar to the JMAK phase
transformation model, the Kirkaldy–Venugopalan phase transformation model is
modified. A small threshold value for the destination phase fraction ξd is introduced,
so that the phase transformation model produces a nonzero rate below this value.

The phase fraction threshold variable used by the Kirkaldy–Venugopalan

phase transformation model can be modified in the Equation View of the
Phase Transformation node. Typically, the default value of 10−5 should not
have to be changed.

TTT Diagram Data

The Kirkaldy–Venugopalan phase transformation model can be calibrated using TTT
diagram data. Similar to the cases of the Leblond–Devaux and JMAK phase
transformation models, the expression for the rate of destination phase formation is
·d
used to identify the model parameters, here the rate coefficient ξ 0 . Rearranging the
rate expression in Equation 3-15 gives an expression of the form

· ·d
X = ξ0 f ( X ) (3-17)

where the relative phase fraction X has been used. Note that at a fixed temperature, the
d
equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq is constant, and it can therefore be included in the rate
· ·d
term X in Equation 3-17. The reference rate ξ 0 is temperature dependent (and
dependent on chemical composition and grain size, in the original Kirkaldy–
Venugopalan formulation). At a fixed temperature, t1 is the time to reach the
d
destination phase fraction ξ 1 (or alternatively, to reach the relative phase fraction X1),
see Figure 3-3. This is expressed as

METALLURGICAL PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS | 49

 d d
ξ1 = ξ ( t1 ) (3-18)

d
ξ1
X 1 = -------
- (3-19)
d
ξ eq

Figure 3-3: Constant phase fraction curve in a TTT diagram.

Using Equation 3-17, the rate coefficient is expressed as

X1 X1 2
·d 1 dg- 1 exp ( C r g )
ξ 0 = ----
t1  ---------
f(g)
= ----
t1  -------------------------------------------
2 ( 1 – g -)
--------------------
2g-
------
dg (3-20)
3 3
0 0 g (1 – g)

Note that if the retardation coefficient Cr is known, the integral can be computed a
priori for a fixed X1. The rate coefficient is therefore inversely proportional to the time
it takes to reach the relative phase fraction X1. The time t1 generally depends on
temperature.

Parameterized TTT Diagram

The Kirkaldy–Venugopalan model can use a parameterized TTT diagram as input, in
which a single TTT curve is used to identify the rate coefficient. See Parameterized
TTT Diagram.

50 | CHAPTER 3: METAL PROCESSING THEORY

THE KOISTINEN–MARBURGER MODEL
This phase transformation model was developed by Koistinen and Marburger (Ref. 2)
to model the diffusionless (displacive) austenite to martensite transformation in
iron-carbon alloys and carbon steels. The onset of the transformation, which only
occurs on cooling, is characterized by a critical start temperature — the martensite start
temperature Ms. Above this temperature, no transformation from austenite (the
source phase) to martensite (the destination phase) occurs. Below Ms, the amount of
formed martensite is proportional to the undercooling below Ms, given by Ms − T. On
rate form, the Koistinen–Marburger equation can be written

·d s ·
ξ = – ξ βT (3-21)

where β is the Koistinen–Marburger coefficient. Note that the transformation of

austenite into martensite only occurs below Ms and only during cooling (that is, when
·
T < 0 ). To make the onset of martensitic transformation numerically smooth, a
parameter ΔMs is used. The smoothing parameter defines a smoothed Heaviside
function that makes the onset of martensitic transformation gradual. The parameter
should be chosen small enough that the start temperature characteristic is retained.
s
Assuming a constant cooling rate and that the phase fraction of austenite at Ms is ξ 0 ,
the rate equation can be integrated to

d s
ξ = ξ 0 ( 1 – exp ( – β ( M s – T ) ) ) (3-22)

This integrated form is commonly found in the literature. Instead of defining the
Koistinen–Marburger coefficient directly, a martensite finish temperature, M90, can be
defined, corresponding to reaching a phase fraction of 90% using Equation 3-22, and
assuming 100% initial source phase fraction. The Koistinen–Marburger coefficient β is
then given by

ln 0.1 -
β = – ------------------------
M s – M 90

The rate form of Equation 3-21 is more general, and from a computational standpoint
it is more suitable for implementation. The rate form is therefore used in the phase
transformation interfaces.

USER DEFINED
Using this option, other types of phase transformations can be defined. A user-defined
phase transformation assumes that a source phase decomposes into a destination phase
according to Equation 3-1.

METALLURGICAL PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS | 51

 Parameterized TTT Diagram
A curve in a TTT diagram represents the time it takes to form a certain relative phase
fraction of a metallurgical phase, under isothermal conditions. Using experimental
TTT diagram data, one can extract transformations times across a range of
temperatures and thereby characterize temperature dependent phase transformations.
This is what you typically need to do for the TTT Diagram Data formulations of the
Leblond–Devaux, the JMAK, and the Kirkaldy–Venugopalan phase transformation
models. In some situations, it may be sufficient to approximate the shape of a TTT
curve using analytical functions. COMSOL Multiphysics provides a functionality to
enter three characteristic time-temperature points on a TTT curve, and together with
two shape parameters, construct an approximate a TTT curve. The three points that
are used to define the TTT curve in this way are:

• A point on the upper part of the curve

• A point on the lower part of the curve
• The point defining the “nose” of the curve

The points are designated U (upper), L (lower), and N (nose), see Figure 3-4.

Figure 3-4: A parameterized TTT curve.

The parameterized TTT curve is defined by two analytical functions that meet at the
nose. They are:

t L T – T N q NL
log  ------ = log  ------  ---------------------
t
, T < TN
 t N  t N  T L – T N

52 | CHAPTER 3: METAL PROCESSING THEORY

 t U T – T N qNU
log  ------ = log  ------  ----------------------
t
, T ≥ TN
tN tN TU – TN

The shape parameters qNL and qNU are used to control the shape of the curve below
the nose (NL) and above the nose (NU), and the effect of increasing them is
schematically shown in Figure 3-4. A shape parameter value of two produces a
quadratic function in the log time - temperature space, and so on. When you
parameterize the curves in a TTT diagram in this way, COMSOL Multiphysics will
internally use the TTT curves in the same way as if you had used the TTT Diagram
Data formulations.

Transformation Temperatures
For hypoeutectoid steels that are being cooled from an austenitic state, the phase
transformations into different destination phases occur across certain temperature
ranges. For example, no ferrite forms before the temperature falls below the Ae3
temperature in an Fe–C diagram, as austenite is stable above this temperature. Another
example is the (eutectoid) Ae1 temperature above which no pearlite forms. These
temperatures, and other temperatures that are important when modeling phase
transformations in steels, depend not only on the carbon content of the material, but
also on other alloying elements. There exist several empirical models in the literature,
and COMSOL Multiphysics provides several of these temperatures through the Steel
Composition node that can be used in the Metal Phase Transformation and Austenite
Decomposition interfaces. The temperatures can be readily accessed by the Phase
Transformation nodes to facilitate phase transformation modeling.

THE AE1 AND AE3 TEMPERATURES

In an Fe–C diagram, the Ae1 and Ae3 temperature lines represent the lower and upper
limits of the two-phase ferrite–austenite region. For a steel of a given carbon content,
the Ae3 temperature can be viewed as a ferrite start temperature, that is, the upper
temperature for ferrite formation when cooling the steel from the purely austenitic
state. Similarly, the Ae1 temperature can be viewed as the pearlite start temperature,
see Figure 3-5.

METALLURGICAL PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS | 53

 Figure 3-5: A schematic Fe–C diagram. The ferrite–austenite two-phase region is
indicated in gray.

Andrews (Ref. 11) developed empirical models for these temperatures, based on the
alloying elements of the material. The models are given by

A e1 ( °C ) = 723 – 16.9Ni + 29.1Si + 6.38W – 10.7Mn + 16.9Cr + 290As

A e3 ( °C ) = 910 – 203 C + 44.7Si – 15.2Ni + 31.5Mo + 104V + 13.1W –

30Mn + 11Cr + 20Cu – 700P – 400Al – 120As – 400Ti

where C, Si, Ni, and so forth, are the weight percentages of the respective alloying
elements. These expressions are valid for steels with a carbon concentration less than
0.6% by weight. As an alternative to using the models by Andrews, you can use a
parameterized description of the Ae1 and Ae3 temperature lines. To do this, you specify
0
directly the Ae3 temperature at zero carbon concentration, A e3 , the Ae1 temperature,
γ
and the eutectoid concentration of austenite, C eut . This gives the following linear
expression for the Ae3 temperature line:

0
0 A e3 – A e1
A e3 = A e3 – ------------------------
γ
-×C
C eut

54 | CHAPTER 3: METAL PROCESSING THEORY

where C is the carbon concentration of the steel. In contrast to the formulation by
Andrews, the Ae3 temperature line is here linear in the carbon concentration.

Note that the Ae1 and Ae3 temperature lines intersect at the eutectoid
point. The models by Andrews are valid for a carbon concentration less
than 0.6%, which means that the eutectoid point may be poorly estimated
by these models.

THE BAINITE START TEMPERATURE

Unlike the Ae1 and Ae3 temperatures, the onset of bainite formation does not
correspond to an equilibrium temperature in the Fe–C diagram. Nevertheless, several
empirical relationships for a bainite start temperature, Bs, exist in the literature.
COMSOL Multiphysics provides two models for this temperature. The model by
Steven and Haynes (Ref. 12) is given by

B s ( °C ) = 830 – 270C – 90Mn – 37Ni – 70Cr – 83Mo

and the bainite start temperature according to Kirkaldy and Venugopalan (Ref. 10) is
given by

B s ( °C ) = 656 – 57.7C – 75Si – 35Mn – 15.3Ni – 34Cr – 41.2Mo

In the expressions above, it is understood that the alloying elements are expressed in
terms of their respective weight percentages.

THE MARTENSITE START TEMPERATURE

The onset of martensitic transformation is commonly represented by the martensite
start temperature which is a parameter in the Koistinen–Marburger phase
transformation model. COMSOL Multiphysics provides two models for the
martensite start temperature. The model by Andrews (Ref. 11) is given by

M s ( °C ) = 539 – 423C – 30.4Mn – 12.1Cr – 17.7Ni – 7.5Mo

and the model by Steven and Haynes (Ref. 12) is given by

M s ( °C ) = 561 – 474C – 33Mn – 17Cr – 17Ni – 21Mo

In the expressions above, it is understood that the alloying elements are expressed in
terms of their respective weight percentages.

METALLURGICAL PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS | 55

 Equilibrium Phase Fractions
In several of the phase transformation models in COMSOL Multiphysics, a model
d
parameter is the equilibrium phase fraction of the destination (forming) phase, ξ eq .
When a hypoeutectoid steel is cooled from an austenitic state, ferrite begins to form
when the temperature falls below Ae3.

Figure 3-6: A schematic Fe–C diagram and the points involved in calculating the
equilibrium phase fraction of ferrite.

In an Fe–C diagram (Figure 3-6), the equilibrium phase fraction of ferrite in this
austenite–ferrite two-phase region can be extracted using a simple lever rule as

α a -
ξ eq = ------------
a+b

Note that in using the lever rule, the ferrite region above the eutectoid
0
temperature Ae1 is taken to be a line from A e3 to the ferrite carbon
α
solubility, C max , at Ae1.

The formation of free ferrite below the eutectoid temperature Ae1 during quenching
can be included. COMSOL Multiphysics provides two models of the equilibrium
phase fraction of ferrite below the eutectoid temperature, see Hippchen and others
(Ref. 14) for a description. In one model, the equilibrium phase fraction of ferrite is
taken to be constant below Ae1, and equal to the equilibrium phase fraction at Ae1, see
Figure 3-7.

56 | CHAPTER 3: METAL PROCESSING THEORY

Figure 3-7: A schematic Fe–C diagram showing how the lever rule is used above and below
eutectoid temperature. On the left, a constant equilibrium phase fraction of ferrite below
the eutectoid. On the right, the Hultgren extrapolation is used.

In the other model, the equilibrium phase fraction of ferrite is computed by

considering a modified Fe–C diagram. The Acm line in the Fe–C diagram is
extrapolated according to Hultgren (Ref. 15). The lever rule is employed using this
extrapolated line to compute the equilibrium phase fraction, see Figure 3-7. The
equilibrium phase fraction of ferrite below the eutectoid temperature in the two
models can be expressed as

α c -
ξ eq = -----------
c+d

Note that in using the lever rule, the ferrite region below the eutectoid
α
temperature Ae1 is taken to be a line from T 0 to the ferrite carbon
α
solubility, C max , at Ae1.

To model the formation of pearlite and bainite below the eutectoid temperature, the
corresponding equilibrium phase fractions are taken to be

p b α
ξ eq = ξ eq = 1 – ξ eq

Hardness
Maynier and others (Ref. 13) have proposed a method for estimating the Vickers
hardness (HV) based on the chemical composition of a steel, together with the final
phase composition and the cooling rate during quenching. The HV hardness is

METALLURGICAL PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS | 57

 calculated as a dimensionless number, although in its original definition, the unit is
kgf/mm2. The hardness number is given by a phase fraction weighted sum of the
hardnesses of the individual metallurgical phases.

f p f+p b b m m
HV = ( ξ + ξ )HV + ξ HV + ξ HV

where the superscripts f, p, b, and m denote ferrite, pearlite, bainite, and martensite,
respectively. The hardnesses of the individual phases are given by

f+p
HV = 42 + 223C + 53Si + 30Mn + 12.6Ni + 7Cr + 19Mo
+ ( 10 – 19Si + 4Ni + 8Cr + 130V ) log V r

b
HV = – 323 + 185C + 330Si + 153Mn + 65Ni + 144Cr + 191Mo
+ ( 89 + 53C – 55Si – 22Mn – 10Ni – 20Cr – 33Mo ) log V r

m
HV = 127 + 949C + 27Si + 11Mn + 8Ni + 16Cr + 21 log V r

where the hardnesses of ferrite and pearlite are taken to be equal. In the expressions
above, the term Vr is the cooling rate, expressed in K/h, as the temperature passes 700
degrees Celsius during cooling, and C, Si, Ni, and so forth, are the weight percentages
of the respective alloying elements.

58 | CHAPTER 3: METAL PROCESSING THEORY

Compound Material Properties
The material consists of a mixture of metallurgical phases, each with a phase fraction
that is evolving during the analysis. When the Metal Processing Module is used
together with the Heat Transfer in Solids and Solid Mechanics interfaces, it is of
interest to compute effective material properties so that a compound material can be
defined and used by these physics interfaces. This chapter describes how various
thermal and mechanical properties are averaged in terms of the phase fractions of the
material.

Heat Transfer Properties

The thermal conductivity and mass density of the compound material are computed
using linear weighting by the phase fractions. The properties are given by

ξk
i i
k =
i=1

ξρ
i i
ρ =
i=1

The thermal conductivity of the compound material uses a full tensor description. The
heat capacity at constant pressure is computed by using a linear weighting of the
volumetric heat capacity ρCp, having already computed ρ:

N
1
 ξ ρ Cp ¨
i i i
C p = ---
ρ
i=1

If geometric nonlinearity is used, k and ρCp are convected to the spatial

frame in the Heat Transfer in Solids physics interface.

COMPOUND MATERIAL PROPERTIES | 59

 Electromagnetic Properties
The relative permeability, the electrical conductivity, and the relative permittivity for
the compound material are computed using a linear weighting by the phase fractions.
The properties are given by

 ξ μr
i i
μr = (3-23)
i=1

ξσ
i i
σ = (3-24)
i=1

 ξ εr
i i
εr = (3-25)
i=1

The electromagnetic properties for the compound material use a full tensor
description.

Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties for the compound material are generally computed using
linear weighting by the phase fractions. The exception is in the case where phase
plasticity is modeled, where other types of weighting schemes can be used for the initial
yield strength of the compound material.

ELASTICITY
The elastic behavior of the compound material is assumed to be isotropic and defined
by a linear weighting of the Young’s moduli and Poisson’s ratios of the phases. This is
reasonable because the elastic properties for the different phases are similar at a given
temperature.

ξE
i i
E =
i=1

60 | CHAPTER 3: METAL PROCESSING THEORY

 N

ξν
i i
ν =
i=1

PLASTICITY
It is not obvious what weighting scheme should be used to define an effective initial
yield strength because the initial yield strengths of the phases will differ. The following
weighting scheme is used:

 gi ( ξ )σys0
i i
σ ys0 =
i=1

The simplest model for the initial yield strength of the compound material uses a linear
weighting

i i
gi ( ξ ) = ξ

This scheme is reasonable when the initial yield strengths are similar. However, it is
well known that the yield strength of some metallurgical phases can differ significantly.
Most notably, martensite is typically an order of magnitude harder than austenite, and
a linear mixture rule is unsuitable. Geijselaers (Ref. 7) developed a weighting scheme
that is suitable in this situation. In this model, it is assumed that the hardest phase is
considerably harder than the softest phase. Assuming that the hard phase is m and the
soft phase is γ, the Geijselaers weighting scheme is given by


i  ξi , i ≠ m
gi ( ξ ) = 
 f ( ξ i ), i=m
 i

with

m m m m 2
f m ( ξ ) = ξ ( C + 2 ( 1 – C )ξ – ( 1 – C ) ( ξ ) )

γ
σ ys0
C = 1.383 -----------
m
σ ys0

The hardening function for the compound material is defined using the linear
weighting

COMPOUND MATERIAL PROPERTIES | 61

 N

 ξ σh ( εpe )
i i i
σh = (3-26)
i=1
i
where ε pe is the equivalent plastic strain of the phase.

EQUIVALENT PLASTIC STRAINS

In Equation 3-26, the hardening function for each individual phase depends on
equivalent plastic strain. If we denote the equivalent plastic strain of the compound
i
material ε pe , we must define how the equivalent of each phase ε pe evolves with this
strain. The simplest assumption is to use the evolution equation

·i ·
ε pe = ε pe

which is to say that the equivalent plastic strain of phase i follows that of the compound
material. If phase transformation and mechanical straining occur simultaneously, the
equivalent plastic strain of the diminishing source phase of the phase transformation
can be taken to follow that of the compound material, and this is the behavior in the
phase transformation physics interfaces. However, for a phase which is increasing in
fraction during plastic straining, this assumption is questionable. Leblond (Ref. 6)
derived an evolution equation for the equivalent plastic strain, which is suitable for the
forming destination phase. The evolution equations for the source and destination
phases are

·s ·
ε pe = ε pe

·d
·d · ξ d s
ε pe = ε pe – -----d ( ε pe – Θ s → d ε pe )
ξ

where the plasticity memory coefficient Θ s → d was introduced to model that some
plastic straining present in the source phase at the instant of transformation will be
carried over to the forming destination phase. A zero plasticity memory coefficient
means that no plastic straining will be remembered.

62 | CHAPTER 3: METAL PROCESSING THEORY

Phase Transformation Strains
We consider two types of strains that appear during a thermal transient involving
metallurgical phase transformations. These strains originate from:

• Thermal expansion
• Transformation induced plasticity (TRIP)

Other inelastic strains may also be present during a thermal transient, such as plastic
strains or creep strains.

Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion for the compound material is given by a phase fraction weighted
sum of the thermal expansion of each phase:

 ξ εth
i i
ε th =
i=1

It is well known that different metallurgical phases occupy different volumes at a given
temperature. For example, when austenite transforms into martensite, the thermal
contraction due to cooling is accompanied by a volumetric expansion when the
martensite begins to form. Consider a simple case where phase 1 transforms into phase
2. In 1D, and using a secant definition of the thermal expansion coefficient, the
thermal strain is

I I I II II II
ε th = ξ α ( T ) ( T – T ref ) + ξ α ( T ) ( T – T ref )

where α(T) and Tref are the secant coefficient of thermal expansion and strain volume
reference temperature, for the respective phases I and II. Figure 3-8 shows the thermal
strain. For simplicity, the coefficients of thermal expansion for the two phases in the
figure are constant (but different). In the figure, a fictitious phase transformation has
been used to illustrate when phase I transforms completely into phase II as the
temperature is lowered. No separate volumetric term is required to model this type of
phase transformation strain, as it is included in the definition of the thermal expansion
itself.

PHASE TRANSFORMATION STRAINS | 63

 Figure 3-8: Thermal strain during phase transformation.

Transformation-Induced Plasticity
Plastic strains in metals result from deviatoric stresses that exceed the yield strength of
the material. However, during phase transformations, inelastic strains may appear
already at very small stress levels. This transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) is
therefore different from classical plasticity in that it does not involve a yield criterion
and that it appears at stress levels that would otherwise be insufficient to cause plastic
straining even in the softest of the phases. A description of TRIP strain rate, common
in the literature (see, for example, Ref. 3), is

d
· 3 TRIP dΦ ( ξ -) · d
ε tp, s → d = --- K s → d ⋅ ------------------ ξ ⋅ dev ( S )
2 dξ
d

where the strain rate is proportional to the deviatoric part of the second Piola–
Kirchhoff stress tensor S through the transformation induced plasticity parameter
TRIP
K s → d , the derivative of the saturation function Φ(ξd), and the rate of the destination
·d TRIP
phase ξ . Values for the transformation-induced plasticity parameter K s → d will
depend on the type of phase transformation. It can depend on, for example, carbon
content and temperature (see Ref. 4). Several propositions exist for the saturation

64 | CHAPTER 3: METAL PROCESSING THEORY

functions; see Table 3-1 and Ref. 9. Through the user-defined option, you can define
the derivative of the saturation function.
TABLE 3-1: SATURATION FUNCTIONS FOR THE TRIP STRAIN RATE.

TYPE EXPRESSION

Abrassart d d
ξ (3 – 2 ξ )

Desalos ξd(2-ξd)
Leblond ξd(1 − lnξd)) for ξd > 0.03,
zero otherwise
Tanaka ξd

The total TRIP strain rate is given by

· ·
ε tp =  εtp, s → d
s→d

Total Strain Contribution

When thermal and TRIP strains are computed, they can be used in a Solid Mechanics
interface as an inelastic strain contribution. The contributions from thermal and TRIP
strains are added to form a total strain contribution. In the Solid Mechanics interface,
this contribution is used additively in the case of an additive strain definition or used
to form an inelastic-deformation-gradient contribution in the case of geometric
nonlinearity with nonlinear strains; see Inelastic Strain Contributions. In the latter
case, the contribution is used multiplicatively.

PHASE TRANSFORMATION STRAINS | 65

 Phase Transformation Latent Heat
The heat rate Q0 that is released during a phase transformation is characterized by the
enthalpy per unit volume ΔH s → d (see Ref. 4). The heat rate that is associated with
the transformation of a source phase into a destination phase can be expressed as

·d
Q 0 = ΔH s → d ξ (3-27)

The heat rates that result from each phase transformation are added, and they can be
used as a heat source when solving the heat equation. A weak contribution is added to
the weak form of the heat equation:

ˆ δ(T)
Q 0

where Qˆ is the sum of the contributions Q from each phase transformation

0 0
(Equation 3-27), and T is the temperature degree of freedom used in the Heat
Transfer in Solids interface.

66 | CHAPTER 3: METAL PROCESSING THEORY

C a r bur i z a ti o n
Carburization is a heat treatment process where a component is placed in a carbon rich
atmosphere, at an elevated temperature. During the process, carbon diffuses into the
surface of the component, and the carbon concentration in the component changes
with time as carbon continues to diffuse to the interior. The process of carburization
is modeled using Fick’s second law of diffusion. The carbon concentration c during
carburization depends on position and time as c = c(X,t), where X denotes material
coordinates, and t is time. The carbon concentration represents the mass fraction of
carbon, and it is thus dimensionless. The carbon concentration is governed by the
following equation:

∂----c- + ∇ ⋅ ( – D ∇c ) = 0
∂t

where D is the diffusion coefficient, or diffusivity. The diffusivity can be specified

directly, or it can be modeled using an Arrhenius expression of the form

Q D
D = D 0 exp  – --------
 RT

where D0 is a pre-exponential factor, QD is an activation energy, and R is the gas

constant.

Carbon Potential Model

During carburization, the carbon rich atmosphere can be changed over time to
produce a desired carbon profile near the surface of the component. In COMSOL
Multiphysics, you can specify the carbon potential cpot of the surrounding atmosphere
as a function of time, or you can use a boost-diffuse cycle (Figure 3-9). For the
boost-diffuse cycle, the carbon potential is defined by


 c , t ≤ t boost
c pot =  boost
 diffuse ,
c t > t boost


CARBURIZATION | 67
 Figure 3-9: The Boost-diffuse cycle.

Boundary Conditions
When a component is subjected to an environment of different carbon concentration,
carbon can diffuse into or out from its surface. This mass transfer can be modeled in
two ways:

• A prescribed carbon flux (a Neumann condition): Carbon mass transfer is modeled

using a convection boundary condition
• A prescribed carbon concentration (a Dirichlet condition): Carbon mass transfer is
enabled by means of a prescribed value on the surface

A special case of prescribed carbon flux is the case of zero carbon flux.

PRESCRIBED CARBON FLUX

The convective mass transfer of carbon from the environment into a surface with
outward normal n is given by

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c ) = b ⋅ ( c ext – c )

where b is the mass transfer coefficient, and cext is the carbon concentration of the
exterior. A natural way to define the carbon concentration of the exterior is to take it
as equal to the carbon potential cpot of the surrounding carburizing atmosphere. The
mass transfer coefficient can be specified directly, or defined as thermally activated

68 | CHAPTER 3: METAL PROCESSING THEORY

 Qb 
b = b 0 exp  – --------
 RT

where b0 is a pre-exponential factor and Qb is an activation energy. In a given situation,

these quantities would have to be estimated or measured experimentally.

PRESCRIBED CARBON CONCENTRATION

A simple way to model the carbon exchange is to simply prescribe the carbon
concentration at the surface of the component to be equal to the carbon concentration
of the exterior. This modeling approach avoids having to characterize the carbon mass
transfer, but it may instead exaggerate it because the surface will be saturated.

CARBURIZATION | 69
 References
1. J.B. Leblond and J.C. Devaux, “A new kinetic model for anisothermal metallurgical
phase transformations in steels including effect of austenite grain size,” Acta Metall.,
vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 137–146, 1984.

2. D.P. Koistinen and R.E. Marburger, “A general equation prescribing the extent of
the austenite-martensite transformation in pure iron-carbon alloys and plain carbon
steels,” Acta Metall., vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 59–60, 1959.

3. J.B. Leblond, G. Mottet, J. Devaux, and J.C. Devaux, “Mathematical models of

anisothermal phase transformations in steels, and predicted plastic behaviour,” Mat.
Sci. Tech., vol. 1, no. 10, pp. 815–822, 1985.

4. B. Liscic, H.M. Tensi, L.C.F. Canale, and G.E. Totten (Eds.), Quenching theory
and technology, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2010.

5. J.B. Leblond, J. Devaux, and J.C. Devaux, “Mathematical modelling of

transformation plasticity in steels I: Case of ideal-plastic phases,” Int. J. Plast., vol. 5,
pp. 551–572, 1989.

6. J.B. Leblond, “Mathematical modelling of transformation plasticity in steels II:

Coupling with strain hardening phenomena,” Int. J. Plast., vol. 5, pp. 573–591,
1989.

7. H.J.M. Geijselaers, Numerical simulation of stresses due to solid state

transformations: The simulation of laser hardening, doctoral dissertation, Univ. of
Twente, Enschede, 2003.

8. J. Gyhlesten Back, Modelling and characterisation of the martensite formation in

low-alloyed carbon steels, licentiate thesis, Luleå Univ. of Technology, Luleå, 2017.

9. S. Boettcher, M. Böhm, and M. Wolff, A comprehensive model of

thermo-elasto-plasticity with phase transitions in steel, Zentrum für
Technomathematik, Universität Bremen, 2013.

10. J.S. Kirkaldy and D. Venugopalan, Phase Transformations in Ferrous Alloys, Am,
Inst. Min. Engg., Philadelphia, Pa 1984.

11. K.W. Andrews, “Empirical formulae for the calculation of some transformation
temperatures,” J. Iron Steel Inst., vol. 203, pp. 721–727, 1965.

70 | CHAPTER 3: METAL PROCESSING THEORY

12. W. Steven and A.G. Haynes, “The temperature of formation of martensite and
bainite in low-alloy steels,” J. Iron Steel Inst., vol. 183, pp. 349–359, 1956.

13. P. Maynier, B. Jungmann, and J. Dollet, Hardenability concepts with applications

to steels, eds. D.V. Doane and J.S. Kirkaldy, The Metallurgical Society of AIME,
Warrendale, PA, pp. 518–545, 1978.

14. P. Hippchen, A. Lipp, H. Grass, P. Craighero, M. Fleischer, and M. Merklein,

Modelling kinetics of phase transformation for the indirect hor stamping process to
focus on car body parts with tailored properties, J. Mat. Proc. Techn., vol. 228, pp.
59–67, 2016.

15. A. Hultgren, ‘Diskussion über “The physics of Hardenability” von R.F. Mehl,’
Hardenability of Alloy Steels, pp. 55–56, 1938 (in German).

REFERENCES | 71
72 | CHAPTER 3: METAL PROCESSING THEORY
 4

Metal Phase Transformation

This chapter describes the Metal Phase Transformation Interface ( ) and its
functionality. It is found under the Heat Transfer>Metal Processing branch ( )
when adding a physics interface.

73
 The Metal Phase Transformation
Interface
The Metal Phase Transformation interface ( ) is found under the Heat Transfer>Metal
Processing ( ) branch when adding a physics interface. The physics interface is
intended for studying metallurgical phase transformations. You can use this interface
to study diffusional, displacive, and user-defined (solid state) phase transformations.
Physical phenomena, such as latent heat of phase transformation and transformation
strains, can be computed and used in Heat Transfer in Solids and Solid Mechanics.
With the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module or the Geomechanics Module, plastic
strains and hardening behavior of each metallurgical phase can be used in Solid
Mechanics. Different sections of the Settings panel will be active depending on the
space dimension that the interface is used in, see Table 4-1.
TABLE 4-1: PHYSICS INTERFACE SECTIONS.

SECTION AVAILABILITY

Material Properties 1D, 1D axisymmetric, 2D, 2D axisymmetric, 3D

Heat Transfer 1D, 1D axisymmetric, 2D, 2D axisymmetric, 3D
Temperature 0D
Solid Mechanics 1D, 1D axisymmetric, 2D, 2D axisymmetric, 3D
Advanced 0D, 1D, 1D axisymmetric, 2D, 2D axisymmetric, 3D
Discretization 1D, 1D axisymmetric, 2D, 2D axisymmetric, 3D

When the Metal Phase Transformation interface is added, three nodes are also added
to the Model Builder — two Metallurgical Phase nodes and one Phase Transformation
node. The phase transformation node will be set to use the two metallurgical phases as
source and destination phases, respectively. From the Physics toolbar, you can add
additional metallurgical phases and phase transformations. You can also right-click
Metal Phase Transformation to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to

74 | CHAPTER 4: METAL PHASE TRANSFORMATION

different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is metp.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
You have the option of letting the physics interface compute effective thermal,
electromagnetic, and mechanical material properties, based on the corresponding
properties and fractions of the individual metallurgical phases. Select the Compute
effective thermal properties check box to let the physics interface compute effective
thermal properties. Select the Compute effective electromagnetic properties check box
to let the physics interface compute effective electromagnetic properties. Select the
Compute effective mechanical properties check box to let the physics interface compute
effective mechanical properties. You can use the computed effective material properties
to create a compound material that can be used in other physics interfaces as a domain
material. Select the Create Compound Material to create a compound material. This
material is created at the component level.

A compound material that is generated from an Austenite Decomposition

interface (audc) will be given the tag audcmat.

HEAT TRANSFER
Phase transformations are inherently temperature dependent. Select the temperature
field to use from the Temperature list. If you want to consider the release or absorption
of latent heat during phase transformations, select the Enable phase transformation
latent heat check box. You can then define values for the latent heat at each of the phase
transformation nodes. By default, the check box is not selected.

TEMPERATURE
Phase transformations are inherently temperature dependent. Enter an expression for
the temperature to use.

The two sections Heat Transfer and Temperature are mutually exclusive,
and which one is active is determined by the space dimension.

THE METAL PHASE TRANSFORMATION INTERFACE | 75

 SOLID MECHANICS
This section contains settings that affect various strains that accompany phase
transformations. Select the Enable transformation-induced plasticity check box if you
want to include this type of transformation strain in your analysis. The Enable thermal
strains and Enable phase plasticity check boxes are visible only if you have selected the
Compute effective mechanical properties check box in the Material Properties section.
Select Enable thermal strains if you want to include thermal strains in your analysis.
Note that the thermal strains will include both pure thermal strains as well as strains
that arise from volumetric differences between different metallurgical phases. Select
the Enable phase plasticity check box if you want to allow for plasticity in the individual
phases. By default, none of the three check boxes in this section are selected.

ADVANCED
By default, bounds for computed phase fractions and their sum, are checked during a
simulation. If you select Advanced Physics Options, the Advanced section is used to
modify the bounds that are used, or to disable the bounds checking altogether. When
you have selected Check phase fraction bounds, you can modify the:

• Maximum phase fraction sum, which defines the numerical upper bound for the phase
fraction sum.
• Minimum phase fraction sum, which defines the numerical lower bound for the phase
fraction sum.
• Minimum phase fraction, which defines the numerical lower bound for each phase
fraction, individually.

Normally, you should let COMSOL Multiphysics perform bounds

checking of the computed phase fractions. Modify the default bounds
with care, to ensure a valid solution. Disabling the bounds checking
altogether can be useful during model development, for example when
implementing your own phase transformation model.

76 | CHAPTER 4: METAL PHASE TRANSFORMATION

DISCRETIZATION
The discretization for phase fractions is set using the Discretization for phase fractions
list. By default, Linear is selected.

Note that when you set the Discretization for phase fractions to Gauss
point data, spatial gradients of the phase fractions will not available. This
can be relevant in other physics interfaces, should the gradients of phase
fractions be required.

Metallurgical Phase
The Metallurgical Phase node defines a phase. Depending on the settings at the physics
interface level and the space dimension where the physics interface is used, the phase
node will contain different sections, see Table 4-2.
TABLE 4-2: METALLURGICAL PHASE SECTIONS.

SECTION AVAILABILITY

Model Input 1D, 1D axisymmetric, 2D, 2D axisymmetric, 3D

Initial Phase Fraction 0D, 1D, 1D axisymmetric, 2D, 2D axisymmetric, 3D
Transformation Times 0D
Phase Material 1D, 1D axisymmetric, 2D, 2D axisymmetric, 3D
Heat Transfer Properties 1D, 1D axisymmetric, 2D, 2D axisymmetric, 3D
Electromagnetic Properties 2D, 2D axisymmetric, 3D
Mechanical Properties 1D, 1D axisymmetric, 2D, 2D axisymmetric, 3D

MODEL INPUT
Provide the Volume reference temperature Tref for the phase. This is the temperature at
which the thermal strain is zero for the phase.

THE METAL PHASE TRANSFORMATION INTERFACE | 77

 INITIAL PHASE FRACTION
Define the Initial phase fraction for the phase. This fraction should be a value between
zero and one, and you have to ensure that the initial phase fractions for all the phases
in your analysis sum to one.

• The initial fractions for the metallurgical phases are named

metp.phase1.xi0, metp.phase2.xi0, and so on.

• The current phase fractions are correspondingly named

metp.phase1.xi and metp.phase2.xi.

TRANSFORMATION TIMES
If you select Compute transformation times, you can store the times t̂ and temperatures
Tˆ during an analysis, corresponding to reaching specified target phase fractions. Enter
a list of Target phase fractions ξ̂ in the table. Whether transformation times and
temperatures are recorded depends on if the phase fraction is increasing or decreasing
during the analysis. Select Decreasing phase fraction if the phase fraction is expected to
reach the specified target values when it is decreasing. With Compute transformation
times selected, and in the case a phase fraction is increasing over time, you can select
Compute time to completion. Enter the Completion rate, that is, a rate of phase
formation low enough that the formation of the phase can be considered complete.

If the second Target phase fraction in the table is reached for a

Metallurgical Phase (phase4) in an Austenite Decomposition interface
(audc), the corresponding transformation time and temperature will be
audc.phase4.time_2 and audc.phase4.temperature_2.

PHASE MATERIAL
From the Phase material list, you select the material that defines the material properties
for the phase. This section is visible only if at least one of the Compute effective thermal
properties or the Compute effective mechanical properties check boxes has been selected
at the physics interface level. You can create a material at the component level by using

78 | CHAPTER 4: METAL PHASE TRANSFORMATION

Create Phase Material. When you define material properties for the phase, From material
will refer to the material that you have selected from the Phase material list.

A phase material that is generated from a Metallurgical Phase (phase2) in

an Austenite Decomposition interface (audc) will be given the tag
audcphase2mat.

HEAT TRANSFER PROPERTIES

If the Compute effective thermal properties has been selected at the physics interface
level, you must define the thermal properties for the phase. The default Thermal
conductivity k, Density ρ, and Heat Capacity at constant pressure Cp, use values From
material. The From material option refers to the selected material from the Phase
Material list. For User defined, enter values or expressions for these properties.

ELECTROMAGNETIC PROPERTIES
If the Compute effective electromagnetic properties has been selected at the physics
interface level, you must define electromagnetic properties for the phase. The default
Relative permeability μr, Electrical conductivity σ, and Relative permittivity εr, use values
From material. The From material option refers to the selected material from the Phase
Material list. For User defined, enter values or expressions for these properties.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
If the Compute effective mechanical properties has been selected at the physics interface
level, you must define mechanical properties for the phase. The default Young’s
modulus E and Poisson’s ratio ν use values From material. For User defined, enter values
or expressions for these properties.

If Enable thermal strains has been selected at the physics interface level, you have to
define the Secant coefficient of thermal expansion α for the phase. By default, the value
is taken From material. For User defined, enter a value or expression.

If Enable phase plasticity has been selected at the physics interface level, you have to
define the plastic behavior of the phase. The default Initial yield stress σys0 uses a value
From material. For User defined, enter another value or expression for initial yield stress.
Initial yield stresses for phases can be weighted differently. This is useful when initial
yield stresses for the phases in the model are very different. Select a Weight factor for
yield stress — Linear, Geijselaers, or User defined. If Geijselaers is selected, you also need
to specify a Soft phase, which is considered plastically soft in comparison to this phase.

THE METAL PHASE TRANSFORMATION INTERFACE | 79

 You should typically use this to give a stronger weight to martensite (hard) in relation
to austenite (soft).

Select the Isotropic hardening model — Perfectly plastic, Linear, or User defined to define
the hardening behavior of the phase.

Linear
Specify the Isotropic hardening modulus ETiso. The default value is taken From material.

User defined
For User defined, enter another value or expression for the modulus. If a User defined
isotropic hardening modulus is selected, you have to select the Hardening function. By
default, the value is taken From material.

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the hardening function. The expression
can depend, for example, on the equivalent plastic strain in the phase.

In a phase (phase4) of an Austenite Decomposition interface (audc), the

equivalent plastic strain is audc.phase4.epe.

Phase Transformation
Depending on the settings at the physics interface level and the space dimension where
the physics interface is used, the phase transformation node will contain different
sections.

PHASE TRANSFORMATION
The phase transformation defines how one phase forms (the destination phase) at the
expense of another (the source phase). Select Source phase ξs and Destination phase ξd
from the list of defined phases. Select a Phase transformation model — Leblond–Devaux,
Johnson–Mehl–Avrami–Kolmogorov, Kirkaldy–Venugopalan, Koistinen–Marburger,
Hyperbolic rate, or User defined.

Leblond–Devaux
Select a Formulation — Time and equilibrium, General coefficients, TTT diagram data, or
Parameterized TTT diagram.
d
• For Time and equilibrium, select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq from the list. For
d
User defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . Specify a Time constant τs → d.

80 | CHAPTER 4: METAL PHASE TRANSFORMATION

• For General coefficients, specify the expressions for Ks → d and Ls → d. For TTT
d
diagram data, select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq from the list. For User defined,
d
specify an expression for ξ eq . Specify the Relative phase fraction X1, and the
Transformation time t1.
d
• For Parameterized TTT diagram, select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq from the list.
d
For User defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . Specify the Relative phase fraction
X1. In the TTT Curve 1 section, specify the transformation times tL, tN, and tU
corresponding to points on the lower part, the “nose”, and the upper part of the
TTT curve at the relative phase fraction X1. Specify the corresponding
transformation temperatures TL, TN, and TU, and the TTT curve shape parameters
qNL and qNU.

If applicable, select Define temperature limits, and select the Lower temperature limit Tl
and the Upper temperature limit Tu from the respective lists. For the User defined
options, specify, respectively, expressions for Tl and Tu.

The Equilibrium phase fraction, Lower temperature limit, and Upper

temperature limit lists used by phase transformation nodes are populated
by values calculated by the Steel Composition node.

Johnson–Mehl–Avrami–Kolmogorov
Select a Formulation — Time, equilibrium and exponent, TTT diagram data, TTT diagram
data, fixed exponent, Parameterized TTT diagram, or Parameterized TTT diagram, fixed
exponent.
d
• For Time, equilibrium and exponent, select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq from the
d
list. For User defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . Specify the Time constant τs → d,
and the Avrami exponent ns → d.
d
• For TTT diagram data, select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq from the list. For User
d
defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . Specify the Relative phase fraction X1, the
Transformation time t1, the Relative phase fraction X2, and the Transformation time t2.
d
• For TTT diagram data, fixed exponent, select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq from
d
the list. For User defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . Specify the Avrami exponent
ns → d, the Relative phase fraction X1, and the Transformation time t1.
d
• For Parameterized TTT diagram, select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq from the list.
d
For User defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . Specify the Relative phase fraction
X1, and the Relative phase fraction X2. In the TTT Curve 1 section, specify the
transformation times tL, tN, and tU corresponding to points on the lower part, the

THE METAL PHASE TRANSFORMATION INTERFACE | 81

 “nose”, and the upper part of the TTT curve at the Relative phase fraction X1.
Specify the corresponding transformation temperatures TL, TN, and TU, and the
TTT curve shape parameters qNL and qNU. In the TTT Curve 2 section, specify the
parameters for the TTT curve at the Relative phase fraction X2.
• For Parameterized TTT diagram, fixed exponent, select an Equilibrium phase fraction
d d
ξ eq from the list. For User defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . Specify the Avrami
exponent ns → d, and the Relative phase fraction X1. In the TTT Curve 1 section,
specify the transformation times tL, tN, and tU corresponding to points on the lower
part, the “nose”, and the upper part of the TTT curve at the Relative phase fraction
X1. Specify the corresponding transformation temperatures TL, TN, and TU, and
the TTT curve shape parameters qNL and qNU.

If the rate term in the phase transformation model is to account for a nonzero initial
phase fraction of the source phase, select Include effect of initial phase fraction. If
applicable, select Define temperature limits, and select the Lower temperature limit Tl
and the Upper temperature limit Tu from the respective lists. For the User defined
options, specify, respectively, expressions for Tl and Tu.

Kirkaldy–Venugopalan
Select a Formulation — Rate coefficient, TTT diagram data, or Parameterized TTT diagram.
d
• For Rate coefficient, select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq from the list. For User
d ·d
defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . Specify the Reference rate ξ 0 .
d
• For TTT diagram data, select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq from the list. For User
d
defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . Specify the Relative phase fraction X1, and the
Transformation time t1.
d
• For Parameterized TTT diagram, select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq from the list.
d
For User defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . Specify the Relative phase fraction
X1. In the TTT Curve 1 section, specify the transformation times tL, tN, and tU
corresponding to points on the lower part, the “nose”, and the upper part of the
TTT curve at the relative phase fraction X1. Specify the corresponding
transformation temperatures TL, TN, and TU, and the TTT curve shape parameters
qNL and qNU.

The rate term can be modified from its original form. If applicable, select Include
retardation term, and specify the Retardation coefficient Cr. If applicable, select Define
temperature limits, and select the Lower temperature limit Tl and the Upper temperature
limit Tu from the respective lists. For the User defined options, specify, respectively,
expressions for Tl and Tu.

82 | CHAPTER 4: METAL PHASE TRANSFORMATION

Koistinen–Marburger
Select a Formulation — Koistinen–Marburger coefficient or Martensite finish temperature.

• For Koistinen–Marburger coefficient, specify the Martensite start temperature Ms and

the Koistinen–Marburger coefficient β.
• For Martensite finish temperature, specify the Martensite start temperature Ms and
the Martensite finish temperature M90.

Hyperbolic rate
d
Specify the Hyperbolic rate constant Ps → d and select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq
d
from the list. For User defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . If applicable, select Define
temperature limits, and select the Lower temperature limit Tl and the Upper temperature
limit Tu from the respective lists. For the User defined options, specify, respectively,
expressions for Tl and Tu.

User defined
Specify the Phase transformation contribution As → d. The expression defines the rate at
which the destination phase forms, at the expense of the source phase.

If applicable, select Define temperature limits, and select the Lower temperature limit Tl
and the Upper temperature limit Tu from the respective lists. For the User defined
options, specify, respectively, expressions for Tl and Tu.

PHASE TRANSFORMATION LATENT HEAT

This section is active if you have selected Enable phase transformation latent heat at the
physics interface level. You can specify the latent heat ΔHs → d that is released during
the phase transformation.

PHASE TRANSFORMATION STRAIN

The Transformation induced plasticity check box is available if you have selected Enable
transformation induced plasticity at the physics interface level. In case of transformation
TRIP
induced plasticity, specify the Transformation induced plasticity parameter K s → d and
the Saturation function Φ.

The Plastic recovery for destination phase check box is available if the Enable thermal
strains has been selected at the physics interface level. If you have selected Plastic
recovery for destination phase, you can specify the Plastic memory coefficient Θs → d.

THE METAL PHASE TRANSFORMATION INTERFACE | 83

 The default value is zero, which means that no plastic straining in the source phase will
be carried over to the destination phase.

If you have selected Parameterized TTT Diagram or Parameterized TTT

Diagram, Fixed Exponent, you can visualize the TTT curve corresponding
to the entered parameters in the TTT curve 1 or TTT Curve 2 sections.

• Make a preview plot by selecting TTT curve preview.

• Generate a plot by selecting Create TTT curve plot.

ADVANCED
Numerical smoothing can be applied at temperatures that correspond to a sudden
activation or deactivation of the phase transformation. If you select Advanced Physics
Options, the Advanced section is used to assign smoothing:

• Transformation temperature smoothing, ΔT, in case you have used Define temperature
limits.
• Martensite start temperature smoothing, ΔMs, in the case of the Koistinen–Marburger
phase transformation model.

The smoothing parameters ΔT and ΔMs each defines a temperature span across which
the phase transformation rate term is smoothly ramped. In the limit of a zero
smoothing parameter value, the ramping reduces to a Heaviside step function.

Transformation Condition
One or several Transformation Condition subnodes can be added to a Phase
Transformation node. In the Transformation Condition subnode, specify a Boolean
expression c that has to be satisfied for the Phase Transformation to take place. For
example, if you have reason to prevent a phase transformation from occurring unless
the temperature rate is negative, the expression could look like:

metp.Tt<0[K/s]

84 | CHAPTER 4: METAL PHASE TRANSFORMATION

If several Transformation Condition subnodes are used, each separate condition has to
be satisfied for the Phase Transformation to take place.

In some situations, a Boolean expression c may be numerically

challenging. It can be beneficial to use smoothed transformation
condition. For example, a general Boolean expression a > b can be
replaced by a smoothed Heaviside function as

flc1hs(2*(a-b)/h, 1)

causing c to increase smoothly from zero to one, across an interval of

length h, centered at a = b.

Additional Source Phase

One or several Additional Source Phase subnodes can be added to a Phase Transformation
node. In the Additional Source Phase subnode, select a metallurgical phase that
contributes to the formation of the Destination phase defined in the Phase
Transformation node.

Steel Composition
The Steel Composition node is used to specify the chemical composition of a steel in
terms of weight percentages of its alloying elements. Different empirical relationships
are then used to establish characteristic transformation temperatures to be used in
phase transformation modeling. In addition, the equilibrium phase fractions of
metallurgical phases are computed as functions of temperature.

STEEL COMPOSITION
In the table Weight percent of alloying elements, specify the weight percentage (wt%) of
each alloying element. For example, type 0.4 for Carbon for a steel with 0.4 percent
carbon by weight (wt%).

DEFINITIONS
This section is used to specify the particular models used to compute composition
dependent phase transformation temperatures.

• Under Ae1 and Ae3 temperatures, specify how to model the Ae1 and Ae3 lines of an
iron–carbon (Fe–C) diagram. If Andrews is selected, (constant) Ae1 and (nonlinear)
Ae3 temperature lines are computed using empirical relationships based on the

THE METAL PHASE TRANSFORMATION INTERFACE | 85

 specified alloying content of the steel. If Parameterized is selected, (constant) Ae1
and (linear) Ae3 temperature lines are given in terms of three characteristic values.
γ
Specify the carbon concentration at the eutectoid, C eut , the Ae3 temperature at
0
zero carbon concentration, A e3 , and the Ae1 temperature.
• Under Bainite start temperatures, specify how to model the bainite start
temperature. Select Steven–Haynes Bs or Kirkaldy–Venugopalan Bs.
• Under Martensite start temperatures, specify how to model the martensite start
temperature. Select Andrews Ms or Steven–Haynes Ms.

Transformation Temperatures

Select Calculate equilibrium phase fractions to compute the equilibrium phase fraction
of ferrite, as well as equilibrium phase fractions for pearlite and bainite.

EQUILIBRIUM PHASE FRACTIONS

This section is available if Calculate equilibrium phase fractions has been selected. Specify
α
the maximum ferrite solubility (at the eutectoid temperature), C max . Under Ferrite
formation below the eutectoid, specify how ferrite is formed below the temperature Ae1.
Select None to set the ferrite equilibrium phase fraction to zero below the eutectoid (no
formation of free ferrite). Select Constant to set the ferrite equilibrium phase fraction
below the eutectoid equal to that at the eutectoid temperature. Select Hultgren
extrapolation to model the ferrite equilibrium phase fraction based on the linear
extrapolation method by Hultgren. For Hultgren extrapolation, specify the lowest
α
temperature of the ferrite region in the Fe–C diagram, T 0 , and the lowest temperature
for the formation of free ferrite, TC.

Equilibrium Phase Fractions

Hardness
The Hardness subnode is used to compute the Vickers hardness (HV) of steel, after
cooling from an austenitic state. One or several Hardness subnodes can be added to a
Steel Composition node. In the Hardness subnode, you select the metallurgical phases
that represent, respectively, ferrite, pearlite, bainite, and martensite. Based on this
information, the chemical composition of the steel defined in the parent Steel

86 | CHAPTER 4: METAL PHASE TRANSFORMATION

Composition node, and certain characteristics of the cooling transient, the hardness is
computed.

Hardness

THE METAL PHASE TRANSFORMATION INTERFACE | 87

88 | CHAPTER 4: METAL PHASE TRANSFORMATION
 5

Austenite Decomposition

This chapter describes the Austenite Decomposition Interface ( ) and its

functionality. It is found under the Heat Transfer>Metal Processing branch ( )
when adding a physics interface.

89
 The Austenite Decomposition
Interface
The Austenite Decomposition interface ( ) is found under the Heat Transfer>Metal
Processing ( ) branch when adding a physics interface. The physics interface is
intended for studying metallurgical phase transformations. You can use this interface
to study diffusional, displacive, and user-defined (solid-solid) phase transformations.
Physical phenomena, such as latent heat of phase transformation and transformation
strains can be computed and used in Heat Transfer in Solids and Solid Mechanics. With
the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module or the Geomechanics Module, plastic
strains and hardening behavior of each metallurgical phase can be used in Solid
Mechanics.

This interface is based on the Metal Phase Transformation interface. This chapter will
only describe the nodes and settings that set the Austenite Decomposition interface
apart from the Metal Phase Transformation interface. With regard to other settings at
the physics interface level and feature level, see The Metal Phase Transformation
Interface.

When the Austenite Decomposition interface is added, nine nodes are added to the
Model Builder — five Metallurgical Phase nodes and four Phase Transformation nodes.
The interface is tailored specifically to the decomposition of austenite into a
combination of ferrite, pearlite, bainite, and martensite. The phase nodes are given
names to reflect this:

• Austenite
• Ferrite
• Pearlite
• Bainite
• Martensite

The Initial Phase Fraction is set to one in the Austenite node, and zero in the other
metallurgical phase nodes. Four Phase Transformation nodes are also created to define
the relevant phase transformations:

• Austenite to Ferrite
• Austenite to Pearlite

90 | CHAPTER 5: AUSTENITE DECOMPOSITION

• Austenite to Bainite
• Austenite to Martensite

The source and destination phases in each phase transformation are set to the
corresponding phases that have been created. The Phase transformation model is set to
Leblond–Devaux with General coefficients, except in Austenite to Martensite, where it is
set to Koistinen–Marburger.

A Parameters node is automatically created under Global Definitions. This

node contains parameters for certain user inputs of the physics interface
nodes.

From the Physics toolbar, you can delete or disable metallurgical phases and phase
transformations that are irrelevant in a given situation, and you can add additional
metallurgical phases and phase transformations. You can also right-click Austenite
Decomposition to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is audc.

THE AUSTENITE DECOMPOSITION INTERFACE | 91

92 | CHAPTER 5: AUSTENITE DECOMPOSITION
 6

Alpha–Beta Phase Transformation

This chapter describes the Alpha–Beta Phase Transformation Interface ( ) and

its functionality. It is found under the Heat Transfer>Metal Processing branch ( )
when adding a physics interface.

93
 The Alpha–Beta Phase
Transformation Interface
The Alpha–Beta Phase Transformation interface ( ) is found under the Heat
Transfer>Metal Processing ( ) branch when adding a physics interface. The physics
interface is intended for studying metallurgical phase transformations in α–β titanium
alloys. You can use this interface to study diffusional, displacive, and user-defined
(solid-solid) phase transformations. Physical phenomena, such as latent heat of phase
transformation and transformation strains can be computed and used in Heat Transfer
in Solids and Solid Mechanics. With the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module or the
Geomechanics Module, plastic strains and hardening behavior of each metallurgical
phase can be used in Solid Mechanics.

This interface is based on the Metal Phase Transformation interface. This chapter will
only describe the nodes and settings that set the Alpha–Beta Phase Transformation
interface apart from the Metal Phase Transformation interface. With regard to other
settings at the physics interface level and feature level, see The Metal Phase
Transformation Interface.

When the Alpha–Beta Phase Transformation interface is added, several nodes are
added to the Model Builder — three Metallurgical Phase nodes and seven Phase
Transformation nodes. The interface is tailored specifically to the phase
transformations that can take place in α–β titanium alloys like Ti–6Al–4V. The Alpha–
Beta Phase Transformation interface defines three major phases, whose node names
are:

• Beta
• Widmanstätten Alpha
• Martensitic Alpha

Phase transformation modeling of α–β titanium alloys sometimes

includes an alpha phase that forms at the beta grain boundaries. This
alpha phase is omitted here, as it often exists in small fractions. Should this
level of modeling detail be warranted, additional metallurgical phase and
phase transformation nodes can be added to the interface.

94 | CHAPTER 6: ALPHA–BETA PHASE TRANSFORMATION

The Initial Phase Fraction is set to 0.11 in the Beta node, and 0.89 in the Widmanstätten
Alpha node. These initial phase fractions are approximate values corresponding to an
α–β titanium alloy like Ti–6Al–4V, at room temperature. Seven Phase Transformation
nodes are also created to define the relevant phase transformations:

• Beta to Widmanstätten Alpha. This phase transformation is active under isothermal

or cooling conditions, and it is active provided that the fraction of beta phase
exceeds its equilibrium value.
• Beta to Martensitic Alpha (Fast). This phase transformation is active under cooling
conditions, when the cooling rate exceeds a certain threshold rate, and below the
Martensite start temperature.
• Beta to Martensitic Alpha (Slow). This phase transformation is active under cooling
conditions, when the cooling rate is lower than the threshold rate mentioned above,
and below the Martensite start temperature. Under these conditions, the maximum
fraction of formed Martensitic alpha is limited by the equilibrium value of beta
phase.
• Alpha to Beta. This phase transformation is used to model the dissolution of
Widmanstätten and Martensitic alpha, into beta phase. It is active under heating
conditions, and when the temperature exceeds the so-called beta start temperature.
• Martensitic Alpha to Beta. This phase transformation represents the dissolution of
Martensitic alpha into beta phase. It is active at temperatures above the martensite
dissolution temperature. In this phase transformation, the beta phase strives toward
its equilibrium value.
• Martensitic Alpha to Widmanstätten Alpha. This phase transformation represents
the dissolution of Martensitic alpha into Widmanstätten alpha phase. It is active at
temperatures above the martensite dissolution temperature. In this phase
transformation, the Widmanstätten alpha phase strives toward its equilibrium value.
• Beta Re-Formation. This phase transformation represents a simplified description of
complete dissolution of alpha phase. It is active when the temperature exceeds the
beta transus.

A Parameters node is automatically created under Global Definitions. This

node contains parameters for certain user inputs of the physics interface
nodes. Generated parameters include default values for characteristic
transformation temperatures, for the Martensitic alpha rate threshold, etc.

THE ALPHA–BETA PHASE TRANSFORMATION INTERFACE | 95

 From the Physics toolbar, you can delete or disable metallurgical phases and phase
transformations that are irrelevant in a given situation, and you can add additional
metallurgical phases and phase transformations. You can also right-click Alpha–Beta
Phase Transformation to select physics features from the context menu.

For an example how to model phase transformation that occur during

welding of a titanium plate, see Welding of a Titanium Plate:
Application Library path
Metal_Processing_Module/Titanium_Phase_Transformations/welding_of_a_tit
anium_plate.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is abp.

96 | CHAPTER 6: ALPHA–BETA PHASE TRANSFORMATION

 7

Carburization

This chapter describes the Carburization interface ( ) and its functionality. It is

found under the Heat Transfer>Metal Processing branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface.

97
 T he C a r bur i z a t i on In t erface
The Carburization interface ( ) is found under the Heat Transfer>Metal Processing
( ) branch when adding a physics interface. The physics interface is intended for
modeling carburization processes during heat treatment. The carburization process is
based on diffusion, and it is used to compute the evolving mass fraction of carbon
when a component is exposed to a carbon rich atmosphere.

When the Carburization interface is added, three default nodes are added to the Model
Builder — a Carburization node, an Initial Values node, and a Zero Carbon Flux node.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is carb.

TEMPERATURE
Carbon diffusion is inherently temperature dependent. Select the temperature field to
use from the Temperature list.

CARBURIZING CYCLE
This section contains settings for the carburization process. Select the carbon potential
model to use from the Carbon potential model list. Select Boost-diffuse cycle if you want
to model a two-stage carburization process, where a boost stage is followed by a diffuse
stage. Define the Boost carbon potential cboost, the Diffuse carbon potential cdiffuse, and
the Boost period tboost. Select User defined if you want to use your own expression for
the carbon potential of the carburization process. Define the Carbon potential cpot.

Carburization
The Carburization node defines the carbon diffusion inside the domain.

98 | CHAPTER 7: CARBURIZATION
CARBON DIFFUSION
From the Diffusion coefficient list you select the diffusion coefficient that is used in the
diffusion equation. Select Arrhenius to define a thermally activated diffusion
coefficient. Define the Pre-exponential factor D0 and the Activation energy QD. Select
User defined to define the Diffusion coefficient D directly.

Carbon Flux
The Carbon Flux node is used to define the carbon exchange with the surrounding
carbon atmosphere (the exterior).

CARBON MASS TRANSFER

From the Carbon potential list, select the carbon potential of the exterior cext. Select
Carbon potential to use the carbon potential defined at the physics interface level. Select
User defined to define the carbon potential directly. From the Mass transfer coefficient
list, select the mass transfer coefficient to be used to define the carbon flux. Select
Arrhenius to define a thermally activated mass transfer coefficient. Define the
Pre-exponential factor b0 and the Activation energy Qb. Select User defined to define the
Mass transfer coefficient b directly.

Zero Carbon Flux

The Zero Carbon Flux node is used to define boundaries where no carbon exchange
takes place with the exterior.

Carbon Concentration
The Carbon Concentration node is used to specify the carbon concentration at an
exterior domain boundary.

CARBON CONCENTRATION
From the list, select the carbon concentration c0. Select Carbon potential to use the
carbon potential defined at the physics interface level. Select User defined to specify the
carbon concentration c0 directly.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node is used to specify the initial carbon concentration c.

THE CARBURIZATION INTERFACE | 99

100 | CHAPTER 7: CARBURIZATION
 8

Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings

The Metal Processing Module contains predefined multiphysics interfaces to

facilitate the coupling to Heat Transfer in Solids and Solid Mechanics interfaces.
The physics interfaces are found under the Heat Transfer>Metal Processing branch
( ) when adding a physics interface — Heat Transfer with Phase Transformations
and Steel Quenching. Two multiphysics coupling features — Phase Transformation
Latent Heat and Phase Transformation Strain, can be added to facilitate the coupling
to Heat Transfer in Solids and Solid Mechanics.

In this chapter:

• Heat Transfer with Phase Transformations

• Steel Quenching
• Phase Transformation Latent Heat Multiphysics Coupling
• Phase Transformation Strain Multiphysics Coupling

| 101
 Heat Transfer with Phase
Transformations
The Heat Transfer with Phase Transformations multiphysics interface ( ) combines a
Heat Transfer in Solids interface with a Metal Phase Transformation interface. When
the Heat Transfer with Phase Transformations multiphysics interface is added, the
multiphysics coupling Phase Transformation Latent Heat is included.

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

• The Heat Transfer in Solids interface is described in The Heat Transfer in Solids
Interface of the Heat Transfer Module User’s Guide.
• The Metal Phase Transformation interface is described in The Metal Phase
Transformation Interface chapter.

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

The Enable phase transformation latent heat check box is selected in the Metal Phase
Transformation interface.

102 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

Steel Quenching
The Steel Quenching multiphysics interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids
interface with an Austenite Decomposition interface and a Solid Mechanics interface.
When the Steel Quenching multiphysics interface is added, the Phase Transformation
Latent Heat and Phase Transformation Strain multiphysics couplings are included.

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

• The Heat Transfer in Solids interface is described in The Heat Transfer in Solids
Interface.
• The Austenite Decomposition interface is described in The Austenite
Decomposition Interface chapter.
• The Solid Mechanics interface is described in The Solid Mechanics Interface of the
Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide.

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

The following check boxes are selected in the Austenite Decomposition interface:

• Compute effective thermal properties

• Compute effective mechanical properties
• Enable phase transformation latent heat
• Enable transformation induced plasticity
• Enable thermal strains

The discretization for the temperature field in the Heat Transfer in Solids interface is
set to Linear, because thermal strains are typically linear in the Solid Mechanics
interface.

STEEL QUENCHING | 103

 Phase Transformation Latent Heat
Multiphysics Coupling
The Phase Transformation Latent Heat multiphysics coupling ( ) is used to add the
latent heat that is produced by a phase transformation physics interface as a heat source
term in the heat equation of the coupled Heat Transfer in Solids interface. When the
coupling is used, no separate Heat Source feature in the Heat Transfer interface is
required.

When the Phase Transformation Latent Heat multiphysics coupling is used,

the effect of latent heat should not be added as a Heat Source in the Heat
Transfer in Solids interface, as this incorrectly amounts to adding the
latent heat contribution twice.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is lht1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When the coupling is added, selected entities in the coupled Heat Transfer in Solids
and Metal Phase Transformation interfaces are included by default.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Metal Phase
Transformation and Heat Transfer lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

104 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

The default values depend on how the coupling node is created.

• If the node is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual
toolbar (Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics
interface of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it the node added automatically when a multiphysics interface is selected in the
Model Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces
are selected.

See also the Theory for Phase Transformation Latent Heat

PHASE TRANSFORMATION LATENT HEAT MULTIPHYSICS COUPLING | 105

 Phase Transformation Strain
Multiphysics Coupling
The Phase Transformation Strain multiphysics coupling ( ) is used to include phase
transformation strains that are produced by a phase transformation physics interface as
an inelastic strain contribution to the total strain in the Solid Mechanics interface.

Note that if Enable thermal strains has been selected at the Metal Phase
Transformation interface level, thermal strain effects are included in the
phase transformation strains. In this situation no Thermal Expansion
coupling should be used between Solid Mechanics and Heat Transfer in
Solids.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is ptstr1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When the coupling is added, selected entities in the coupled Solid Mechanics and
Metal Phase Transformation interfaces are included by default.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Metal Phase
Transformation and Solid Mechanics lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

106 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

The default values depend on how the coupling node is created.

• If the node is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual
toolbar (macOS and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics
interface of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it the node added automatically when a multiphysics interface is selected in the
Model Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces
are selected.

See also the Theory for Phase Transformation Strains

TIME STEPPING FOR STRAINS

This section is used to specify how TRIP strains and plastic strain recovery are
computed. Under Method, select Local ODEs or Domain ODEs. For Local ODEs, the TRIP
strains and the plastic recovery are computed using state variable based local Newton
iterations, and no additional degrees of freedom are added to the model. For Domain
ODEs, the TRIP strains and the plastic recovery are computed using domain level
ODEs, and corresponding degrees of freedom are added to the model.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Show
Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. The section is shown if
the selected Method under Time Stepping For Strains is Local ODEs. Normally these
settings do not need to be changed.

For the Local ODEs method, you can make the following settings:

• Maximum number of local iterations. This defines the maximum number of iterations
of the Newton loop when solving the local strain equations.
• Absolute tolerance. This defines the absolute tolerance for convergence of the local
strain equations. Convergence is judged based on the step size, that is, the size of
the Newton correction, of each equation.
• Relative tolerance. This defines the relative tolerance for convergence of the local
strain equations. Convergence is judged based on the step size, that is, the size of
the Newton correction, of each equation.

PHASE TRANSFORMATION STRAIN MULTIPHYSICS COUPLING | 107

 Annealing
The Annealing subnode to the Phase Transformation Strain multiphysics coupling is
used to specify an annealing temperature above which plastic hardening variables
(equivalent plastic strains) are set to zero.

ANNEALING
Specify the Annealing temperature, Ta.

• The Annealing subnode can only be used with the Local ODEs method
under Time Stepping for Strains of the parent multiphysics coupling.
• The Annealing subnode must be used in conjunction with Annealing
subnodes to Plasticity nodes of the coupled Solid Mechanics interface.
The selection of the former subnode must match the aggregate
selection of the latter.

108 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

I n d e x
A additional source phase (node) enable phase transformation latent heat
phase transformation 85 75
additional source phases 53 enable thermal strains 76
alpha-beta phase transformation inter- enable transformation induced plasticity
face 17 76
annealing 31
H hardness (node)
annealing (node) 108
steel composition 86
Application Libraries window 10
heat transfer properties 59
application library examples
heat transfer with phase transformations
carburization and quenching of a steel
interface 28
gear 29
phase transformations in a round bar I importing material properties 34

23 initial phase fraction 90, 95

transformation diagram computation initial values (node) 99

27, 96 internet resources 9

austenite decomposition interface 17 J Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Kolmogorov

C calibration of phase transformation mod- model 21, 45

els 23 parameterized ttt diagram 21

continuous cooling transformation di- parameterized ttt diagram, fixed expo-

agram 23 nent 21

time-temperature transformation dia- time, equilibrium and exponent 21

gram 23 ttt diagram data 21

carbon concentration (node) 99 ttt diagram data, fixed exponent 21

carbon flux (node) 99 K Kirkaldy-Venugopalan model 22, 48

carburization (node) 98 parameterized ttt diagram 22
carburization interface 18 rate coefficient 22
compute effective electromagnetic prop- ttt diagram data 22
erties 75 knowledge base, COMSOL 12
compute effective mechanical properties Koistinen-Marburger model 22, 51
75 Koistinen-Marburger coefficient 22
compute effective thermal properties 75 martensite finish temperature 22
create compound material 33, 75 martensite start temperature 22

D documentation 9 L Leblond-Devaux model 21, 43

E emailing COMSOL 11 general coefficients 21

enable phase plasticity 76 parameterized ttt diagram 21

INDEX| 109
 time and equilibrium 21
ttt diagram data 21

M mechanical properties 60
elasticity 60
equivalent plastic strains 62
plasticity 61
metal phase transformation interface 16,
74
metallurgical phase (node) 74, 77
Metallurgical phases 20
MPH-files 10

P parameterized ttt diagram 52

phase fraction
initial phase fraction 90, 95
phase transformation (node) 74, 80
phase transformation latent heat 30, 104
phase transformation latent heat multi-
physics coupling 104
phase transformation strain 30
phase transformation strain multiphysics
coupling 106
phase transformations 20

S selecting discretizations 32
discretizations for phase fractions 32
steel composition (node) 85
steel quenching interface 29

T technical support, COMSOL 11

thermal expansion 63
transformation condition (node) 84
phase transformation 84
transformation induced plasticity 64

W websites, COMSOL 12

Z zero carbon flux (node) 99

110 | I N D E X