MetalProcessingModuleUsersGuide6.2
MetalProcessingModuleUsersGuide6.2
User’s Guide
Metal Processing Module User’s Guide
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Study Types 19
Selecting Discretization 32
Phase Transformation Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
CONTENTS |3
Carburization Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Modeling Carburization 36
Defining a Carburization Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Modeling Carbon Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
References 38
4 | CONTENTS
Total Strain Contribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Carburization 67
Carbon Potential Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
References 70
Chapter 7: Carburization
CONTENTS |5
Carbon Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Zero Carbon Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Carbon Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Index 109
6 | CONTENTS
1
Introduction
This guide describes the Metal Processing Module, an optional add-on package
for the COMSOL Multiphysics® simulation software. The module is designed to
perform transient analyses of processes involving metallurgical (solid-solid) phase
transformations in, mainly, steels. This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of
the Metal Processing Module and includes a summary of the physics interfaces and
where you can find the documentation.
In this chapter:
7
About the Metal Processing Module
In this section:
• The Metal Phase Transformation interface for studying diffusive and displacive
metallurgical phase transformations in materials like steels.
• The Austenite Decomposition interface for specifically studying the cooling of steel
from an austenitic state.
• The Alpha-Beta Phase Transformation interface for specifically studying thermal
transients in α-β titanium alloys.
• The Carburization interface for studying the heat treatment process of
carburization.
• The Heat Transfer with Phase Transformations interface for modeling thermal
processes involving metallurgical phase transformations.
• The Steel Quenching interface for modeling coupled thermal and mechanical
processes involving metallurgical phase transformations.
Throughout the Metal Processing User’s Guide, the Metal Phase Transformation, the
Austenite Decomposition, and the Alpha-Beta Phase Transformation physics interfaces
are collectively referred to as phase transformation physics interfaces.
8 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The physics interfaces in the Metal Processing Module can be added from the Model
Wizard’s Select Physics page under Heat Transfer>Metal Processing. The physics
interfaces can also be added by right-clicking a Component node and selecting Add
Physics.
When you install COMSOL Multiphysics, the documentation sets are installed in
several locations, both on your computer and most easily accessible while you are
working in COMSOL Multiphysics. The next section details where to access it.
• Press Ctrl+F1.
• From the File menu, select Help>Documentation ( ).
Once the Application Libraries window is opened, you can search by name or browse
under a module folder name. Click to view a summary of the model or application and
its properties, including options to open it or its associated PDF document.
10 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Opening the Application Libraries Window
To open the Application Libraries window ( ):
To include the latest versions of model examples, from the File>Help menu
select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Libraries.
To include the latest versions of model examples, from the Help menu
select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Libraries.
12 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Overview of the User’s Guide
TABLE OF CONTENTS AND INDEX
To help you navigate this guide, see the Contents and Index sections.
• The Heat Transfer with Phase Transformations interface combines a Metal Phase
Transformation interface with a Heat Transfer in Solids interface. The coupling of
the interfaces appears on a domain level, where produced latent heat from the
(temperature-dependent) phase transformations gives rise to a heat source in the
heat equation. Optionally, phase-composition-dependent thermal material
properties can be used in the heat transfer analysis.
• The Steel Quenching Interface combines an Austenite Decomposition interface
with a Heat Transfer in Solids interface and a Solid Mechanics interface. There are
two domain-level multiphysics couplings: In the first coupling, produced latent heat
from the (temperature-dependent) phase transformations gives rise to a heat source
in the heat equation. In the second coupling, phase transformation strains that result
from thermal expansion or transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) are transferred
to the Solid Mechanics interface as inelastic strain contributions for the computation
of stresses. In the case of plasticity, the coupling also involves equivalent plastic
strains and hardening functions. Optionally, phase-composition-dependent thermal
and mechanical properties can be used in the heat transfer and solid mechanics
analyses.
• The Phase Transformation Latent Heat multiphysics coupling adds the latent heat
that is produced during phase transformations, as a heat source term, to the heat
equation in a Heat Transfer interface.
• The Phase Transformation multiphysics coupling adds the transformation strains
that are produced during phase transformations, as an inelastic strain contribution,
to the equation for stress in a Solid Mechanics interface. The coupling also transfers
stresses and the equivalent plastic strain from a Solid Mechanics interface to the
coupled phase transformation interface.
14 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
2
The goal of this chapter is to show you how to model different problems involving
phase transformations in steels and how to include various physical phenomena that
may be relevant in specific situations.
In this chapter:
15
Selecting Physics Interfaces
The Metal Processing Module contains three basic physics interfaces and two
multiphysics interfaces. The three basic physics interfaces are:
• Time-Dependent Solver
• Studies and Solvers
STUDY TYPES | 19
Modeling Phase Transformations
This section describes how to model metallurgical solid-solid phase transformations.
When you simulate processes such as hardening of steel, these phase transformations
are fundamental because they ultimately determine the final properties of the material.
In the phase transformation interfaces, each phase transformation is defined by a
certain evolution equation that defines the time rate of change of the algebraic
proportion of a destination phase at the expense of a source phase. In the following,
the two modeling concepts of phases and phase transformations are discussed.
Metallurgical Phases
When you model phase transformations in a material, each transformation defines how
a source phase transforms into a destination phase as a function of time. When you
create a metallurgical phase node, you have to define its initial phase fraction. This is
the value from which the phase fraction evolves during the analysis.
You have the option, at the physics interface level, to compute effective thermal,
electromagnetic, and mechanical properties for the compound material. If you have
opted to do this, you also need to define the corresponding properties of each phase.
At each phase node, you can choose to create a component-level phase material. This
material can be populated with properties that define the behavior of the phase. As an
alternative, you can use imported material properties. This is described in Importing
Material Properties and Phase Transformation Data.
The phase material properties are averaged (phase-fraction averaged) into effective
material properties of a compound material that can be used in other physics interfaces.
This is described in Using Effective Material Properties.
Phase Transformations
When you have created a phase transformation node, you have to choose a source
phase and a destination phase. These are the two phases that are fundamentally
involved in the phase transformation. You also have the option of specifying additional
source phases that contribute to the formation of the destination phase. The selected
phase transformation model defines the underlying type of phase transformation. They
are described below.
One method to measure the actual start temperatures required to draw each diagram
is to use dilatometry experiments. Metallurgical phase transformations are
accompanied by a change in volume, owing to the density difference between phases.
In a dilatometer, a specimen is cooled (or heated), and its length is monitored. The
specimen length will change according to basic thermal expansion, but phase
transformations will induce additional length changes that can be measured.
In a real quenching situation, it is clear that material points do not experience either of
the two extremes represented by the CCT and TTT diagrams (constant temperature
rate versus constant temperature). Nevertheless, because experimentally obtained
CCT and TTT diagrams are very common in the heat treatment community, phase
transformation models must in practice be calibrated using them.
d d
·d ξ eq – ξ
ξ = -------------------
-
τs → d
In this equation, the phase fraction for the destination phase tends toward an
d
equilibrium value ξ eq , and the rate at which this occurs is characterized by the time
constant τ s → d . Note here that the equilibrium phase fraction and the time constant
are in general both temperature dependent, and that temperature in turn varies with
time. At constant temperature, the equation can be integrated analytically, giving
ξ = ξ eq 1 – exp – -------------
d d t -
τ s → d
Alternatively, if we know the time to reach, for example, 1% of the equilibrium phase
fraction, that is, the relative phase fraction
d
ξ-
X = -------
d
ξ eq
the time constant is obtained without knowing the equilibrium phase fraction. Thus,
a TTT diagram showing curves of transformation times corresponding to relative
phase fractions X can straightforwardly be used to compute the temperature
dependent time constant. In this sense, a TTT diagram is easier to use for phase
transformation model calibration than a CCT diagram. This method to the calibration
of phase transformation models to TTT diagram data can be used also for the
Johnson–Mehl–Avrami–Kolmogorov (JMAK) and Kirkaldy–Venugopalan models. It
should be pointed out that given a set of phase transformation model parameters, it is
straightforward to compute both types of diagrams and to adjust the model parameters
based on comparisons of the computed diagrams and experimental information. It is
sometimes necessary to iterate in this manner to find a sufficiently accurate set of
model parameters.
As a final alternative to performing the calibration using TTT or CCT diagrams, you
can import computed phase transformation data. This is described in Importing
Material Properties and Phase Transformation Data.
In this chapter:
Figure 2-3: The constituent interfaces of the Heat Transfer with Phase Transformations
interface.
• If Enable transformation-induced plasticity is selected, the stress tensor from the Solid
Mechanics interface is used to compute TRIP strains during phase transformations.
These strains are used by the Solid Mechanics interface as an inelastic strain
contribution.
• If Enable thermal strains is selected, the thermal strains are used by the Solid
Mechanics interface as an inelastic contribution.
When you use this coupling, you should not use the Thermal Expansion
node to compute thermal strains to be used in the Solid Mechanics
interface.
• If Enable phase plasticity is selected, and if the Plasticity subnode under Linear Elastic
Material is used by the coupled Solid Mechanics interface, the equivalent plastic
strain is transferred to the phase transformation interface. This way, the individual
hardening function for each phase can be evaluated.
• The Annealing multiphysics subnode must be used in conjunction with the Annealing
subnode to Plasticity in the coupled Solid Mechanics interface, operating on the
same selection.
• TRIP strains, thermal strains, and the plastic strain tensor are unaffected by the
Annealing subnode.
Carburization Modeling
The discretization setting for Carburization interface controls the shape function order
for the carbon concentration. The Element order is set to quadratic by default.
You can generate a compound material that can be used by other physics interfaces as
a domain material. The compound material is created if you use the Create Compound
Material option at the physics interface level. This material contains effective material
properties that are computed from the corresponding material properties defined for
each phase.
Note that if Enable phase plasticity has been selected at the physics
interface level, the User defined option should be used for the Isotropic
hardening model in the Plasticity node in Solid Mechanics.
The effort involved in obtaining material properties and phase transformation data
experimentally, or by consulting literature sources, can be time consuming and
expensive. As an alternative, material properties and phase transformation data for
general steels can be imported from the software JMatPro®. The following sections
describe how this is done.
Material Properties
When you import material properties, one material is created for each of the
metallurgical phases austenite, ferrite, pearlite, bainite, and martensite. These materials
can then be used as Phase Material in the Metallurgical Phase nodes in the Metal Phase
Transformation, Austenite Decomposition, and Alpha-Beta Phase Transformation
interfaces. In addition to material properties for the individual metallurgical phases,
effective material properties that represent a compound material behavior are collected
and imported into a separate material. This material can be merged into, for example,
a created compound material, see Using Effective Material Properties.
Context Menu
With Global Definitions or a Component selected:
Materials>Import
• austenite to ferrite
• austenite to pearlite
• austenite to bainite
• austenite to martensite
In addition to data that describe the phase transformation kinetics, other data is
imported and added to each phase transformation node. They are:
The import can be performed under the Metal Phase Transformation, Austenite
Decomposition, and Alpha-Beta Phase Transformation interfaces, although the Austenite
Decomposition interface is the natural interface to perform the import from.
Note that you need to manually select the source phase and destination
phase that participate in each imported phase transformation.
Context Menu
With Metal Phase Transformation or Austenite Decomposition interface selected:
MODELING CARBURIZATION | 37
References
1. T. Holm, P. Olsson, and E. Troell (Eds.), “Steel and its heat treatment — A
handbook”, Swerea IVF, Mölndal, 2012.
This chapter introduces you to the theory for the Metal Processing Module.
In this chapter:
39
Metal Phase Transformation Theory
In the following, the theory for the Metal Phase Transformation physics interface is
described. This section also covers the theory for the Austenite Decomposition physics
interface. These physics interfaces can be used to model metallurgical phase
transformations in metals. They can be coupled to Heat Transfer in Solids and Solid
Mechanics, where, for example, quenching of steel components can be performed.
ξ
i
= 1
i=1
The initial phase fraction must be defined for each phase, and the sum of initial phase
fractions should be one. At the onset of an analysis, some phases may not be present,
and have zero initial phase fraction.
·d ·s
As → d = ξ = –ξ (3-1)
Note that this equation describes only a single contribution to the total rates at which
the destination phase forms, and the source phase decomposes. With several
simultaneous phase transformations, some phases may receive more than one
contribution. As an example, consider the case of three phases and two phase
transformations, where phase 1 transforms into phases 2 and 3. Using the terminology
above, the total rate equations for the three phases can be expressed as
·1
ξ = –A1 → 2 – A1 → 3
·3
ξ = A1 → 3
N
·i
ξ = 0
i=1
·i
Aj → i δξ
i
ξ –
j
where the summation is done over every phase transformation for which phase j
transforms into phase i.
In some situations, you may want to lump several phase transformations into one, so
that several source phases decompose using the same phase transformation kinetics.
One example is a simplified description of austenitization, if you are not concerned
with the exact order in which phases like martensite and pearlite transform into
austenite. Here, the destination phase is taken to form according to
·d
ξ = As → d
The negative of this rate is taken to be the sum of the rates of the (now several) source
phases so that
·j
–As → d = ξ
j
where the summation is taken over the participating source phases. The contribution
of each source phase to the total rate is arbitrary, and a modeling decision has to be
made with regard to this indeterminacy. In COMSOL Multiphysics, the use of
multiple source phases in a phase transformation is handled by assuming that each
source phase rate is proportional to – A s → d through its own current phase fraction
divided by the phase fraction sum of all participating source phases. For each source
phase, the rate contribution is therefore
By using Equation 3-2, the correct sum of the source phase rates is ensured, and the
indeterminacy of their respective contributions is eliminated. Moreover, Equation 3-2
reduces to the standard form given by Equation 3-1 in the case of a single source
phase.
T H E L E B L O N D –D E V A U X M O D E L
This phase transformation model is based on the work of Leblond and Devaux
(Ref. 1). The model primarily considers carbon-diffusion-based phase transformations
that occur in steels during heat treatment. Such transformations include austenite to
ferrite, and austenite to bainite. There are four formulations for the Leblond–Devaux
model:
• General coefficients
• Time and equilibrium
• TTT diagram data
• Parameterized TTT diagram
General coefficients
Using this form, the transformation of a source phase into a destination phase is given
by
·d s d
ξ = Ks → d ξ – Ls → d ξ (3-3)
·d
where the phase transformation is active only when ξ > 0 ; that is, when the
right-hand side of Equation 3-3 is strictly positive. In general, the functions K s → d
and L s → d are functions of temperature T. It was shown in Ref. 1 that the bainitic
·
transformation additionally depends on the rate of cooling, T . In this case, the
·
functions K s → d and L s → d are functions of both T and T .
d d
·d ξ eq – ξ
ξ = -------------------
- (3-4)
τs → d
·d
where the phase transformation is active only when ξ > 0 ; that is, when the right side
d
of Equation 3-4 is strictly positive. The equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq and the time
constant τ s → d are typically functions of temperature.
ξ = ξ 0 + ( ξ eq – ξ 0 ) 1 – exp – -------------
d d d d t - (3-5)
τ s → d
d
where ξ 0 is the initial phase fraction. This enables straightforward calibration of the
model parameters from TTT diagram data. At a given temperature, and assuming that
the initial phase fraction is zero, the equilibrium phase fraction of the destination phase
d
is ξ eq . A relative phase fraction of the destination phase is defined such that it is 1.0
as the equilibrium phase fraction is reached. The relative phase fraction X is given by
d
ξ-
X = ------- (3-6)
d
ξ eq
In the TTT diagram in Figure 3-1, a curve representing a fixed destination phase
d
fraction ξ 1 is shown. At a fixed temperature T, this destination phase fraction is
reached at time t1, so that
d d
ξ1 = ξ ( t1 ) (3-7)
t1
τ s → d = – --------------------------
- (3-8)
ln ( 1 – X 1 )
where t1 will vary with temperature, and the relative phase fraction X1 is understood
d
to be the relative phase fraction corresponding to ξ 1 .
This way of fitting the Leblond–Devaux model to TTT diagram data will be most
accurate near the chosen phase fraction curve in the TTT diagram. If, for example, the
0.1% curve is used, the phase transformation model will likely predict the onset of
destination phase formation well, but it will show poorer agreement with the TTT
diagram near completion.
d
ns → d
ξ = ξ 0 + ( ξ eq – ξ 0 ) 1 – exp – --------------
d d d t
(3-9)
τs → d
d
In the equation above, the initial phase fraction is ξ 0 , and the equilibrium phase
d
fraction ξ eq , the time constant τ s → d and the Avrami exponent n s → d are typically
functions of temperature. On rate form, Equation 3-9 can be expressed as
1 -
1 – --------------
d d d d ns → d
·d ξ eq –ξ ξ eq – ξ 0
ξ = -------------------- n s → d ln -------------------
- (3-10)
τs → d ξ deq – ξ d
where the explicit time dependence has been eliminated. The phase transformation is
·d
active only when ξ > 0 ; that is, when the right side of Equation 3-10 is strictly
positive. For the special case of n s → d = 1 , the equation reduces to the
time-and-equilibrium form of the Leblond–Devaux model (Equation 3-4). The
JMAK phase transformation model in Equation 3-10 has a mathematical disadvantage
in that an initial destination phase fraction equal to zero will yield a trivial zero
solution, as the logarithm will evaluate to zero. There are different ways to circumvent
this problem. One way is to require the initial phase fraction be assigned a small, but
finite, value. Another way is to modify the rate equation itself, so that a zero initial
phase fraction does not yield a trivial zero solution. In the phase transformation
interfaces, the JMAK phase transformation model in Equation 3-10 is modified for
d d
phase fractions ξ in the vicinity of ξ 0 . Below a certain threshold, the argument for
the logarithm is modified so that the logarithm does not produce a zero value. This
threshold phase fraction is set to 10-5 by default. A problem can arise in the case of
nonzero initial phase fractions. Namely, if other phase transformations in the model
operate such that the metallurgical phase that is the destination phase fraction above
d d
decreases, the JMAK model would run into problems as ξ < ξ 0 , whereby the
argument in the logarithm becomes negative. One way to handle this is to exclude the
effect of the initial phase fraction in the rate expression in Equation 3-10. This is done
Note that the Avrami exponent used by the JMAK phase transformation
model should be greater than or equal to one. If a smaller value is
encountered, it will be replaced by an exponent of one.
d d
ξ1 = ξ ( t1 ) (3-11)
d d
ξ2 = ξ ( t2 ) (3-12)
After some algebra, the time constant and Avrami exponent can be expressed as
ln ( 1 – X 1 ) t1
n s → d = ln --------------------------- ⁄ ln ---- (3-13)
ln ( 1 – X 2 ) t 2
1 -
---------------
ns → d
τ s → d = t 1 ⁄ ( – ln ( 1 – X 1 ) ) (3-14)
where the relative phase fractions X1 and X2 are understood to be the relative phase
d d
fractions corresponding to ξ 1 and ξ 2 , respectively. The transformation times t1 and
t2 will vary with temperature.
• Rate coefficient
• TTT diagram data
• Parameterized TTT diagram
Rate Coefficient
The rate form describing the phase transformation model is given by
2 ( 1 – X )- 2X
--------------------- --------
3 3
·d d · dX (1 – X)
ξ = ξ eq ξ 0 ----------------------------------------------
2
- (3-15)
exp ( C r X )
d
ξ-
X = ------- (3-16)
d
ξ eq
so that the rate of formation of the destination phase approaches zero as the relative
phase fraction approaches one; that is, when the phase transformation nears
completion. The Kirkaldy–Venugopalan phase transformation model shares the
mathematical disadvantage with the JMAK model in that an initial destination phase
fraction of zero will yield a trivial zero solution. Similar to the JMAK phase
transformation model, the Kirkaldy–Venugopalan phase transformation model is
modified. A small threshold value for the destination phase fraction ξd is introduced,
so that the phase transformation model produces a nonzero rate below this value.
· ·d
X = ξ0 f ( X ) (3-17)
where the relative phase fraction X has been used. Note that at a fixed temperature, the
d
equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq is constant, and it can therefore be included in the rate
· ·d
term X in Equation 3-17. The reference rate ξ 0 is temperature dependent (and
dependent on chemical composition and grain size, in the original Kirkaldy–
Venugopalan formulation). At a fixed temperature, t1 is the time to reach the
d
destination phase fraction ξ 1 (or alternatively, to reach the relative phase fraction X1),
see Figure 3-3. This is expressed as
d
ξ1
X 1 = -------
- (3-19)
d
ξ eq
X1 X1 2
·d 1 dg- 1 exp ( C r g )
ξ 0 = ----
t1 ---------
f(g)
= ----
t1 -------------------------------------------
2 ( 1 – g -)
--------------------
2g-
------
dg (3-20)
3 3
0 0 g (1 – g)
Note that if the retardation coefficient Cr is known, the integral can be computed a
priori for a fixed X1. The rate coefficient is therefore inversely proportional to the time
it takes to reach the relative phase fraction X1. The time t1 generally depends on
temperature.
·d s ·
ξ = – ξ βT (3-21)
d s
ξ = ξ 0 ( 1 – exp ( – β ( M s – T ) ) ) (3-22)
This integrated form is commonly found in the literature. Instead of defining the
Koistinen–Marburger coefficient directly, a martensite finish temperature, M90, can be
defined, corresponding to reaching a phase fraction of 90% using Equation 3-22, and
assuming 100% initial source phase fraction. The Koistinen–Marburger coefficient β is
then given by
ln 0.1 -
β = – ------------------------
M s – M 90
The rate form of Equation 3-21 is more general, and from a computational standpoint
it is more suitable for implementation. The rate form is therefore used in the phase
transformation interfaces.
USER DEFINED
Using this option, other types of phase transformations can be defined. A user-defined
phase transformation assumes that a source phase decomposes into a destination phase
according to Equation 3-1.
The points are designated U (upper), L (lower), and N (nose), see Figure 3-4.
The parameterized TTT curve is defined by two analytical functions that meet at the
nose. They are:
t L T – T N q NL
log ------ = log ------ ---------------------
t
, T < TN
t N t N T L – T N
The shape parameters qNL and qNU are used to control the shape of the curve below
the nose (NL) and above the nose (NU), and the effect of increasing them is
schematically shown in Figure 3-4. A shape parameter value of two produces a
quadratic function in the log time - temperature space, and so on. When you
parameterize the curves in a TTT diagram in this way, COMSOL Multiphysics will
internally use the TTT curves in the same way as if you had used the TTT Diagram
Data formulations.
Transformation Temperatures
For hypoeutectoid steels that are being cooled from an austenitic state, the phase
transformations into different destination phases occur across certain temperature
ranges. For example, no ferrite forms before the temperature falls below the Ae3
temperature in an Fe–C diagram, as austenite is stable above this temperature. Another
example is the (eutectoid) Ae1 temperature above which no pearlite forms. These
temperatures, and other temperatures that are important when modeling phase
transformations in steels, depend not only on the carbon content of the material, but
also on other alloying elements. There exist several empirical models in the literature,
and COMSOL Multiphysics provides several of these temperatures through the Steel
Composition node that can be used in the Metal Phase Transformation and Austenite
Decomposition interfaces. The temperatures can be readily accessed by the Phase
Transformation nodes to facilitate phase transformation modeling.
Andrews (Ref. 11) developed empirical models for these temperatures, based on the
alloying elements of the material. The models are given by
where C, Si, Ni, and so forth, are the weight percentages of the respective alloying
elements. These expressions are valid for steels with a carbon concentration less than
0.6% by weight. As an alternative to using the models by Andrews, you can use a
parameterized description of the Ae1 and Ae3 temperature lines. To do this, you specify
0
directly the Ae3 temperature at zero carbon concentration, A e3 , the Ae1 temperature,
γ
and the eutectoid concentration of austenite, C eut . This gives the following linear
expression for the Ae3 temperature line:
0
0 A e3 – A e1
A e3 = A e3 – ------------------------
γ
-×C
C eut
Note that the Ae1 and Ae3 temperature lines intersect at the eutectoid
point. The models by Andrews are valid for a carbon concentration less
than 0.6%, which means that the eutectoid point may be poorly estimated
by these models.
and the bainite start temperature according to Kirkaldy and Venugopalan (Ref. 10) is
given by
In the expressions above, it is understood that the alloying elements are expressed in
terms of their respective weight percentages.
In the expressions above, it is understood that the alloying elements are expressed in
terms of their respective weight percentages.
Figure 3-6: A schematic Fe–C diagram and the points involved in calculating the
equilibrium phase fraction of ferrite.
In an Fe–C diagram (Figure 3-6), the equilibrium phase fraction of ferrite in this
austenite–ferrite two-phase region can be extracted using a simple lever rule as
α a -
ξ eq = ------------
a+b
Note that in using the lever rule, the ferrite region above the eutectoid
0
temperature Ae1 is taken to be a line from A e3 to the ferrite carbon
α
solubility, C max , at Ae1.
The formation of free ferrite below the eutectoid temperature Ae1 during quenching
can be included. COMSOL Multiphysics provides two models of the equilibrium
phase fraction of ferrite below the eutectoid temperature, see Hippchen and others
(Ref. 14) for a description. In one model, the equilibrium phase fraction of ferrite is
taken to be constant below Ae1, and equal to the equilibrium phase fraction at Ae1, see
Figure 3-7.
α c -
ξ eq = -----------
c+d
Note that in using the lever rule, the ferrite region below the eutectoid
α
temperature Ae1 is taken to be a line from T 0 to the ferrite carbon
α
solubility, C max , at Ae1.
To model the formation of pearlite and bainite below the eutectoid temperature, the
corresponding equilibrium phase fractions are taken to be
p b α
ξ eq = ξ eq = 1 – ξ eq
Hardness
Maynier and others (Ref. 13) have proposed a method for estimating the Vickers
hardness (HV) based on the chemical composition of a steel, together with the final
phase composition and the cooling rate during quenching. The HV hardness is
f p f+p b b m m
HV = ( ξ + ξ )HV + ξ HV + ξ HV
where the superscripts f, p, b, and m denote ferrite, pearlite, bainite, and martensite,
respectively. The hardnesses of the individual phases are given by
f+p
HV = 42 + 223C + 53Si + 30Mn + 12.6Ni + 7Cr + 19Mo
+ ( 10 – 19Si + 4Ni + 8Cr + 130V ) log V r
b
HV = – 323 + 185C + 330Si + 153Mn + 65Ni + 144Cr + 191Mo
+ ( 89 + 53C – 55Si – 22Mn – 10Ni – 20Cr – 33Mo ) log V r
m
HV = 127 + 949C + 27Si + 11Mn + 8Ni + 16Cr + 21 log V r
where the hardnesses of ferrite and pearlite are taken to be equal. In the expressions
above, the term Vr is the cooling rate, expressed in K/h, as the temperature passes 700
degrees Celsius during cooling, and C, Si, Ni, and so forth, are the weight percentages
of the respective alloying elements.
ξk
i i
k =
i=1
ξρ
i i
ρ =
i=1
The thermal conductivity of the compound material uses a full tensor description. The
heat capacity at constant pressure is computed by using a linear weighting of the
volumetric heat capacity ρCp, having already computed ρ:
N
1
ξ ρ Cp ¨
i i i
C p = ---
ρ
i=1
ξ μr
i i
μr = (3-23)
i=1
ξσ
i i
σ = (3-24)
i=1
ξ εr
i i
εr = (3-25)
i=1
The electromagnetic properties for the compound material use a full tensor
description.
Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties for the compound material are generally computed using
linear weighting by the phase fractions. The exception is in the case where phase
plasticity is modeled, where other types of weighting schemes can be used for the initial
yield strength of the compound material.
ELASTICITY
The elastic behavior of the compound material is assumed to be isotropic and defined
by a linear weighting of the Young’s moduli and Poisson’s ratios of the phases. This is
reasonable because the elastic properties for the different phases are similar at a given
temperature.
ξE
i i
E =
i=1
ξν
i i
ν =
i=1
PLASTICITY
It is not obvious what weighting scheme should be used to define an effective initial
yield strength because the initial yield strengths of the phases will differ. The following
weighting scheme is used:
gi ( ξ )σys0
i i
σ ys0 =
i=1
The simplest model for the initial yield strength of the compound material uses a linear
weighting
i i
gi ( ξ ) = ξ
This scheme is reasonable when the initial yield strengths are similar. However, it is
well known that the yield strength of some metallurgical phases can differ significantly.
Most notably, martensite is typically an order of magnitude harder than austenite, and
a linear mixture rule is unsuitable. Geijselaers (Ref. 7) developed a weighting scheme
that is suitable in this situation. In this model, it is assumed that the hardest phase is
considerably harder than the softest phase. Assuming that the hard phase is m and the
soft phase is γ, the Geijselaers weighting scheme is given by
i ξi , i ≠ m
gi ( ξ ) =
f ( ξ i ), i=m
i
with
m m m m 2
f m ( ξ ) = ξ ( C + 2 ( 1 – C )ξ – ( 1 – C ) ( ξ ) )
γ
σ ys0
C = 1.383 -----------
m
σ ys0
The hardening function for the compound material is defined using the linear
weighting
ξ σh ( εpe )
i i i
σh = (3-26)
i=1
i
where ε pe is the equivalent plastic strain of the phase.
·i ·
ε pe = ε pe
which is to say that the equivalent plastic strain of phase i follows that of the compound
material. If phase transformation and mechanical straining occur simultaneously, the
equivalent plastic strain of the diminishing source phase of the phase transformation
can be taken to follow that of the compound material, and this is the behavior in the
phase transformation physics interfaces. However, for a phase which is increasing in
fraction during plastic straining, this assumption is questionable. Leblond (Ref. 6)
derived an evolution equation for the equivalent plastic strain, which is suitable for the
forming destination phase. The evolution equations for the source and destination
phases are
·s ·
ε pe = ε pe
·d
·d · ξ d s
ε pe = ε pe – -----d ( ε pe – Θ s → d ε pe )
ξ
where the plasticity memory coefficient Θ s → d was introduced to model that some
plastic straining present in the source phase at the instant of transformation will be
carried over to the forming destination phase. A zero plasticity memory coefficient
means that no plastic straining will be remembered.
• Thermal expansion
• Transformation induced plasticity (TRIP)
Other inelastic strains may also be present during a thermal transient, such as plastic
strains or creep strains.
Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion for the compound material is given by a phase fraction weighted
sum of the thermal expansion of each phase:
ξ εth
i i
ε th =
i=1
It is well known that different metallurgical phases occupy different volumes at a given
temperature. For example, when austenite transforms into martensite, the thermal
contraction due to cooling is accompanied by a volumetric expansion when the
martensite begins to form. Consider a simple case where phase 1 transforms into phase
2. In 1D, and using a secant definition of the thermal expansion coefficient, the
thermal strain is
I I I II II II
ε th = ξ α ( T ) ( T – T ref ) + ξ α ( T ) ( T – T ref )
where α(T) and Tref are the secant coefficient of thermal expansion and strain volume
reference temperature, for the respective phases I and II. Figure 3-8 shows the thermal
strain. For simplicity, the coefficients of thermal expansion for the two phases in the
figure are constant (but different). In the figure, a fictitious phase transformation has
been used to illustrate when phase I transforms completely into phase II as the
temperature is lowered. No separate volumetric term is required to model this type of
phase transformation strain, as it is included in the definition of the thermal expansion
itself.
Transformation-Induced Plasticity
Plastic strains in metals result from deviatoric stresses that exceed the yield strength of
the material. However, during phase transformations, inelastic strains may appear
already at very small stress levels. This transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) is
therefore different from classical plasticity in that it does not involve a yield criterion
and that it appears at stress levels that would otherwise be insufficient to cause plastic
straining even in the softest of the phases. A description of TRIP strain rate, common
in the literature (see, for example, Ref. 3), is
d
· 3 TRIP dΦ ( ξ -) · d
ε tp, s → d = --- K s → d ⋅ ------------------ ξ ⋅ dev ( S )
2 dξ
d
where the strain rate is proportional to the deviatoric part of the second Piola–
Kirchhoff stress tensor S through the transformation induced plasticity parameter
TRIP
K s → d , the derivative of the saturation function Φ(ξd), and the rate of the destination
·d TRIP
phase ξ . Values for the transformation-induced plasticity parameter K s → d will
depend on the type of phase transformation. It can depend on, for example, carbon
content and temperature (see Ref. 4). Several propositions exist for the saturation
TYPE EXPRESSION
Abrassart d d
ξ (3 – 2 ξ )
Desalos ξd(2-ξd)
Leblond ξd(1 − lnξd)) for ξd > 0.03,
zero otherwise
Tanaka ξd
· ·
ε tp = εtp, s → d
s→d
·d
Q 0 = ΔH s → d ξ (3-27)
The heat rates that result from each phase transformation are added, and they can be
used as a heat source when solving the heat equation. A weak contribution is added to
the weak form of the heat equation:
ˆ δ(T)
Q 0
∂----c- + ∇ ⋅ ( – D ∇c ) = 0
∂t
Q D
D = D 0 exp – --------
RT
c , t ≤ t boost
c pot = boost
diffuse ,
c t > t boost
CARBURIZATION | 67
Figure 3-9: The Boost-diffuse cycle.
Boundary Conditions
When a component is subjected to an environment of different carbon concentration,
carbon can diffuse into or out from its surface. This mass transfer can be modeled in
two ways:
A special case of prescribed carbon flux is the case of zero carbon flux.
– n ⋅ ( – D∇c ) = b ⋅ ( c ext – c )
where b is the mass transfer coefficient, and cext is the carbon concentration of the
exterior. A natural way to define the carbon concentration of the exterior is to take it
as equal to the carbon potential cpot of the surrounding carburizing atmosphere. The
mass transfer coefficient can be specified directly, or defined as thermally activated
CARBURIZATION | 69
References
1. J.B. Leblond and J.C. Devaux, “A new kinetic model for anisothermal metallurgical
phase transformations in steels including effect of austenite grain size,” Acta Metall.,
vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 137–146, 1984.
2. D.P. Koistinen and R.E. Marburger, “A general equation prescribing the extent of
the austenite-martensite transformation in pure iron-carbon alloys and plain carbon
steels,” Acta Metall., vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 59–60, 1959.
4. B. Liscic, H.M. Tensi, L.C.F. Canale, and G.E. Totten (Eds.), Quenching theory
and technology, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2010.
10. J.S. Kirkaldy and D. Venugopalan, Phase Transformations in Ferrous Alloys, Am,
Inst. Min. Engg., Philadelphia, Pa 1984.
11. K.W. Andrews, “Empirical formulae for the calculation of some transformation
temperatures,” J. Iron Steel Inst., vol. 203, pp. 721–727, 1965.
15. A. Hultgren, ‘Diskussion über “The physics of Hardenability” von R.F. Mehl,’
Hardenability of Alloy Steels, pp. 55–56, 1938 (in German).
REFERENCES | 71
72 | CHAPTER 3: METAL PROCESSING THEORY
4
This chapter describes the Metal Phase Transformation Interface ( ) and its
functionality. It is found under the Heat Transfer>Metal Processing branch ( )
when adding a physics interface.
73
The Metal Phase Transformation
Interface
The Metal Phase Transformation interface ( ) is found under the Heat Transfer>Metal
Processing ( ) branch when adding a physics interface. The physics interface is
intended for studying metallurgical phase transformations. You can use this interface
to study diffusional, displacive, and user-defined (solid state) phase transformations.
Physical phenomena, such as latent heat of phase transformation and transformation
strains, can be computed and used in Heat Transfer in Solids and Solid Mechanics.
With the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module or the Geomechanics Module, plastic
strains and hardening behavior of each metallurgical phase can be used in Solid
Mechanics. Different sections of the Settings panel will be active depending on the
space dimension that the interface is used in, see Table 4-1.
TABLE 4-1: PHYSICS INTERFACE SECTIONS.
SECTION AVAILABILITY
When the Metal Phase Transformation interface is added, three nodes are also added
to the Model Builder — two Metallurgical Phase nodes and one Phase Transformation
node. The phase transformation node will be set to use the two metallurgical phases as
source and destination phases, respectively. From the Physics toolbar, you can add
additional metallurgical phases and phase transformations. You can also right-click
Metal Phase Transformation to select physics features from the context menu.
SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.
The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is metp.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
You have the option of letting the physics interface compute effective thermal,
electromagnetic, and mechanical material properties, based on the corresponding
properties and fractions of the individual metallurgical phases. Select the Compute
effective thermal properties check box to let the physics interface compute effective
thermal properties. Select the Compute effective electromagnetic properties check box
to let the physics interface compute effective electromagnetic properties. Select the
Compute effective mechanical properties check box to let the physics interface compute
effective mechanical properties. You can use the computed effective material properties
to create a compound material that can be used in other physics interfaces as a domain
material. Select the Create Compound Material to create a compound material. This
material is created at the component level.
HEAT TRANSFER
Phase transformations are inherently temperature dependent. Select the temperature
field to use from the Temperature list. If you want to consider the release or absorption
of latent heat during phase transformations, select the Enable phase transformation
latent heat check box. You can then define values for the latent heat at each of the phase
transformation nodes. By default, the check box is not selected.
TEMPERATURE
Phase transformations are inherently temperature dependent. Enter an expression for
the temperature to use.
The two sections Heat Transfer and Temperature are mutually exclusive,
and which one is active is determined by the space dimension.
ADVANCED
By default, bounds for computed phase fractions and their sum, are checked during a
simulation. If you select Advanced Physics Options, the Advanced section is used to
modify the bounds that are used, or to disable the bounds checking altogether. When
you have selected Check phase fraction bounds, you can modify the:
• Maximum phase fraction sum, which defines the numerical upper bound for the phase
fraction sum.
• Minimum phase fraction sum, which defines the numerical lower bound for the phase
fraction sum.
• Minimum phase fraction, which defines the numerical lower bound for each phase
fraction, individually.
Note that when you set the Discretization for phase fractions to Gauss
point data, spatial gradients of the phase fractions will not available. This
can be relevant in other physics interfaces, should the gradients of phase
fractions be required.
Metallurgical Phase
The Metallurgical Phase node defines a phase. Depending on the settings at the physics
interface level and the space dimension where the physics interface is used, the phase
node will contain different sections, see Table 4-2.
TABLE 4-2: METALLURGICAL PHASE SECTIONS.
SECTION AVAILABILITY
MODEL INPUT
Provide the Volume reference temperature Tref for the phase. This is the temperature at
which the thermal strain is zero for the phase.
TRANSFORMATION TIMES
If you select Compute transformation times, you can store the times t̂ and temperatures
Tˆ during an analysis, corresponding to reaching specified target phase fractions. Enter
a list of Target phase fractions ξ̂ in the table. Whether transformation times and
temperatures are recorded depends on if the phase fraction is increasing or decreasing
during the analysis. Select Decreasing phase fraction if the phase fraction is expected to
reach the specified target values when it is decreasing. With Compute transformation
times selected, and in the case a phase fraction is increasing over time, you can select
Compute time to completion. Enter the Completion rate, that is, a rate of phase
formation low enough that the formation of the phase can be considered complete.
PHASE MATERIAL
From the Phase material list, you select the material that defines the material properties
for the phase. This section is visible only if at least one of the Compute effective thermal
properties or the Compute effective mechanical properties check boxes has been selected
at the physics interface level. You can create a material at the component level by using
ELECTROMAGNETIC PROPERTIES
If the Compute effective electromagnetic properties has been selected at the physics
interface level, you must define electromagnetic properties for the phase. The default
Relative permeability μr, Electrical conductivity σ, and Relative permittivity εr, use values
From material. The From material option refers to the selected material from the Phase
Material list. For User defined, enter values or expressions for these properties.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
If the Compute effective mechanical properties has been selected at the physics interface
level, you must define mechanical properties for the phase. The default Young’s
modulus E and Poisson’s ratio ν use values From material. For User defined, enter values
or expressions for these properties.
If Enable thermal strains has been selected at the physics interface level, you have to
define the Secant coefficient of thermal expansion α for the phase. By default, the value
is taken From material. For User defined, enter a value or expression.
If Enable phase plasticity has been selected at the physics interface level, you have to
define the plastic behavior of the phase. The default Initial yield stress σys0 uses a value
From material. For User defined, enter another value or expression for initial yield stress.
Initial yield stresses for phases can be weighted differently. This is useful when initial
yield stresses for the phases in the model are very different. Select a Weight factor for
yield stress — Linear, Geijselaers, or User defined. If Geijselaers is selected, you also need
to specify a Soft phase, which is considered plastically soft in comparison to this phase.
Select the Isotropic hardening model — Perfectly plastic, Linear, or User defined to define
the hardening behavior of the phase.
Linear
Specify the Isotropic hardening modulus ETiso. The default value is taken From material.
User defined
For User defined, enter another value or expression for the modulus. If a User defined
isotropic hardening modulus is selected, you have to select the Hardening function. By
default, the value is taken From material.
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the hardening function. The expression
can depend, for example, on the equivalent plastic strain in the phase.
Phase Transformation
Depending on the settings at the physics interface level and the space dimension where
the physics interface is used, the phase transformation node will contain different
sections.
PHASE TRANSFORMATION
The phase transformation defines how one phase forms (the destination phase) at the
expense of another (the source phase). Select Source phase ξs and Destination phase ξd
from the list of defined phases. Select a Phase transformation model — Leblond–Devaux,
Johnson–Mehl–Avrami–Kolmogorov, Kirkaldy–Venugopalan, Koistinen–Marburger,
Hyperbolic rate, or User defined.
Leblond–Devaux
Select a Formulation — Time and equilibrium, General coefficients, TTT diagram data, or
Parameterized TTT diagram.
d
• For Time and equilibrium, select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq from the list. For
d
User defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . Specify a Time constant τs → d.
If applicable, select Define temperature limits, and select the Lower temperature limit Tl
and the Upper temperature limit Tu from the respective lists. For the User defined
options, specify, respectively, expressions for Tl and Tu.
Johnson–Mehl–Avrami–Kolmogorov
Select a Formulation — Time, equilibrium and exponent, TTT diagram data, TTT diagram
data, fixed exponent, Parameterized TTT diagram, or Parameterized TTT diagram, fixed
exponent.
d
• For Time, equilibrium and exponent, select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq from the
d
list. For User defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . Specify the Time constant τs → d,
and the Avrami exponent ns → d.
d
• For TTT diagram data, select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq from the list. For User
d
defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . Specify the Relative phase fraction X1, the
Transformation time t1, the Relative phase fraction X2, and the Transformation time t2.
d
• For TTT diagram data, fixed exponent, select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq from
d
the list. For User defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . Specify the Avrami exponent
ns → d, the Relative phase fraction X1, and the Transformation time t1.
d
• For Parameterized TTT diagram, select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq from the list.
d
For User defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . Specify the Relative phase fraction
X1, and the Relative phase fraction X2. In the TTT Curve 1 section, specify the
transformation times tL, tN, and tU corresponding to points on the lower part, the
If the rate term in the phase transformation model is to account for a nonzero initial
phase fraction of the source phase, select Include effect of initial phase fraction. If
applicable, select Define temperature limits, and select the Lower temperature limit Tl
and the Upper temperature limit Tu from the respective lists. For the User defined
options, specify, respectively, expressions for Tl and Tu.
Kirkaldy–Venugopalan
Select a Formulation — Rate coefficient, TTT diagram data, or Parameterized TTT diagram.
d
• For Rate coefficient, select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq from the list. For User
d ·d
defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . Specify the Reference rate ξ 0 .
d
• For TTT diagram data, select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq from the list. For User
d
defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . Specify the Relative phase fraction X1, and the
Transformation time t1.
d
• For Parameterized TTT diagram, select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq from the list.
d
For User defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . Specify the Relative phase fraction
X1. In the TTT Curve 1 section, specify the transformation times tL, tN, and tU
corresponding to points on the lower part, the “nose”, and the upper part of the
TTT curve at the relative phase fraction X1. Specify the corresponding
transformation temperatures TL, TN, and TU, and the TTT curve shape parameters
qNL and qNU.
The rate term can be modified from its original form. If applicable, select Include
retardation term, and specify the Retardation coefficient Cr. If applicable, select Define
temperature limits, and select the Lower temperature limit Tl and the Upper temperature
limit Tu from the respective lists. For the User defined options, specify, respectively,
expressions for Tl and Tu.
Hyperbolic rate
d
Specify the Hyperbolic rate constant Ps → d and select an Equilibrium phase fraction ξ eq
d
from the list. For User defined, specify an expression for ξ eq . If applicable, select Define
temperature limits, and select the Lower temperature limit Tl and the Upper temperature
limit Tu from the respective lists. For the User defined options, specify, respectively,
expressions for Tl and Tu.
User defined
Specify the Phase transformation contribution As → d. The expression defines the rate at
which the destination phase forms, at the expense of the source phase.
If applicable, select Define temperature limits, and select the Lower temperature limit Tl
and the Upper temperature limit Tu from the respective lists. For the User defined
options, specify, respectively, expressions for Tl and Tu.
The Plastic recovery for destination phase check box is available if the Enable thermal
strains has been selected at the physics interface level. If you have selected Plastic
recovery for destination phase, you can specify the Plastic memory coefficient Θs → d.
ADVANCED
Numerical smoothing can be applied at temperatures that correspond to a sudden
activation or deactivation of the phase transformation. If you select Advanced Physics
Options, the Advanced section is used to assign smoothing:
• Transformation temperature smoothing, ΔT, in case you have used Define temperature
limits.
• Martensite start temperature smoothing, ΔMs, in the case of the Koistinen–Marburger
phase transformation model.
The smoothing parameters ΔT and ΔMs each defines a temperature span across which
the phase transformation rate term is smoothly ramped. In the limit of a zero
smoothing parameter value, the ramping reduces to a Heaviside step function.
Transformation Condition
One or several Transformation Condition subnodes can be added to a Phase
Transformation node. In the Transformation Condition subnode, specify a Boolean
expression c that has to be satisfied for the Phase Transformation to take place. For
example, if you have reason to prevent a phase transformation from occurring unless
the temperature rate is negative, the expression could look like:
metp.Tt<0[K/s]
flc1hs(2*(a-b)/h, 1)
Steel Composition
The Steel Composition node is used to specify the chemical composition of a steel in
terms of weight percentages of its alloying elements. Different empirical relationships
are then used to establish characteristic transformation temperatures to be used in
phase transformation modeling. In addition, the equilibrium phase fractions of
metallurgical phases are computed as functions of temperature.
STEEL COMPOSITION
In the table Weight percent of alloying elements, specify the weight percentage (wt%) of
each alloying element. For example, type 0.4 for Carbon for a steel with 0.4 percent
carbon by weight (wt%).
DEFINITIONS
This section is used to specify the particular models used to compute composition
dependent phase transformation temperatures.
• Under Ae1 and Ae3 temperatures, specify how to model the Ae1 and Ae3 lines of an
iron–carbon (Fe–C) diagram. If Andrews is selected, (constant) Ae1 and (nonlinear)
Ae3 temperature lines are computed using empirical relationships based on the
Transformation Temperatures
Select Calculate equilibrium phase fractions to compute the equilibrium phase fraction
of ferrite, as well as equilibrium phase fractions for pearlite and bainite.
Hardness
The Hardness subnode is used to compute the Vickers hardness (HV) of steel, after
cooling from an austenitic state. One or several Hardness subnodes can be added to a
Steel Composition node. In the Hardness subnode, you select the metallurgical phases
that represent, respectively, ferrite, pearlite, bainite, and martensite. Based on this
information, the chemical composition of the steel defined in the parent Steel
Hardness
Austenite Decomposition
89
The Austenite Decomposition
Interface
The Austenite Decomposition interface ( ) is found under the Heat Transfer>Metal
Processing ( ) branch when adding a physics interface. The physics interface is
intended for studying metallurgical phase transformations. You can use this interface
to study diffusional, displacive, and user-defined (solid-solid) phase transformations.
Physical phenomena, such as latent heat of phase transformation and transformation
strains can be computed and used in Heat Transfer in Solids and Solid Mechanics. With
the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module or the Geomechanics Module, plastic
strains and hardening behavior of each metallurgical phase can be used in Solid
Mechanics.
This interface is based on the Metal Phase Transformation interface. This chapter will
only describe the nodes and settings that set the Austenite Decomposition interface
apart from the Metal Phase Transformation interface. With regard to other settings at
the physics interface level and feature level, see The Metal Phase Transformation
Interface.
When the Austenite Decomposition interface is added, nine nodes are added to the
Model Builder — five Metallurgical Phase nodes and four Phase Transformation nodes.
The interface is tailored specifically to the decomposition of austenite into a
combination of ferrite, pearlite, bainite, and martensite. The phase nodes are given
names to reflect this:
• Austenite
• Ferrite
• Pearlite
• Bainite
• Martensite
The Initial Phase Fraction is set to one in the Austenite node, and zero in the other
metallurgical phase nodes. Four Phase Transformation nodes are also created to define
the relevant phase transformations:
• Austenite to Ferrite
• Austenite to Pearlite
The source and destination phases in each phase transformation are set to the
corresponding phases that have been created. The Phase transformation model is set to
Leblond–Devaux with General coefficients, except in Austenite to Martensite, where it is
set to Koistinen–Marburger.
From the Physics toolbar, you can delete or disable metallurgical phases and phase
transformations that are irrelevant in a given situation, and you can add additional
metallurgical phases and phase transformations. You can also right-click Austenite
Decomposition to select physics features from the context menu.
SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.
The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.
The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is audc.
93
The Alpha–Beta Phase
Transformation Interface
The Alpha–Beta Phase Transformation interface ( ) is found under the Heat
Transfer>Metal Processing ( ) branch when adding a physics interface. The physics
interface is intended for studying metallurgical phase transformations in α–β titanium
alloys. You can use this interface to study diffusional, displacive, and user-defined
(solid-solid) phase transformations. Physical phenomena, such as latent heat of phase
transformation and transformation strains can be computed and used in Heat Transfer
in Solids and Solid Mechanics. With the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module or the
Geomechanics Module, plastic strains and hardening behavior of each metallurgical
phase can be used in Solid Mechanics.
This interface is based on the Metal Phase Transformation interface. This chapter will
only describe the nodes and settings that set the Alpha–Beta Phase Transformation
interface apart from the Metal Phase Transformation interface. With regard to other
settings at the physics interface level and feature level, see The Metal Phase
Transformation Interface.
When the Alpha–Beta Phase Transformation interface is added, several nodes are
added to the Model Builder — three Metallurgical Phase nodes and seven Phase
Transformation nodes. The interface is tailored specifically to the phase
transformations that can take place in α–β titanium alloys like Ti–6Al–4V. The Alpha–
Beta Phase Transformation interface defines three major phases, whose node names
are:
• Beta
• Widmanstätten Alpha
• Martensitic Alpha
SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.
The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.
The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is abp.
Carburization
97
T he C a r bur i z a t i on In t erface
The Carburization interface ( ) is found under the Heat Transfer>Metal Processing
( ) branch when adding a physics interface. The physics interface is intended for
modeling carburization processes during heat treatment. The carburization process is
based on diffusion, and it is used to compute the evolving mass fraction of carbon
when a component is exposed to a carbon rich atmosphere.
When the Carburization interface is added, three default nodes are added to the Model
Builder — a Carburization node, an Initial Values node, and a Zero Carbon Flux node.
SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.
The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.
The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is carb.
TEMPERATURE
Carbon diffusion is inherently temperature dependent. Select the temperature field to
use from the Temperature list.
CARBURIZING CYCLE
This section contains settings for the carburization process. Select the carbon potential
model to use from the Carbon potential model list. Select Boost-diffuse cycle if you want
to model a two-stage carburization process, where a boost stage is followed by a diffuse
stage. Define the Boost carbon potential cboost, the Diffuse carbon potential cdiffuse, and
the Boost period tboost. Select User defined if you want to use your own expression for
the carbon potential of the carburization process. Define the Carbon potential cpot.
Carburization
The Carburization node defines the carbon diffusion inside the domain.
98 | CHAPTER 7: CARBURIZATION
CARBON DIFFUSION
From the Diffusion coefficient list you select the diffusion coefficient that is used in the
diffusion equation. Select Arrhenius to define a thermally activated diffusion
coefficient. Define the Pre-exponential factor D0 and the Activation energy QD. Select
User defined to define the Diffusion coefficient D directly.
Carbon Flux
The Carbon Flux node is used to define the carbon exchange with the surrounding
carbon atmosphere (the exterior).
Carbon Concentration
The Carbon Concentration node is used to specify the carbon concentration at an
exterior domain boundary.
CARBON CONCENTRATION
From the list, select the carbon concentration c0. Select Carbon potential to use the
carbon potential defined at the physics interface level. Select User defined to specify the
carbon concentration c0 directly.
Initial Values
The Initial Values node is used to specify the initial carbon concentration c.
In this chapter:
| 101
Heat Transfer with Phase
Transformations
The Heat Transfer with Phase Transformations multiphysics interface ( ) combines a
Heat Transfer in Solids interface with a Metal Phase Transformation interface. When
the Heat Transfer with Phase Transformations multiphysics interface is added, the
multiphysics coupling Phase Transformation Latent Heat is included.
The discretization for the temperature field in the Heat Transfer in Solids interface is
set to Linear, because thermal strains are typically linear in the Solid Mechanics
interface.
SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.
The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.
The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is lht1.
DOMAIN SELECTION
When the coupling is added, selected entities in the coupled Heat Transfer in Solids
and Metal Phase Transformation interfaces are included by default.
COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Metal Phase
Transformation and Heat Transfer lists include all applicable physics interfaces.
• If the node is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual
toolbar (Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics
interface of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it the node added automatically when a multiphysics interface is selected in the
Model Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces
are selected.
Note that if Enable thermal strains has been selected at the Metal Phase
Transformation interface level, thermal strain effects are included in the
phase transformation strains. In this situation no Thermal Expansion
coupling should be used between Solid Mechanics and Heat Transfer in
Solids.
SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.
The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.
The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is ptstr1.
DOMAIN SELECTION
When the coupling is added, selected entities in the coupled Solid Mechanics and
Metal Phase Transformation interfaces are included by default.
COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Metal Phase
Transformation and Solid Mechanics lists include all applicable physics interfaces.
• If the node is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual
toolbar (macOS and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics
interface of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it the node added automatically when a multiphysics interface is selected in the
Model Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces
are selected.
ADVANCED SETTINGS
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Show
Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. The section is shown if
the selected Method under Time Stepping For Strains is Local ODEs. Normally these
settings do not need to be changed.
For the Local ODEs method, you can make the following settings:
• Maximum number of local iterations. This defines the maximum number of iterations
of the Newton loop when solving the local strain equations.
• Absolute tolerance. This defines the absolute tolerance for convergence of the local
strain equations. Convergence is judged based on the step size, that is, the size of
the Newton correction, of each equation.
• Relative tolerance. This defines the relative tolerance for convergence of the local
strain equations. Convergence is judged based on the step size, that is, the size of
the Newton correction, of each equation.
ANNEALING
Specify the Annealing temperature, Ta.
• The Annealing subnode can only be used with the Local ODEs method
under Time Stepping for Strains of the parent multiphysics coupling.
• The Annealing subnode must be used in conjunction with Annealing
subnodes to Plasticity nodes of the coupled Solid Mechanics interface.
The selection of the former subnode must match the aggregate
selection of the latter.
agram 23 nent 21
INDEX| 109
time and equilibrium 21
ttt diagram data 21
M mechanical properties 60
elasticity 60
equivalent plastic strains 62
plasticity 61
metal phase transformation interface 16,
74
metallurgical phase (node) 74, 77
Metallurgical phases 20
MPH-files 10
S selecting discretizations 32
discretizations for phase fractions 32
steel composition (node) 85
steel quenching interface 29
W websites, COMSOL 12
110 | I N D E X