® p-n JUNCTION APPLICATIONS, RECTIFIERS, FILTERS AND ZENER DIODE RECTIFIERS Most electric supplies provide alternating current rather than direct current. Available electrical supply at consumer terminals is ac. One of the important reasons being, ac is more easily generated and transmitted over long distances. But most electronic devices and circuits need dc voltage for their operation. For portable low power systems, batteries and cells may be used. However, their voltages are low, they need frequent replacement and are expensive as compared to conventional de power supplies. The most convenient way to change alternating to direct current is by means of a rectifier. The process of converting ac voltage into dc voltage is known as rectification. DC power supplies are obtained with the help of (i) rectifier, (ii) filter and ({ii) voltage regulator circuit. A device which converts ac voltage into de voltage is called a rectifier. Silicon diodes are generally used for power supply rectification. The non-linear characteristic of a diode is used to convert alternating current into unidirectional current. A rectifying diode can be considered as an ideal switch giving, zero forward resistance when forward biased and infinite resistance when reverse biased. All rectifiers must provide a substantially one-way path for electric current. This is called unilateral conduction or a unidirectional conduction characteristic. Rectifier circuits employ one, two or four diode(s) to provide various degrees of rectifying effectiveness. The following three rectifier circuits can be used : (i) Half-wave rectifier, (ii) Full-wave rectifier and (iii) Bridge rectifier. HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER The circuit diagram of a half-wave rectifier is shown in Fig. 4.1. It consists of a transformer, a diode and a load resistor. Depending on the output dc voltage required, a transformer of proper turns ratio N, : Nz (step-up or step-down) is selected. The primary coil of a transformer is connected to the ac mains and the secondary coil to a load resistance Ry, through the diode D. The voltage at the secondary coil of the transformer is the input for the rectifier.76 BASIC ELELTROMTS (a) Half-wave rectifier (b) Input and output voltage waveforms Fig. 4.1 Let v = Vp sin ct be the instantaneous sinusoidal voltagc of frequency f (= 50 Hz) appearing at the secondary coil of the transformer. During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode D is forward biased and it conducts the current through R,. Since the diode offers negligible resistance in the forward bias, the entire secondary voltage of transformer appears across R, as output voltage. During the negative cycle (i.e., the next half-cycle) of the sine wave, the diode D is reverse biased. Hence, no current flows in the circuit and no voltage develops across R,. Only the positive half-cycle of the input appears across the load. The input ac voltage is converted into a pulsating dc voltage as shown in the figure. This process is called half-wave rectification. The output voltage is unidirectional, pulsating and intermittent. ‘The output voltage contains a dc component and an ac component known as ripple. (i) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) During the negative half-cycle of the input, the diode is reverse biased. The voltage that appears across the load is nearly zero. All the input voltage now appears across the diode. The voltage across the diode is maximum when the input voltage is maximum. Thus, the choice of diode should be such that the reverse breakdown voltage is greater than the input voltage. The maximum reverse biased voltage that appears across the diode during the negative half-cycle is called the peak inverse voltage. Thus, for a half-wave rectifier Peak inverse voltage, PIV= Va 7 () (i) Average Values of Output Voltage and Load Current Let » = Vqsin wt = Vm sin @ be the instantaneous sinusoidal voltage appearing at the secondary coil of a transformer. If Vac is the average or dc value of output voltage across Ry, then v4, =Ateaunder the curve over the full ie = Aes under the curve over the full-cyclep-m JUNCTION APPLICATIONS, RECTIFIERS, FILTERS AND ZENER DIODE 77 ® 0d8 L* poae #2 [coh = -o- -Cl as +@ Loos If Ige is average value of load current, then 7 Tae «= Ze. wos, (m8) -@ The above Eqs. (2) and (3) show that average or dc value of load voltage or current is 31.8% of the maximum voltage or current. Since the ac input voltage is applied through the transformer, it is necessary to include the secondary winding resistance R,. The diode used is a practical diode ard will have finite forward resistance. Considering *yis the average zc resistance of the diode, the peak value of load current will be ieee ™ = RLtR + Hence the de load current is = ——_ta __ Ie = 0318 Ig 0318 R, +R The load current i, which is composed of ac and de components can be expressed using Fourier series as i, = In [E +}sin ot -2 cos 20t- $ cos 4 wt (ii) RMS value of Load Current The effective or rms value of load current is given by 1F (de) { i fa rs 2, sin? Mods tn an fm in? 6d0 (i= Im sin 8) Pe fF 2n RX a [ Omen dae [0.8878 BASIC ELECTRONICS ta (n) I, ¥, Soe 76 Thus, ems > Lae: (iv) Ripple Factor (y) The output of half-wave rectifier is unidirectional, but fluctuates greatly with time. Hence, the output is a pulsating dc i., it contains de and ac components. The undesired ac components are called ripples. How effectively a rectifier converts ac power into de power is described quantitatively by terms such as ripple factor, rectification efficiency, etc. ‘The ripple factor is a measure of purity of the de output of a rectifier. Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the rms value of the ac component of load current tte creme veo adem Rls mene ftp td op ‘a rms value of ac component Ripple factor, Y = average value or de component = ‘The rms value of current is given by hme * Vik * he = Vie n Ripple factor, y = ne V im le (Tope VE “vi es) -1 «Vin i (Tega Ty/ 274 Tse Ie /A) Vas7F=1 ye 121 76 Since y > 1, it shows that rms value of ac component of wave (ripple) is greater than de value of wave. Hence, the half-wave rectifier is a poor device for the conversion of ac voltage into de voltage.pon JUNCTION APPLICATIONS, RECTIFIERS, FILTERS AND ZENER DIODE 79 (v) Efficiency of Rectification (n) The efficiency of rectification is defined as the ratio of the-dc output power to the input ac power. i gutput de power _ Py. Rectifier efficiency, ) = input ac power." Pa -M Now, dc output power, Pac = bra uN acinput power, Py. = Tims (Re+ Ri +1) 2 I, 1 RHR (tome = 2) Fig Re/? Fy (Re+ Ru + 1/4 ne aq tRe = 006 R (R,+ Ri +1) ~ (Re+Ty+ RD) Efficiency, ) = 0.406 78) The efficiency will be maximum if Ry > > (Ry + 7)- Timex = 0.406 Maximum rectifier effi acy, Nnax = 40.6%| > (9) This shows that in half-wave rectification, a maximum of 40.6% of ac power is converted. into de power. The ripple frequency of the half-wave rectifier is the same as that of input because only one-half of each cycle of the ac input is used to produce dc output. (vi) Voltage Regulation The regulation is a measure of the variation of the de output voltage as a function of the de current and is defined as % Regulation = Wied —Viulliand 499 = (19 Veatt tox For an ideal power supply the % nee will be zero. For a practical half-wave % Regulation See x 100% == x 100% (When Ry << r)) > (a) (vii) Form Factor The form factor of the waveform is defined as the ratio of rms value of the load voltage tothe de component. Vine _ tome _ In/2_ Form factor, Fp =f = = 7 = 5 = 15780 BASIC ELECTRONICS Using the form factor, ripple factor, y= \VF2—1_ (vif) Transformer Utilisation Factor In any power supply, the transformer rating is to be properly chosen. The factor which indicates how much is the utilization of the transformer in the circuit is called transformer utilization factor. Transformer utilization factor with reference to the secondary is defined as the ratio of de power delivered to the load to ac power rating of the transformer secondary. TUR « de power delivered to the load . ac power rating of the transformer secondary For a half-wave rectifier circuit, 2 2 aR = eRe tL Ig V2, Veln/2N2 Vink Vint 22 Ip 1 22 i a = 2S Since y = g.-TUFs = “Ga = 0287 It is clear that in half-wave rectifier circuit, the transformer is not fully utilized. ‘The TUF, with reference to the primary has the same value as TUF,. Effect of Barrier Potential When the practical diod2 model is used, the barrier potential of 0.7 V should be taken into account. During the positive half-cylce, the input voltage must overcome the barrier potential, before the diode becomes forward biased. For a Si diode, this results in a half- ‘wave output with a peak value that is 0.7 V less than the peak value of the input. For silicon, the expression for the output voltage is Veniout) = Vein) 0.7 V This effect of the barrier potential is generally neglected when the peak value of the applied voltage is much greater than the barrier potential. Disadvantages of Half-wave Rectifier 1. Since the ripple factor, y = 1.21 is greater than de value, the half-wave rectifier is a poor device for the conversion of ac voltage into de voltage. 2. Efficiency of rectification is very low (n = 0.406). 3. Ithas a low transformer utilisation factor (TUF = 0.287). FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER The circuit diagram of a full-wave rectif-2r is shown in Fig. 4.2. It consists of two diodes Dy and D2 connected to the centre tapped secondary coil of a transformer and a load resistor, R,. The primary coii of transformer is connected to the ac mains. Notice that only one-half of the total secondary voltage is used for each dioviep-n JUNCTION APPLICATIONS, RECTIFIERS, FILTERS AND ZENER DIODE 81 Let v = V, sin wt be the instantaneous sinusoidal voltage of frequency f (= 50 Hz) appearing across the secondary coil. The secondary voltage is split into two halves, one half appearing across D, in series with R,, the other half appearing across D; also in series with the load resistor, R,. vi 0} ' ooo Outpot voltage (a) Full-wave rectifier (©) Input and output voltage waveforms Fig, 4.2 During the positive half-cycle of the ac input, the terminal A is positive with respect to B. The diode D, is forward biased. The current therefore flows through the diode D, and voltage is developed across Ri. The direction of the current is indicated by solid arrows. During the negative half-cycle, the terminal A is negative with respect to B. The diode Dy is then forward biased. Consequently, the current flows through the load resistor R, and is indicated by the dotted arrows. Note that the rectified current flows in the same direction through R, during conduction in either diode. The diodes D, and D, conduct alternately, and both halves of the input appear across load. Hence, the circuit functions as a full-wave rectifier. The de output voltage is positive at the common cathodes of the diodes. The waveforms of the input ac voltage and output de voltage are shown in Fig. 4.2 (b). ‘The rectified voltage is unidirectional, continuous but not constant. (i) Peak Inverse Voltage Each diode in a full-wave rectifier is alternately forward biased and reverse biased. When the diode D, is forward biased, the voltage across the non-conducting diode Dz is equal to the sum of the voltages across the lower half of the secondary coil and the load resistor ie, maximum diode voltage Vp, + Vm —(- Vn) = 2 Vm. Hence, peak inverse voltage across the non-conducting diode is given by PIV=2Vq = (1) (ii) Average values of Output and Load Current Averageorde value, __ Area under the curve over a half-cycle of the output voltage = Base82 BASIC ELECTRONICS rr ® ® * Vy sin 8 dO z Zz (0 = Vmsin@) . . = ey sinodo= 42 [-cnoh, = 2 [1-0] v, Vie = 2m 0 0.636 Vn 42 ‘The corresponding load current is given by > 8 The above Eqs. (2) and (3) show that the average or de value of load voltage or current is 63.6% of the maximum voltage or current. Considering the secondary winding resistance, R, and the forward resistance r; of the diode, ee Me Me Ri+R, +7" 8(RL +R, +H) Since two diodes conduct in alternate half cycles, the load current is given by i, = ip, + ip, ip, = tn [3+ } sin ot - 2 00s 2 01-735 cos 4 ot 11 2 2 ip = In[3~Fsin ot - 2 cos 201 -Z cos 4 0t.-] 2 4 4 i i= In[2- 3008201 - 75, e084 a... (iii) RMS value of Load Current The rms value of load current is given by 2n, {** an, * Inns = le ag { fm simoaep-n JUNCTION APPLICATIONS, RECTIFIERS, FILTERS AND ZENER DIODE 83 Qn J sin? 6 d@ ® nls zi] forows 0 Img = 2% = 0.707 le > (4) (iv) Ripple Factor (y) The ripple factor for the full-wave rectifier is given by : __ fms value of ac component Ripple factor, y = < : Since the power dissipated in the load resistance defines the rms value of current and total power is the sum of the power dissipated by the direct and alternating components, we have Tims Ru = Tae Ri loc Re Te = Time ~ be >) and Ripple factory = +‘) VG 1 = Vg = V@y-1 y = 0.482 > 6 ‘The lower ripple factor means that percentage of ac component in the output is smaller. (v) Efficiency of Rectification (n) ‘The rectifier efficiency is given by 1 = dcoutput power _ Pa 3M ac input power ~ Pac Now, de output power, Pa = Tae Re = (ay R, ac input power, Py = May (y+R.+R) = (a) (y+ RL 4+R) a= (aye / (gy e80984 BASIC ELECTRONICS {ea 7 ®@ The rectification efficiency is maximum if R, >>r;+R,. Therefore, maximum rectification efficiency, max = 81.2%. Since the current repeats itself twice in every cycle of the supply voltage, the ripple frequency of the output voltage is twice (2f = 100 8Hz) that of the frequency of the input voltage. (vi) Form Factor It is given by Fy= AE aan (vii) Transformer Utilization Factor Considering the secondary as made up of two half-wave rectifiers feeding a common load resistor, the TUF with reference to the secondary is Tur, « ——SCPowertothe load _ Pig * = ac power rating of secondary ~ Pac = eh Ri 8 tak Vie Tema” & 5? Van v2 Since Vin = Im Rt, TUF, = 3 = 0812 From the point of view of the primary, the de currents in the two halves of the secondary cancel. Hence, the TUF with reference to the primary is TUF, = 2x TUF of half-wave = 2x0.287 = 0574 Hence, Average TuF » TUfa2 TUR = oer 0.812 = Thus, in full-wave circuit, transformer gets utilized more than the half-wave circuit.pn JUNCTION APPLICATIONS, RECTIFIERS, FILTERS AND ZENER DIODE 85 Voltage Regulation Vad (V, v jon = oltage regulation =e (Via _ Wm 2 For a full-wave circuit, (Vidw = “= J (RL+Re+1) and (adn. = lac R = 2 21, 21 Flory + Ry +7) OR s Voltage regulation = 28 _— 2m, ® vr. = Rte Re Percentage VR = art 100 Advantage 1. Compared to half-wave rectifier, the output voltage is continuous. Disadvantages 1. _ It is difficult to locate the centre tap on the secondary winding. 2. The diodes used must have high PIV. 3. The de output is small as each diode utilises only one-half of the transformer secondary voltage. 4. Transformer with centre tap is required. ‘THE BRIDGE RECTIFIER ‘The bridge rectifier is the most frequently used circuit for electronic dc power supplies. It does not need a centre tap transformer. In the case of a full-wave rectifier using a centre tap transformer, the centre tap may not provide an exact centre tap and hence, two input half waves may not be of equal size. Hence, the adjacent pulses in the output waveform will be of unequal size. This is eliminated in the bridge rectifier by using four diodes. 4 A © Fig. 4.3 Bridge rectifier86 BASIC ELECTRONICS: The circuit diagram of a bridge rectifier is shown in Fig. 4.3. It consists of four diodes D,, Dz, D3 and Dy connected in the form of a bridge ABCD. Two leads A and C of the network are connected to the secondary coil and the other two leads D and B are connected to the load resistor Ry. Let v = V, sin @ be the instantaneous sinusoidal voltage of frequency, f (= 50 Hz) appearing across the secondary coil of transformer. During the positive half-cycle, the terminal A is positive with respect to C. The diodes Dj and Dy are forward biased and act as shorts. At this instant, the diodes D, and D, are reverse biased and hence act 28 open. The current flows in the direction A D; BR, D DyC A [Fig. 4.3 (b)] producing a voltage drop R,- Durirg, the negative half-cycle the terminal A is negative with respect to C. The diodes D, and D, are forward biased and tne diodes D, and D; are reverse biased. The current flows along C D2 B Ri D D, A C [Fig. 4.3 (c)] producing a voltage drop across R,. Thus, there is output voltage during both halves of the input cycle. The rectifier is therefore, a full-wave rectifier. The input voltage and output voltage waveforms are the same as that of full-wave rectifier, shown in Fig. 4.2. The output voltage is unidirectional, continuous but not constant. The output de voltage and current, the rms current, ripple factor and efficiency will all be the same as for a centre tap rectifier. The frequency of the output voltage is twice that of the frequency of the input voltage. ; GoM ie., f= fi Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) During the positive half-cycle of input signal, the diodes D, and D3 are conducting. Neglecting the forward resistances of the diodes, the entir: inpvt peak voltage appears across the load R,. At this instant, the diodes D2 and Dy are reverse biased. Hence, the voltage across the ‘conducting diode D, or D, is also V,,, Thus, Advantages 1, _Itdoes not require a transformer with centre tapped secondary. 2. The output voltage is twice that of centre tap rectifier for the same secondary voltage. 3. The PIV rating need be only half of the rating required for full-wave rectifier. 4. It is suitable for high voltage applications. Disadvantages 1. It uses four diodes. 2. Since two diodes in series are always carrying current, the voltage drop and power loss in diodes in the bridge circui more than that in the full-wave circuit. This factor assumes greatér importance in high voltage circuits. Note : Now a days, the bridge rectifiers are so common that manufacturers are packing them as a single unit with bakelite or some other plastic encapsulation with external connections brought out.p-n JUNCTION APPLICATIONS, RECTIFIERS, FILTERS AND ZENER DIODE 87 Table 4.i Comparison of Practical Rectifier Circuits Number of dicdes Transformer necessary Secondary line-to-line voltage Peak inverse voltage (PIV) DC Voltage RMS current Rippie factor (y) Efficiency (n) Ripple frequency FILTERS ‘The rectifier output contains de component as well as ac component. The presence of ac component (ripple) in the rectifier’s output is responsible for the pulsations in the wave. Hence, the output of a rectifier has to be smoothened. The process of removing or minimising the ripples in the rectifier output is known as filtering. A circuit which removes the ripples in the rectifier output without affecting the de component is called a filter. 4 le bev ; ‘output Fig. 4.4 The ripple in the output causes huh at 50 Hz or 100 Hz with power supply rectifiers. In radio receivers, the excessive ripple in the audio signal produces a constant low pitch sound called hum. In television receivers, excessive hum ripple at 50 Hz or 100 Hz in the video signal produces one or two of dark and light hotizontal bars. The bars usually drift slowly up or down on the screen. Fijtering is therefore, necessary because electronic circuits require a constant source of de voltage and current. The ripples can be eliminated by the smoothing action of filter circuits consisting of capacitors, inductors (chokes) and resistors. The inductance offers low resistance to the flow of de. The capacitor offers high resistance for de and a low resistanie for ac.88 BASIC ELECTRONICS Since an ideal inductor acts as a short for de, it cannot be placed in shunt arm across the load, otherwise the de will be shorted. Hence, in a filter circuit, the inductor is always connected in series with the load. Similarly, an ideal capacitor acts as an open for dc. Therefore, it cannot be connected in series with the load. It is always connected in parallel with the load. {An ideal inductor will be the element to be used under the first alternative and an ideal capacitor under the second alternative. Since ideal elements will not be feasible, we use practical inductors and capacitors as filter elements. Thus, filter is an electronic circuit consisting either a capacitor, an inductor or combination of the both connected between the rectifier and the lead. The following are the types of filter circuits which are most commonly used: 1. Capacitor filter 2. Choke input filter or shunt capacitor filter 3. Capacitor input filter or n-type filter 1. CAPACITOR FILTER ‘The most common type of filter is the capacitor input filter. The operation of a capacitor filter depends upon the property of a capacitor to charge up (i.e., siore electrical energy) when conducting and to discharge (i.e., deliver energy) during the non-conducting cycle. In other words, a capacitor opposes any change in voltage. When it is connected across a pulsating dc voltage, action of a capacitor filter is to smoothen out the voltage ripples or pulsations. Figure 45 (a) shows a half-wave rectifier using a capacitor C in shunt with the load Ry as the filter. The capacitor offers a low reactance path to the ac component. Hence, all the dec current passes through the load, producing a small ripple voltage, as shown in Fig. 4.5 (b). Capacitor stores electric energy. During the positive half-cycle of the ac input voltage, the diode is forward biased. It allows the capacitor to charge quickly to its maximum value Of vollage Vig as Fig. 4.5 Rectifler and capacitor outpy, “aveforms indicated in the curve QA in Fig. 45 (b). When the ac input voltage begins .« decrease below i : 2 5 5p-n JUNCTION APPLICATIONS, RECTIFIERS, FILTERS AND ZENER DIODE 89 its maximum value, the capacitor discharges through the load resistor Ri. The discharging, time constant (the product of R, and C) is much greater than (usually 100 times) the time period T of the input signal. Because of this, the capacitor will lose only a small part of its charge. Asa result, the capacitor maintains a large voltage across the load resistance Ri. When the source voltage again reaches its peak, the diode conducts and recharges the capacitor to the maximum voltage Vm. It is indicated by the curve BC. In other words, after the capacitor is initially charged during the first quarter cycle, its voltage is approximately equal to the peak secondary voltage. The load voltage i-e., output voltage is now almost a constant dc voltage. The only deviation from a pure de voltage is the small ripple caused by charging and discharging the capacitor. Let v= Vmsinat > (1) be the instantaneous sinusoidal voltage appearing across the diode. When the diode conducts, the diode current i is the sum of the load resistor current i, and the capacitor current ic. Hence, i= pti +) ie Rte Vm sin ot , Cd (Vm sin of) Ri dt Diodecurrent, i = Ynsinot + CV gio cos ot > 0) tL This current is in the form of sin (wt +) where, Im = Vn +02? = OC Vm _ and tano = T7gn = WR, 7 or @ = tan“ (@CR,) 7-6 The point at which diode starts conducting is called cut in point and that at which it stops conducting is called the cutout point. In Fig. 45 (b), wf; = cutout time and wf, = cut in time. At the cut out time fy, the diode stops conducting. Hence, diode current i= Oatt=h. 0 = Imsin (wt; +) or sin (cot +6) = 0 or oh +o=n or at = 1-0 aa) wt, = n- tan (wCR,) = (8)90 BASIC ELECTRONICS When the diode is non-conducting i.e., from fy to ty capacitor C discharges through Ry. with a time constant CR,. Since the capacitor voltage is equal to the load voltage, we have Output voltage, U9 = Ae /CRL >) where A is a constant. To determine A, note that at the cutout time f = fy, U9 = 0; = Vm Sin hy. The Eq. (9) becomes Vm sin wt, = A et/CRL a oH = Viq sin or Y/R Output voltage, vg = Vay sin onty e'!/CRL | t/CRL U9 = Vm sin ont IRL > (10) The above equation shows that output voltage decays exponentially at f,. This voltage interesects the sinusoidally varying Vj, sin wt in the following cycle at cut in time fz, where diode starts conducting (point B). Thus, 2% = Vmsin ot for wt < wt < ot, and 29 = Vmsin wt et n/CRL for wt, <@t <2n+ oh A For half-wave rectifier with capacitor input filter, the ripple factor is given by > (1) Full Wave Rectifier Figure 4.6 (a) shows a full-wave rectifier using a capacitor in shunt with the load as the filter. If X¢ << Rt, then the capacitor acts as a low impedance for the ripple and bypasses the ripple component of current. Hence, the ripple voltage in R, is considerably reduced. When power is switched on, the capacitor C gets charged to peak value of the input voltage Vim through forward biased diode D, during first quarter cycle of the rectified output voltage. During next quarter cycle from n/2 to m, the capacitor discharges slowly depending on the time constant t (= CR,) through Ri. When the input voltage is less than the capacitor voltage, the diode becomes reverse biased and no current flows during the time T;. So, during the period from x/2 to m, the capacitor C supplies the load current. It discharges through Ry along AB exponentially. Again at point B, the input voltage exceeds the capacitor voltage making diode D, forward biased. The diode current then charges the capacitor during the time interval T,. Thus, the diode current is in the form of pulses of short duration. At C, the capacitor voltage is again Vj. This process repeats. The output waveform shown in Fig. 4.6(b) can be approximated by straight-line segments. If the total capacitor discharge voltage is V,, then, the average de output voltage is given by Vac = Vn > ()pen JUNCTION APPLICATIONS, RECTIFIERS, FILTERS AND ZENER DIODE o1 The ripole V, is triangular in shape. The rms value of this triangular wave is V, Vine = —E me = 35 > 2) The amount of charge lost during discharge time T through the load is Qaischirge = Nae Tr 30) This charge is replenished in the short interval T, during which the voltage across the capacitor changes by V,. Hence, the charge supplicd to the capacitor is Quharge = VexC 74) In the steady state, Qcharge = Qutischarge g, v, = liza > 6) The better the filtering action, the smaller will be the conduction time T; and the closer T; will approach the time of half a cycle. Hence, assume that T; = T/2 = 1/2f, where f is the power-line frequency. L Then V, = 2c > ) Ripple factor, y= Vim —uc__ Vac 4N3 fCVq ve aN3fcR, CR —aG where f = 50 Hz, Cis in pF and R, in Q. la = (_APRC And Yue = Vn 7H = (Gest) Ven > @) ‘The ripple is seen to vary inversely with load resistance R, and with the capacitance C. AC mains 20V (a) Full-wave rectifier with capacitor filter (b) Waveform of output voltage and diode current pulses Fig. 46 The lower the ripple factor, the better the filter. The ripple factor can be lowered by increasing the value of the capacitor or increasing the load resistance.92 ASIC ELECTRONICS Advantages 1. Rectifiers employing capacitor input filters have small ripple and high voltages at light load. 2. The no-load voltage is (theoretically) equal to the maximum transformer Voltage. Disadvantages 1. Rectifiers employing capacitor input filters have relatively poor regulation. 2. They exhibit ripple at large loads. 3. They impose serious restrictions on the diode ie,, the peak current may be excessive. Surge Current in the Capacitor InpetFter Consider a bridge rectifier as shown in Fig. 4.7 (a). F is the fuse and S the switch. Before the switch S is closed, the capacitor is uncharged. At the instant, the switch is closed i.e., at t = 0, the diodes D, and Ds become forward biased and the uncharged capacitor acts as a = short, as shown. This produces” (0) Maximum surge current occurs when switch an initial surge of current, Iourge is closed at peak of an input cycle through the diodes D, and D3. Since the forward resistance of diodes is very small, a large current known as surge current flows instantaneously through the two forward biased diodes D, and Dy. This current flows at the instant the switch is closed. ‘The worst case situation occurs pee Riles caeaiae when the switch is closed at a ©) Asaras raioor Ry Mens the surge peak of the secondary voltage Fig 47 and a maximum surge current, Ipurgeiaux) i8 produced. ‘Such a maximum surge current can destroy the diodes. To limit the surge current, a surge limiting resistor R, is connected as shown in Fig. 4.7 (b). The value of this resistor must be small compared to R,. Also, the diodes must have a maximum forward surge current rating such that they can withstand the momentary surge of current. This rating is specified in diode data sheets as Ips. The minimum surge resistor value is given by R= Youma=tAV for bridge rectifier R= Yaa? ¥ for other rectifier circuits