2180909-PSOC Lecture Notes

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KALOL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND RESEARCH CENTRE,

KALOL

Electrical Department

Lecture Note

POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL (2180909)

Semester: - 8th (E.E)

Prepared By: -

Prof. Mihir K Patel

Assistant Professor

Department of Electrical Engineering

KITRC, Kalol
AUTOMATIC GENERATION
AND VOLTAGE CONTROL

1. AUTO MA TIC GENERA TIO N A ND V OL TA GE


CONTROL

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Load Frequency Control (Single Area Case)
1.3 Load Frequency Control and Economic Despatch Control
1.4 Two-Area Load Frequency Control
1.5 Optimal (Two-Area) Load Frequency Control
1.6 Automatic Voltage Control
1.7 Load Frequency Control with Generation Rate Constraints (GRCs)
1.8 Speed Governor Dead-Band and Its Effects on AGC
1.9 Digital LF Controllers
1.10 Decentralized Control

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The main goal of Power System operation and control is to maintain the continuous power supply with
an acceptable limit at receiving side of the system. The Power System/Network remains in stable
operation when there is a balanced, maintain between the power generation and Load demand. In Power
System Operation there are mainly two components are important to maintain in balanced conditions:-

 Active Power and


 Reactive Power

If we can provide Active & Reactive Power control than our System operates in balanced condition. For
Active & Reactive Power control in power system, there are basically two types of methods are
normally used:-

 Voltage Profile Control and


 Frequency Value Control
The first method is used for Reactive power balanced and it is also known as Automatic Voltage
Regulator (AVR). While the second method is used for Active Power balanced and it is known as
Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC), which also known as Automatic Generation Control
(AGC).

But, In Power System the Values of Active & Reactive Power does not remain same, so it is important

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to control the steam flow into the generator for maintaining constant Active Power value as per the
demand. While at the other side, we also need to maintain the Reactive Power value Constant as per the
demand using regulated operation of the Excitation system of generating. If we do not maintain the
values of Active & Reactive Power in acceptable limits than the different bus voltages are affected and
they creates problems in the System.

In Modern Power System/Network it is not possible to control that regulation operation manually. So,
Automatic generation and Voltage Regulation has been utilized in the latest generator system.

Fig 1.1-Load Frequency and Excitation Voltage Controller for Generator

Fig 1.1 shows the configuration of Load Frequency and Excitation Voltage Controller for the generator.
The Controllers are designed for the particular operating conditions and they will provide control for
any kind of small changes in load demand without changing the values of voltage & Frequency.
Whenever the load demand variations are very high the controllers must be reset Automatically or
Manually.

The Active Power value is dependent on the synchronous machine angle δ and it is independent of bus
voltage in the system. On the other side that bus voltage is dependent on synchronous machine
excitation system and it is independent on synchronous machine angle δ. So, from this discussion, we

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can say that machine angle δ is useful for Active Power and on other side bus voltage value is useful for
Reactive Power.

Now the machine angle δ is varied using generator speed variation and at other side excitation system
voltage control and & Load frequency control is done with the help of generator field & time constant
calculation for turbine and generator moment of inertia. From all that study, we can classify load
demand in mainly two types:-

 Slow varying Changes in demand and


 Fast random variation in demand

In the system the control regulators are designed to be insensitive to fast random changes in demand
otherwise large damage and problems occur in the machine and also in the system.

1.2 LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL (SINGLE AREA CASE)

The Automatic load frequency control (ALFC) is used to control the frequency deviation by maintaining
the Active Power balance in the system. The functions which are performed by ALFC are given as
below:-

 To maintain the steady Frequency


 Fast random variation in demand
 Distribute the load among the generating units of the interconnected system

The control signal includes the tie line power flow deviation ∆Ptie and the frequency deviation ∆f.These
two error signals are amplified, modified and transformed into a real power signal. Which controls the
valve position at the steam inlet in the system. Depending on the valve position the turbine changes its
output power for Active power balancing. The proposed control scheme is shown in fig 1.2 below:-

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Fig 1.2-Control scheme of ALFC system

Modelling of Generator Block

Now for the single area system analysis the models for each block of fig 1.2 are required. The generator
& electrical load represents the power block. While the valve & Hydraulic amplifier represents the speed
governing system. The generator block has been modeled using the swong equation as given below:-

Fig 1.3- Generator Block representation

Apply the swing equation of synchronous machine for small deviation/change and it is given as:-

2H  2 
 Pm  Pe …………………………………. (1.1)
 t 2

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It can be calculated as given below in terms of small deviation in speed:-


d
 s  1 ( Pm  Pe) …………………………… (1.2)
dt 2H

Take the Laplace transform of eq-1.2 and we get:-

1
( s )  [ Pm( s )  Pe( s )] ……………………………. (1.3)
2 Hs

Where, H is represents per unit Inertia constant


Kinetic Energy in MJ at rated sped
H=
Machine rating in MVA

∆Pm = Change into mechanical power

∆Pe = Change in electrical power

δ = Power Angle

ω = Speed (Angular Velocity of rotor)

Modelling of Electrical Load

Next is the mathematical modeling of Electrical load. The electrical load on the power system consists
variety of electrical drives. The equipment used for lighting purpose is basically resistive while the
rotating devices are composite of resistive & inductive components. The relation between speed and load
has been given as :-

∆Pe = ∆PL + D∆ω ………………………………………. (1.4)

Where,

∆PL =Non Frequency sensitive load change

D∆ω = Frequency sensitive load change

D is expressed as percentage change in load by percentage change in frequency.

Modelling of Prime Mover Block

Now we design the model of prime mover block in this section. The power generation source in any
system is the prime mover. The steam from the burning of coal, gas or any fuel is given to the prime
mover system, it can be hydraulic or steam turbine, which is useful for changes in mechanical power

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output ∆Pm and provide control for changes in steam valve position ∆Pv. The mathematical model
representation of the prime mover is given as:-

Pm( s) 1
GT   ………………………………. (1.5)
Pv( s) 1   s

Where the turbine constant value is in the range of 0.2-2.0 Sec.

Modelling of Governor Block

When the electrical load is suddenly increased then the electrical power exceeds the mechanical power
input. As a result of this the deficiency of power in the load side is extracted from the rotating energy of
the turbine. Due to this reason the kinetic energy of the turbine, i.e. the energy stored in the machine is
reduced and the governor sends a signal to supply more volumes of water or steam or gas to increase the
speed of the prime mover so as to compensate speed deficiency.

Fig 1.4-Graphical Representation of speed regulation by governor

The slope of the curve represents speed regulation R. Governors typically have a speed regulation of 5-6
% from no load to full load. The mathematical representation of governor block is given as:-

1
Pg   Pr ef  f …………………………………….. (1.6)
R

This equation can also be expressed in transformation (s-domain) as:-


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1
Pg ( s )   Pr ef  ( s ) ……………………………… (1.7)
R

The command ΔPg is transformed through a hydraulic amplifier to the steam valve position command
ΔPv. We assume a linear relationship and consider simple time constant  g we have the following s-
domain relation:

1
Pv( s)  Pg ( s) ………………………………….. (1.8)
1  g

Combining all the mathematical block diagrams from earlier block diagrams for a single are system we
get the following:

Fig 1.5- Mathematical Modelling of Block Diagram of the single area system consisting of
Generator, Load, Prime Mover and Governor

Form above discussion and calculation we can say that we can easily provide load frequency control for
a single area system case using the different component block like generator, Electrical load, Prime
mover and generator.

1.3 LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL AND ECONOMIC DESPATCH CONTROL

Load frequency control with the extra integral controller provides zero steady state frequency error and
also provides a fast dynamic response, but it does not provide control over the relative loadings of
various generating units of the proposed control area. For example, if there are any small load changes
occurring in the system, then the load frequency control changes the speed of the governors of all
generating units of the system and provides control of load & Frequency value to its normal value, all

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this process done in only few seconds. But in the system changes in generating units are different and
also independent then it is difficult to provide control using ALFC system. Due to that there is a
proportional gain or adjusting gain factor (Ki) has been included in the signal representing integral of the
area control error for individual generating units. However, this is also not satisfactory in the load
frequency control & economic dispatch control.

Fig 1.6- Schematic diagram of load frequency control and economic dispatch control

The satisfactory solution is possible by individual controller for load frequency control & economic
dispatch control. The load frequency control is very fast acting controller, which operates for a few
seconds and control the system around an operating point. While the other side economic dispatch
controller operates very slowly and provides adjustment of speed changer setting every minute as per the
signal received from the central economic dispatch computer (CEDC). Fig 1.6 represents the schematic
diagram of both these controls for two typical units of a control area.

The signal used for speed changer setting has been calculated as an economic dispatch error signal, [Pg
(Required) - Pg (Actual)], which is modified by the signal representing integral ACE at any instant of
time. The signal Pg (required) is calculated by the central economic dispatch computer (CEDC) and is

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AND VOLTAGE CONTROL

given to Local economic dispatch controller (EDC) which has been installed in each unit. So the system
operates with economic dispatch error only during short time period interval before it is readjusted.

1.4 TWO AREA LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL

If there is interconnection exists between two control areas through tie line than that is called a two area
interconnected power system. Fig-1.7 shows a two area power system where each area supplies to its
own area and the power flow between the areas are allowed by the tie line.

Fig- 1.7 Two Area Interconnected Power System

An extended power system can be divided into a number of load frequency control areas interconnected
by means of tie lines. Without loss of generality we shall consider a two area case connected by a single
tie line as shown in fig 1.8 below:-

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Fig 1.8-Two control area connected with a single tie line

The main aim of this concept is to control the frequency of each area and also simultaneously regulate
the tie line power as per inter area power contracts. For the frequency control there are proportional plus
integral controller has been provided to give zero steady state error in the tie line power flow as
compared to contracted power. For easy convenience, each control area is assumed as an equivalent to
turbine, generator and governor.

In an isolated control area case the incremental power (∆P G-∆PD) has been calculated from the rate of
increase of stored kinetic energy and increase in load of the area caused by an increase in the frequency
value. Since a tie line transports power in or out of a control area, this fact must be calculated from the
incremental power balance equation of each area as given below:-

Power transfer of control area-1 is given as:-

V1 V 2
Ptie , 1  Sin( 1   2) ………………………………….. (1.9)
X 12

Where, δ1 and δ2 = power angles of equivalent machines of the two control areas

For incremental changes in δ1 and δ2, the incremental tie line power can be given as:-

Ptie, 1( p.u )  T 12( 1   2) ……………………………… (1.10)

Where,
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V1 V 2
T 12  Cos( 1   2) …………………………………(1.11)
Pr 1 X 12

Which is also known as synchronizing co-efficient.

Since incremental power angles are integrals of incremental frequencies, we can calculate as:-

Ptie , 1  2T 12(   f 1dt    f 2dt ) …………………………(1.12)

Where,

∆f1 and ∆f2 are incremental frequency changes of control area-1 and control area-2 respectively.

Same as above, we can also calculate the incremental tie line power for control area-2 given as:-

Ptie , 2  2T 21(   f 2 dt    f 1dt ) …………………………. (1.13)

Where,

V 2 V1
T 21  Cos( 2   1)
Pr 2 X 21

Pr 1
( )T 12  a12T 12
Pr 2

Taking the Laplace transform of power flow in tie line for control area-1 and control area-2 which has
been written as given below:-

2T 12
Ptie , 1( s )  ( F 1( s )  F 2( s )) …………………………… (1.14)
s

And for control area-2;

2T 12a12
Ptie , 2( s )  ( F 1( s )  F 2( s )) ……………………….. (1.15)
s

These two power can also be represented by the block diagram as shown in fig below:-

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Fig 1.9-Block diagram representation of power

Fig 1.10- Block diagram representation of tie line power flow

Now we have to calculate the area control error (ACE) when tie line is provided for two control area
case. In the single control area case ACE has been calculated as the change in area frequency which is
used in integral control loop forced the steady state frequency error to zero.

On the other side, in two area control the steady state tie line power error made zero with the help of
another integral control loop. In this control scheme integrate the tie line power signal and feed it back to
the speed changer. This has been done by a single integrating block by redefining ACE as a linear
combination of incremental frequency and tie line power. So we can calculate it as given below for
control area-1:-

ACE1=∆Ptie,1+b1∆f1 ………………………………………. (1.16)

Where constant b1 is known as frequency bias.

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This equation can also be given using Laplace Transform as:-

ACE1(s)=∆Ptie,1(s)+b1∆F1(s)………………………………… (1.17)

Similarly, we can also write the equation of ACE for control area-2 as:-

ACE2=∆Ptie,2+b2∆f2 ………………………………….. (1.18)

This equation can also be given using Laplace Transform as:-

ACE2(s)=∆Ptie,2(s)+b2∆F2(s)………………………….. (1.19)

Now we can combine the basic block diagrams of these two control areas same as in the single area case,
with ∆Pc1 (s) and ∆Pc2 (s) generated by integrals of respective ACE signals and make the combine block
diagram as shown in fig 1.11 below:-

Fig 1.11-Combine Block diagram of Two area load frequency control system

Let us consider the step changes in loads are ∆PD1 and ∆PD2 which is for control area-1 and area-2. When
the steady state condition reached the output signal of all the integral blocks will become constant and
for that input signal must become zero.

From the fig 1.11 we can say that the following input signals become zero.

∆Ptie,1+b1∆f1=0………………………………………(1.20)

∆Ptie,2+b2∆f2=0………………………………………(1.21)

∆f1-∆f2=0…………………………………………….(1.22)

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Now from equation (1.12) and (1.13),

Ptie,1 T 12 1
  =Constant…………………… (1.23)
Ptie, 2 T 21 a12
So the equation (1.20) and (1.23) are simultaneously satisfied for the following conditions:-

Ptie, 1 = Ptie, 2 = 0 and

∆f1=∆f2=0 …………………………………. (1.24)

So from that condition, we can say that under the steady state condition change in the line power and
frequency of each or two control areas is zero. This has been achieved by the integration of ACE in the
feedback loops of each control area. Dynamic response is very difficult to obtain by the transfer function
approach because of complexity of large no. of inputs and outputs in the system. The simulation and
result analysis of two area control is also possible with the help of computer system.

1.5 OPTIMAL (TWO AREA) LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL

Modern control theory concept has been used in this section for an optimal load frequency controller for
a two area control system. In that concept ∆Pc1 and ∆Pc2 will be considered as control inputs u1 and u2 is
provided by the integrals of ACEs. Two variables that are used for integral feedback loop for different
state variables for controlling the two area load frequency in the system. Now from fig 1.12 shows the
each block has been opened & derived their time constant calculation given as below:-

Fig 1.12-State space variable model for two area control system

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The state variables of each block has been calculated as given below:-

Compare the fig 1.11 and 1.12 we get

X1=∆f1 X4=∆f2 X8=∫ACE1dt

X2=∆PG1 X5=∆PG1 X9=∫ACE2dt

U1=∆PC1 U2=∆PC1

W1=∆PD1 W2=∆PD1

The different Block function or state variables are given as below:-

Kps  1
Block-1 :
1  TpsS

1
Block-2 :
1  Tt1S

1
Block-3 :
1  Tsg 1S

Kps 2
Block-4 :
1  Tps 2 S

1
Block-5 :
1  Tt 2 S

1
Block-6 :
1  Tsg 2 S

2 T 12
Block-7 :
S

1
Block-8 :
S

1
Block-9 :
S

Now the following section shows the calculation of state space variables of all that nine blocks. Due to
that we can calculate matrices A,B and F from all that blocks of the given system.

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For Block-1 :-

X1+Tps1* X1 = Kps1 (X2-X7-W1)

OR

1 Kps1 Kps1 Kps1


X1=  X1+ X2- X7- W1 ……………………………… (1.25)
Tps1 Tps1 Tps1 Tps1

For Block-2:-

X2+Tt1 X2=X3

OR

1 1
X2=  X2+ X3 …………………………………………… (1.26)
Tt 1 Tt1

For Block-3:-

1
X3+Tsg1 X3=  X1+u1
R1

OR

1 1 1
X3=  X1  X3+ u1………………………………………. (1.27)
R1Tsg1 Tsg1 Tsg1

For Block-4:-

X4+Tps2X4=Kps2(X5+a12X7-W2)

OR

1 Kps 2 a12 Kps 2 Kps 2


X4=  X4+ X5+ X7  W2………………………………… (1.28)
Tps 2 Tps 2 Tps 2 Tps 2

For Block-5:-

X5+Tt2X5=X6

OR

1 1
X5=  X5+ X6 ………………………………………………. (1.29)
Tt 2 Tt 2

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For Block-6:-

1
X6+Tsg2X6=  X4+u2
R2

OR

1 1 1
X6=  X4  X6+ u2 …………………………………….. (1.30)
R 2  Tsg 2 Tsg 2 Tsg 2

For Block-7:-

X7= 2 T12X1- 2 T12X4 ……………………………………………. (1.31)

For Block-8:-

X8=b1X1+X7 .............................................................................. (1.32)

For Block-9:-

X9=b2X4-a12X7……………………………………………….. (1.33)

All these blocks equations can be given in matrix form given as:-

X=Ax+Bu+Fw …………………………………………… (1.34)

Where,

X= [X1,X2,………..,X9] = State Vector

U= [u1,u2] = Control Vector

W= [w1,w2] = Disturbance Vector

From the all that nine block equation, we can write the matrices of A, B, F given as below:-

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From fig 1.11 the input variables u1 and u2 has been calculated as given below in relation with state
variables X8 and X9 :-

u1= -Ki1 X8

= -Ki1 ∫ACE1dt and

u2= -Ki2 X9

= -Ki2 ∫ACE2 dt

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In the optimal control scheme the control input variables u1 and u2 are generated by means of feedbacks
from all the nine blocks of state space variables has been calculated with respect to optimality criterion.

An attempt has been made to design the optimal output feedback controller for a two area interconnected
Power System. The frequency deviation response of control area-1 and area-2 and Tie line power
deviation response to 1% step load perturbations in other areas with full state feedback, Integral optimal
output feedback and PI Optimal output feedback controller has been utilized in the power system. It is
observed that optimal state feedback controllers give good dynamic responses that satisfy the
requirements of LFC.

1.6 AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE CONTROL

Automatic voltage regulator of a generator includes Excitation system, amplifier, generator, Potential
Transformer, etc. The schematic diagram of proposed Automatic Voltage Regulator for a generator is
shown in the fig 1.13 below. There is one main excitation system is provided which excites generator
field to control the output voltage. The exciter field is automatically controlled through error signal
e=Vref-VT, which has been amplified through voltage and a power amplifier. This is a type-0 system
which requires a constant error signal e for the specified voltages at the generator terminals.

Fig 1.13-Schematic diagram of automatic voltage regulator control scheme

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The independent blocks of the Automatic voltage regulator are explained in the next section with their
function and transfer function for modeling.

Potential Transformer:- It gives a sample of terminal voltage of generator VT.

Differencing Device: - It gives the actuating error signal.

e= Vref-VT

The error signal provides adjusting the control action of the generator excitation system. The error
waveform is suppressed with the carrier modulated signal with the system frequency of 50 Hz.

Fig 1.14-Block diagram of the generator voltage control scheme using transfer functions and
variables

Error Amplifier:-

This block is used for demodulates and amplifies the error signal. The gain value of this block is Ka and
SCR based power amplifier is used in the exciter field in this system. The SCR power amplifier provides
required power amplification to the error signal for the exciter field controlling. If we assume power
amplifier time constant is very small & neglected it than the transfer function of these two is given as:-

Ke
………………………… (1.35)
1  TefS

Where Tef is the exciter field time constant.

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Generator:-

The generator field has been excited by the main exciter voltage VE. Under no load condition it will
produce a voltage proportional to field current. The no load condition Transfer Function is given as:-

Kg
………………………….. (1.36)
1  TgfS

Where Tgf= generator field time constant

The load causes a voltage drop which is a complex function of direct and quadrature axis currents. The
effect is only schematically represented by block GL. The exact load model of the generator block is very
complex and required too many calculations.

Stabilizing Transformer:-

Tef and Tgf are large enough time constants of transfer functions of the error amplifier and generator,
which affects the system’s dynamic response. We can easily improve the dynamic response of the
system with the help of an internal derivative feedback loop. That derivative feedback loop is provided
in the system with the help of stabilizing transformer which is excited by the exciter output voltage VE.
The output signal of stabilizing transformer is given to negatively, at the input terminals of the SCR
power amplifier as a feedback signal. The secondary of the stabilizing transformer is connected to the
input terminals of power amplifier. So it is assumed that stabilizing transformer draws zero current. Now
we can derive the transfer function given as:-

dist
VE= R1ist  L1 …………………………………….. (1.37)
dt

dist
Vst=M ………………………………………… (1.38)
dt

Now take the Laplace Transform of the above functions, we get,

Vst ( s) sM sM
  ………………………… (1.39)
VE ( s) R1  SL1 1  TstS

sKst
 ………………………………… (1.40)
1  TstS

Using all that blocks transfer functions and state space variables optimal voltage regulation is possible in
the system.

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1.7 LOAD FRQUENCY CONTROL WITH GENERATION RATE CONSTRAINTS (GRCs)

The main reason to consider GRC is that the rapid power increase would draw out excessive steam from
the boiler system to cause steam condensation due to heat does not enter or remove from the system.
Since the temperature and pressure in the HP turbine are normally very high with some margin, it is
expected that the steam condensation would not occur with about 20%, steam flow change unless the
boiler steam pressure itself does not drop below a certain level. Thus, it is possible to increase generation
power up to about 1.2 pu of normal power during the first tens of seconds. After the power generation
has reached this marginal upper bound, the power increase of the turbine should be restricted by the
GRC.

In the earlier sections we have considered the load frequency control for single area and & two area case,
but we do not consider the effect of restrictions on the rate of change of power generation in the system.
In most of the power plant like steam power plant, nuclear power plant, etc., there is a power generation
rate can be specified & there rate value does not exceed to the specified limit values. The rate of
generation maintains low from a safety point of view into consideration in most of the reheat Unis.
Therefore, most of the reheat units generation rate has been maintained between 5 to 10% per minute. If
the rate of generation does not specify as fixed, then the system is also affects for large scale
disturbances in the system, which effects on controller & other equipments also of the system. There are
different methods are used for local frequency control with generation rate constants for the automatic
voltage regulator & automatic generation controller design. In the system we consider GRC then the
system dynamic model becomes non linear, therefore linear control methods cannot be applied for
optimization of the controller setting.

If we consider GRCs for load frequency control in the system we need to consider PG1 (generation rate)
which has been calculated at each step signal in the system. At that time we can not use PG1 as a state
vector & augmenting is also not done to the system. The other way of GRCs considerations is to add
limiters to the governors in the system as shown in the fig 1.15 which provides control of valve opening
& closing in the governor. Here Tsggmax is the power rate limit calculated as per the gate/valve control.
In the proposed model it is given as:-

│∆YE│˂gmax…………………………………….. (1.41)

The banded values introduced by the limiters are selected to restrict the generation rate near about 10%
per minute.

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Fig 1.15-Governor Mathematical model with GRC

If the GRCs value is deviated then it will also change the ACEs values as per the changes in the
generation rate & limits introduced by the system. For normal & good operation of the system the value
of R has been selected such that the system provides dynamic response. In Hydro and thermal power
plant GRCs value remains below the safe limits & therefore GRCs for all the hydro power plants are
ignored.

1.8 SPEED GOVERNOR DEAD-BAND AND ITS EFFECTS ON AGC

In power system, there are mainly two types of dead-band in the speed governing system:-

 Inherent dead-band and


 Intentional dead-band
The results of different tests in the power system indicate that the different types of governors like
mechanical Flyball, analog electronic, digital electronic, etc. shows that the inherent dead-band in the
speed governor is very small less than 0.005 Hz and it can be negligible in the system. At other side the
intentional dead-band has been used by some manufacturers and generation operators to reduce the
activity of controller for normal power system frequency variations and their range is about 0.05 Hz
which is enough to affect overall power system frequency control performance.

The effect of the speed governor dead-band is such that for a given position of the governor control
valves, the change in speed can occur before the position of the governor control valves, the change in
speed can occur before the position of the valve changes. Therefore the governor dead-band will also
affect the system response. In the automatic generation control (AGC) studies the governor dead-band
effect always considers for checking the effects of small signals on the system. The governor dead-band
occurs in the system includes different reasons like mechanical friction, backlash, valve overlaps in
Hydraulic relay mechanism, etc. Due to that type of effects in the system the input signals are increasing
both the speed of the governor does not react as fast as changes are occurring in the system and same
thinking also happens when input signals are decrease.
1-23
AUTOMATIC GENERATION
AND VOLTAGE CONTROL

So the speed governor dead-band is defined as the total magnitude of the sustained speed change within
which there is no change in the valve position of the system. Now the describing function which is used
to increase the governor dead-band non linearity function is given as:-

Y= f(x,ẋ)……………………(1.42)

In this function, it is important to make the assumptions that the variable x is sufficiently near to the
sinusoidal expression, which is given as:-

X= A Sin  0 t…………………………...(1.43)

Where A= amplitude and  0 =Frequency, both variables are considered to be constant.


This kind of assumption is quite realistic as the non linear system may exhibit periodic oscillations
arbitrarily close to the pure sinusoidal. It has been considered that the backlash non linearity trends to
produce a continuous sinusoidal oscillation with a natural period of 2 seconds.

So,  0 =2∏fo………………………………… (1.44)


Where fo=0.5 Hz and

 0 =∏……………………………………. (1.45)

Now the function f (x, ẋ) can be calculated in Fourier series given as:-
𝑁2
F(x,ẋ)=Ḟ+N1x+
 0 ẋ+……….
The solution of the above equation, there is only first three terms are considered during the calculation.
Now

The backlash non linearity of function is symmetrical about the origin of the system. So Ḟ=0.

Now ,
𝑁2
F(x,ẋ)= N1x+
 0 ẋ+……….
𝑁2 𝑑
= ( N1+ )x
0 𝑑𝑡

=DBx

Where, DB is the dead-band of governor.

1-24
AUTOMATIC GENERATION
AND VOLTAGE CONTROL

According to the different research it is considered that the value of backlash is chosen approximately

0.05% of the system analysis & the Fourier constant value is considered as:- N1=0.8 & N2=0.2

Effects of dead-band on AGC:-

 Changes in the value position varied as per the deviation of dead-band in the speed governing
system

 It will also affect on ACEs value for the given system of AGC.

 The frequency variations & control is difficult for the proposed system.

 The calculation of nonlinear functions also requires assumptions & depend on a dead-band of the
governor.

1.9 DIGITAL LF CONTROLLER

In modern times the operation and control of the different system are mostly done in digital form due to it's
lots of advantages & feasibility. So in Automatic Generation Control (AGC) we also think to implement a
digital control system due to which our system becomes more effective & advance in the power system
network. Due to the use of digital control the controller of the AGC, size becomes very compact and it also
provides other advantages like a simple operation, more reliable, efficient, & accurate in the system.

It is also implemented in time share function for operation & control through computer in the load dispatch
center of the network. In the AGC control the signal used by ACE can be of two type nature; one is
contionous and the second one is discrete mode. Due to the use of digital control in the system we can easily
operate it in discrete mode for different sampling time intervals in the given system. Because of that kind of
functionality the designer or operator can be easily optimized AGC system with different sampling time in
the discrete mode of operation.
Discrete time control mode:-

The continous time dynamic system is given by the set of linear differential equation given as:-

X=Ax+Bu+гp…………………………….. (1.46)

Where, x,u,p = state, control and disturbance vectors

A,B, г= Constant matrices which is associated with above vectors

1-25
AUTOMATIC GENERATION
AND VOLTAGE CONTROL

The discrete time behavior of continuous time system is modeled with the help of first order differential

equation which is given as below:-

X(k+1) = Øx(k)+ψu(k)+γp(k) ………………………….(1.47)

Where, x(k), u(k) and p(k) = State, control & disturbance vectors and they are specified at t=kT, and

k=0,1,2,….etc. and T=Sampling time period.

Ø ,ψ, γ = State, control and disturbance vector transition matrices which are calculated from the
following

equations:-

Ø=eAT

ψ =( eAT-I)A-1 B

γ =( eAT-I)A-1 г

where,

A,B, г are the constant matrices associated with x,u,p vectors in the corresponding time dynamic

system. The matrix eAT can be evaluated using various well documented approaches like Sylvestor's

expansion theorem, series techniques, etc.

1.10 DECENTRALIZED CONTROL

Decentralized control has been a large area of open research for over so many years. To cover every aspect
of it would require a vast knowledge of applied mathematics and considerable time. Consequently, in this
section we will attempt to restrict our attention to optimal control of the system. Decentralized feedback
problems in general are known to be difficult. Nevertheless, there exist some problems for which optimal
solutions may be obtained. In view of the large size of a modern power system, it is Virtually impossible to
implement either the classical or the modern Load frequency control (LFC) algorithm in a centralized
manner. The decentralized control scheme is shown in Fig. 1.16 . X1 is used to find out the vector u1 while
x2 alone is employed to find out u2.

1-26
AUTOMATIC GENERATION
AND VOLTAGE CONTROL

Fig 1.16-Decentralized Control

X= (x1 x2)T

u1= -k1x1

u2= -k2x2

The schematic design configuration of the decentralized tie line bias control solution has been shown
that it is possible to control by modern control principle. Decentralized or hierarchical
implementation of the optimal LFC algorithms seems to have been studied more widely for the
stochastic case since the real load disturbances are stochastic. There are different control techniques
are used for the optimal solution and decentralized control includes:- aggregation, singular
perturbation, moment matching and other points which is used for finding lower order models of a
given large scale system.

EXERCISE

1. What is the role of load frequency control in power system? Explain with necessary
diagrams.

2. Explain load frequency control with diagrams and mathematical modelling of each block in
the system.

3. Explain about the combined operation of load frequency control & Economic Dispatch
control.

1-27
AUTOMATIC GENERATION
AND VOLTAGE CONTROL

4. Obtain the block diagram of two area load frequency control with required blocks &
calculations.

5. Explain optimal load frequency control for two area control system.

6. Explain automatic voltage control & Derive equations for different blocks of the system
with necessary diagrams.

7. Explain about load frequency control with Generation Rate constraints (GRCs).

8. Explain about the speed governor dead-band & state their effects on the AGC.

9. Explain the Role of digital LF controller in AGC and also Derive the equations for state,
control and disturbance vectors for the given system.

10. Explain about Decentralized Control.

1-28
Power System Security

2. POWER SYSTEM SECURITY

2.1 Introduction
2.2 System State Classification
2.3 Security Analysis
2.4 Contingency Analysis

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Power system security is the ability to maintain the flow of electricity from the generators to the
customers, especially under disturbed conditions. Since disturbances can be small or large, localized
or widespread, the planning and design of the power system must achieve a certain level of security.
Day by day there are large interconnected power systems are used and that due to their normal
operation without any problem power system security is required. The main aim of an electric power
system is to provide continuous & uninterrupted power supply to the consumer without changes in
defining limits of frequency & voltage levels in the system. So power system security is defined as the
practices & work designed to keep the system in normal operating condition when any equipment is
fail in the system. If the power system is secured than in that system the chances of blackout or
equipment damage is very low. A secured system is one which has the ability to operate the system in
normal condition during any fault and disturbances without any emergency condition. So we can say
that the system is secured than there is no chances of any overloading condition & also there is no any
instability in the given system.

Power System Security is defined as the ability of the power system to remain secure without serious
consequences to any preselected list of credible contingencies. The most common operating problems
are transmission equipment overloads and inadequate voltage levels at system buses. The process of
detecting, whether the system remains in secure (normal) or insecure (emergency) state, is called
power system security assessment. Secure state implies that the load is satisfied and no limit
violations will occur under present operating conditions. Violation of any security related inequality
constraints pushes the system to emergency or insecure state, thereby initiating corrective actions to
be taken to bring the system back to secure the state. Power system security problems are classified as
static and dynamic. Static security problem, evaluates the system steady state performance for all
possible contingencies, whereas dynamic analysis pertains to the long term behavior of the system of
the order of a few minutes under transient disturbances.

1-1
Power System Security

A power system at any time can never be totally secure. There are different kinds of problems and
variations are occurring in the power system which make the problem of power system security.
Power system security poses an important issue in planning and operation stages of a power system.
Security assessment is basically dealing with evaluating the ability of the system to continue to
provide services in the event of any fault or disturbances in the system. Conventional method of
security evaluation involves solving full AC load flow equations and transient stability analysis of the
current system state by time domain simulation program.

Security assessment is the analysis performed to determine whether and to what extent, the system is
reasonably safe from serious interference to its operation. It is the duty of the system operator to
maintain the system in a normal state. Under certain condition's occurrence of some severe
disturbances may cause the system to go to emergency state. Under such situations the operator must
take immediate control actions to retain the system in a normal operating state, wherein the system
security needs to be well defined. Hence, effective control of power systems demands a quick security
evaluation of their operating states.

Security analysis may be broadly classified as:-

 Static Security Assessment (SSA) and

 Transient Security Assessment (TSA)

Static security analysis evaluates the post contingency steady state condition of the system neglecting
the transient behavior and other time dependent variations in the system. At other side Transient
security analysis evaluates the performance of the system as it progress after a disturbance. Analysis
of power system stability like rotor angle stability is an essential component in TSA. This has made
the security evaluation more important and demands the investigation of fast and reliable techniques
to allow for line transient security assessment (TSA).

2.2 SYSTEM STATE CLASSIFICATION

Power system security may be considered as the probability of the system’s operating point remaining
within acceptable ranges during the probabilities of changes in the system and its environment.
DyLiacco first pointed out in 1967 that a power system may be identified to be operating in a number
of states. The three system states are classified as follows:-

 Preventive State

 Emergency State
1-2
Power System Security

 Restorative state

Preventive state:-

The preventive state is actually the normal state of the system. In the normal operating state the
system is said to be secure and all parameters like voltage, active and reactive power generation,
active and reactive power flows are satisfied by the system operator. The aim of the power system is
to keep the operating state of the power system in the normal operating conditions. The term
“preventive” was used for the “ Security” aspect of the normal operation of the system. Normal
operating conditions usually means that all the equipments are running within their prescribed limits
without any changes or deviations and all the system variables are within their acceptable ranges. The
system should also continue to operate “normally” even in the case of any deviations or disturbances.
The operator should check that kind of disturbances and take preventive control actions as fast as
possible such that the system integrity and quality of power supply is maintained.

Emergency state:-

The power system enters an emergency state when some of the components operating limits are
violated or some of the operating states go outside the acceptable ranges or when the system
frequency starts to decrease. The control objective in the emergency state is to restore the system in
normal operating condition by appropriate actions. In the event of a disturbance like generator outage
or line outage, the operating conditions change and the parameters like voltages and active and
reactive power values and disturbance problem also include active and reactive power flows
deviations compared to their operating limits. The abnormal state or insecure state is further classified
into the following states for system study analysis:-

 Alert

 Emergency

 In-extermis (it is also called as islanding mode)

Restorative state:-

Restorative state is the condition when some equipments or whole system has lost power. The power
system disturbance based on its nature can lead the power systems to a blackout or equipment
damage. In the blackout state the entire load is separated from the generators through either the
tripping of the generators or the transmission lines. So there is No power supply to any load in the
system. The control objective in this state as per its name is to restore the system to a normal state
again by taking appropriate actions. In this process the generators and transmission lines which have

1-3
Power System Security

tripped will be bought back to service through a sequence of steps known as restorative measures.

An important part of a security study, therefore moves around the power system’s ability to withstand
the effects of disturbances. The particular system state is said to be secure only with reference to one
or more specific contingency cases and a gives set of quantities monitored for violation. Most of the
power systems operate in such a way that any single contingency/disturbance will not leave other
components heavily overloaded. So that cascading failure is avoided in the given system with the help
of power system security. Contingency analysis is the study of the outage of elements such as
transmission lines, transformers and generators, and study of the resulting effects on transmission line
power flows and bus voltages of the remaining system. Contingencies referring to disturbances such
as transmission element outages or generator outages may cause sudden and large changes in both the
configuration and the state of the system. System security can be said to comprise of three major
functions that are carried out in energy control center:-

 System Monitoring

 Contingency analysis

 Corrective action analysis

System monitoring supplies the power system operations or dispatches with desired up to date
information on the conditions of the power system on a real time basis as load and generation change.
Telemetry systems measure, monitor and transmit the data, voltages, currents, current flows and the
status of circuit breakers and switches in every substation in a transmission network. The second
major security function is contingency analysis. Modern operation computers have contingency
analysis programs stored in them for particular system security functioning. These things are helpful
for remind & information about possible system troubles before they occur in the system. They study
about disturbing events and alert the operators to any potential overloads or serious voltage
violations. The third major security function is a corrective action analysis, which permits the
operators to change the operation of the power system if a contingency analysis program predicts a
serious problem in the event of the occurrence of a certain outage. So this provides preventive and
postcontingency control. A simple example of corrective action is the shifting of generation from one
station to another. This may result in changes in power flows and causing a change in loading on
overloaded lines.

2.3 SECURITY ANALYSIS

System security can be broken down into two major functions that are carried out in an operations
control center. Which is given as:-

1-4
Power System Security

 Security assessment

 Security control

The previous section gives study about the security level of the system operating state. The next
section determines the appropriate security constrained scheduling required to optimally attaining the
target security level. The static security level of a power system is characterized by the presence or
otherwise of emergency operating conditions in its actual (pre-contingency) or potential (post
contingency) operating states. System security assessment is the process by which that kind of
violations is detected in the system.

System assessment basically involves two main functions which are given as below:-

 System monitoring

 Contingency analysis

System monitoring provides the operator of the power system with required up to date information on
the current operating conditions of the power system. In its simplest form this thing is used to detect
violations in the actual system operating state. Contingency analysis is much more demanding and
normally performed in three distinct states. i.e. Contingency definition, selection and evaluation.
Contingency definition gives the list of contingencies (Which is also considered as probabilities) to be
processed whose probability of occurrence is high. This list, which is usually large is in terms of
network changes, i.e. branch and other parameter outages.

The second major security function is security control which allows operating personnel to change the
power system operation in the event that a contingency analysis program predicts a serious problem,
should a certain outage occur. There are still lots of study and research are required for further
improvement in power system security control of the proposed system. Better problem formulations,
theory, computer, solution methods and implementation techniques are required.

2.4 CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS

An unpredictable condition in the power system is known as a contingency. The impact of the
occurrence of contingencies should be evaluated. This process usually called contingency analysis
Which has the objectives of detecting post-contingency operational limit violations. Power systems
are operated so that overloads do not occur either in real time or under any disturbance likely
contingency. The contingency analysis is required to operate the power system in such a way that
power is delivered reliably. Within the constraints placed on the system operated by reliability
considerations the system will be operated more economically. The primary purpose of maintaining
power system security is to keep power system operation under stable condition, such that the Single

1-5
Power System Security

line failure does not lead to cascade tripping and overall blackout. This is often called maintaining
system “security”, there is Simulator has been equipped with tools for analyzing contingencies in the
system.

Basically the term ‘Power System Security’ consider as the ability of the system to operate within a
system predefined parameters (like bus voltage magnitudes, current and power flow in the
transmisslines) in the event of disturbance or contingency of any component of the power system like
a generator or transmission line. Now if the system operates in overloading conditions, then the post-
contingency system condition would be highly stressed due to that the post contingency values of
different quantities like voltages, current, power flow, etc. are depend on the present operating
condition. In the case of post contingency does not involve any violation of any operating parameters,
the system is said to be operating securely and it is considered as secured system. Otherwise the
system is said to enter an emergency operating condition.

Now in any practical sized power system, there is a very large number of elements and equipments are
used. So during contingency analysis outages of all these equipments are needed to be carried out one
by one individually corresponding to any particular operating condition which is considered for
normal operating condition. However, in any power system the operating point of the system changes
quite frequently with change in loading or generating conditions of the system. With the change in
system operating conditions the contingency analysis exercise needs to be carried out again at the new
operating point. Thus, for proper monitoring of system security, a large number of outage cases need
to be simulated repeatedly over a short time period. In conventional methods these outage cases
should be studied with the help of full AC load flow solutions. However, analysis of thousands of
outage cases with full AC power flow technique will involve a significant amount of computation
time and as a result, it might not be possible to complete this entire exercise before the new operating
condition occurs in the given power system. Thats why instead of using full nonlinear AC power flow
analysis, much faster techniques based on linear sensitivity factors are used to estimate the post
contingency values of different quantities of the system. The basic concept of sensitivity factors is
described below. Normally the linear sensitivity factors approximately estimate the changes in
different line flows for any particular outage condition without the need of full AC power flow
solution.

Basically, there are two types of sensitivity factors and these are given as:-

 Generation outage sensitivity factor (GOSF)

 Line outage sensitivity factor (LOSF)

1-6
Power System Security

GOSF relates the approximate change in power flow in line ‘i-j’ (i.e. between bus ‘i’ and ‘j’) due to
the outage of the generator at bus ‘k’, whereas LOSF helps to calculate the approximate change in
power flow in the line ‘i-j’ due to outage of line ‘m-n’.

The generation outage sensitivity factor is given as:-

k fij
 ij  .............................................. (2.1)
Pk

Where,
k
 ij = GOSF of line ‘i-j’ for generation change at bus ‘k’

fij = Change in power flow in line ‘i-j’

Pk = Change in generation at bus ‘k’


k
The factor  ij denotes the sensitivity of the line flow of line ‘i-j’ due to change in a generation at

bus ‘k’. In equation 2.1 it is assumed that the generation lost at bus ‘k’ would be exactly compensated
by the reference or slack bus in the give system. Now if the generation at bus ‘k’ was generating an
amount of power equal to P0k, then to represent the outage condition Pk = - P0k.

Hence the new power flow over the line ‘i-j’ would be given as:-

......................(2.2)

The factor  kij would be pre-calculated and stored in the memory. The values of  kij depend only on
the network parameters and therefore they are assumed to be constant. However, it should be noted
that for any particular line ‘i-j’, the factors  kij and  mij (for generation outage at bus ‘m’) are
different and therefore need to be precalculated separately. Once these factors are precalculated and
stored the new values of line flow over any line can easily be estimated very quickly from the
equation (2.2). If the new power flow over any line is found to be more than the corresponding limit,
then the operator can be alerted for taking an appropriate preemptive action.

In equation (2.2) it is assumed that the last generation at bus ’k’ would be taken up by the slack bus.
However, it is also quite possible that the last generation would be compensated by all the remaining

1-7
Power System Security

‘on-line’ generators combinely in which each of the ‘on-line’ generators would take up some fraction
of the lost generation in some particular ratio. One of the most frequently used methods assumes that
the ‘on-line’ generators share the last generation, in proportion to their maximum MW rating. Thus,
the proportion of generation picked up by generation ‘g’ is given by:-

gk,

........................... (2.3)

Where,

M=Total number of generators in the system

γgk= Proportionality factor for generation ‘g’ to pick up generation when unit ‘k’ fails
Pmaxa =Maximum MW rating for generator ‘a’

Now, as the sensitivity factors shown in equation (2.1) are linear in nature the effects of simultaneous
generation change in several generators on a particular line can be obtained by following
superposition principle. Hence the new line flow in the line ‘i-j’ becomes,

............................ (2.4)

In equation (2.4) it is assumed that no remaining ‘on-line’ generation hit the generation limit. The line
outage distribution factors are also defined similarly. The LOSF is defined by,

...................................... (2.5)

Where,

Βij,mn = Line outage distribution factor for line ‘i-j’ under outage of line ‘m-n’

F(o)mn = Power flow over line ‘m-n’ in the pre-outage condition

Therefore, for the outage of line ‘m-n’, the new flow over the line ‘i-j’ is given by,

.................................. (2.6)

1-8
Power System Security

Again the factors Βij,mn are constant as they are dependent only on the line parameters. Therefore, they
would be precalculated and stored in the memory. As a result of the outage of any line ‘m-n’, the new
power flows over all the other lines can be estimated very quickly.

Thus, one can check quickly by precalculating outage factors all the lines for overloading for the
outage of a particular line. This can be repeated for the outage of each line one by one and overloads
can be found out for corrective action. Line flows can be calculated using telemetry systems with state
estimation techniques. If the network undergoes any significant structural change than the sensitivity
factors must be updated.

EXERCISE

1. Explain the role of Power System Security in Power System Operation.

2. Give the classification of System State in Power system security point of view of any power
system.

3. Explain the role of Security Analysis in power system operation.

4. Explain the concept of contingency Analysis and Derive the equations of sensitivity factors
in the system.

5. Derive the equations of sensitivity factors in the power system outages calculation for
generation and line outages in power system.

1-9
Power System Security

1-10
Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

3. AUTO MA TIC REACTIV E PO WER & VOL TA GE


CONTROL

3.1 Introduction;
3.2 Reactive Power Requirements of an uncompensated line;
3.3 Implication of surge Impedance Loading;
3.4 Reactive loss characteristics of transmission line;
3.5 Operation of a transmission line at no load condition;
3.6 Operation of a transmission line under heavy loading condition;
3.7 Voltage Regulation of the transmission line and its relation with reactive power;
3.8 Maximum Power Transfer in an uncompensated line;
3.9 Line Loadability
3.10 Reactive Power-Voltage (Q-V) Coupling Concept;
3.11 Governing effects on reactive power flow;
3.12 Relation between voltage and reactive power at a node in a power system;
3.13 Reactive Power requirement for control of voltage in long lines;
3.14 Operational aspects in reactive power and voltage control;
3.15 Basic Principles of system voltage control;
3.16 Reactive Power flow Constraints and their implications in loss of voltage;
3.17 Effect of transformer tap changing in the post disturbance period;
3.18 Effect of generator excitation adjustment in the post disturbance period;
3.19 Practical aspects of reactive power flow problems leading to voltage collapse in EHV lines.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The reactive power is very important to consider during the voltage control of any system. In any power
system the reactive power is very important parameter for the operation of any electromagnetic energy
devices. The reactive power, includes the voltage & the current loading of the electrical system, but does
not result in active power usage when the devices are purely inductive or capacitive electric circuit. As
we say earlier the reactive power is very important parameter for electromagnetic devices and they draw
lagging currents due to that the reactive power value becomes positive. So the electromagnetic devices
absorb the reactive power in the system.

3-1
Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

At other side the electrostatic devices draws the leading currents due to that the reactive power value
becomes negative; and they will inject the reactive power into the system. In this chapter, we will
discuss the concept of reactive power and its control in the power system. For simple calculations and
detailed understanding of the reactive power concept the transmission lines are considered to be lossless
in the given system.

3.1.1 ELECTRICAL PARAMETER CALCULATION IN TRANSMISSION LINE

The Main four important parameters in electrical network are:-


 Series Resisatnce (r)
 Series Inductance (l)
 Shunt Conductance (g)
 Capacitance (c)

These parameters are very important & primarily necessary for transmission line calculations. From that
we can calculate the series impedance Z and shunt admittance Y simply as given below:-

Z= (r+jωl)……………………………… (3.1)

Y= (g+jωc)……………………………… (3.1)

All these parameters of any electrical network is depends on conductor size, type, spacing, height from
ground, frequency, temperature rating,etc. We have represented the role of that parameter for power flow
and voltage stability of the given system or electric network.

3.1.2 TRANSMISSION LINE REPRESENTATION & THEIR EQUATIONS

The transmission lines are normally classified as short, medium and long transmission line in any power
system network. So we can say that transmission line representation is mainly dependent on their length.

Fig 3.1-Transmission line representation with its parameters

3-2
Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

Now we consider short transmission line which can be represented as given below:-

Fig 3.2-Equivalent circuit representation for short transmission line

For this short transmission line representation the A,B, C,D parameters are given as:-
A=1 C=0
B=Z D=1
Now the medium transmission line can be represented as ideally in two version or two mode one is ∏-
mode and second one is T-mode, that two type medium transmission line shown fig belows:-

Fig 3.3 Lumped parameter based ∏-equivalent circuit of medium transmission line

Fig 3.4 Equivalent circuit of T-mode medium transmission line

3-3
Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

The transmission line parameters are calculated as given below for ∏ and T-Network:-

For ∏-Network representation of transmission line:-

E  V  IZ ……………….. (3.3)
Y
Is  I  E ……………….. (3.4)
2
Y
I  IR  V ……………………(3.5)
2
YZ
A  D  1 ……………………. (3.6)
2
B=Z…………………….. (3.7)
ZY
C  (1  )Y …………………. (3.8)
4
For T-Network representation of line:-

ZIs
E  Vc  ………………… (3.9)
2
ZIR
Vc  V  ………………….. (3.10)
2
Is  IR  VcY ………………… (3.11)
YZ
A  D  1 …………………. (3.12)
2
ZY
B  (1  ) Z ……………….. (3.13)
2
C  Y …………………….. (3.14)
While we considered the long transmission line than the parameters are distributed. So, in that case the
receiving end voltage & current are given as below:-

V  E cosh  L  IsZoSinh L …………………. (3.15)

E
IR  Is cosh  L  sinh  L ………………….. (3.16)
Zo

Where,  = Propogation Constant

= ZY = (r  jl )( g  jc) ……………………… (3.17)


Z0 = Characteristic Impedance
Z (r  jl )
= = ……………………. (3.18)
Y ( g  jc)

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Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

Now as we say earlier for reactive power calculation we consider the transmission line is to be lossless.
So, the series resistance & conductance value becomes zero. Due to that α ,the attenuation constant of
transmission line is zero. So the  can be calculated as :-

 = (α+jβ)
= jβ ……….. (3.19)
1
And β= ………….. (3.20)
2 lc
So finally the sending end voltage & current is given as:-
E  V cosh  L  IRZo sinh  L …………….. (3.21)
V
Is  cosh  L  IR cosh  L ……………… (3.22)
Zo
Where, L=length of transmission line in all the above equations.

So, the transmission line parameters of the equivalent circuit are given as:-
A  D  cosh YZ ………………. (3.23)
Y
B sinh ZY ……………….. (3.24)
Z
Y
C sinh YZ ………………. (3.25)
Z

If we use standard functions in place hyperbolic functions than transmission line parameters are also
given as:-
YZ
A  D  (1  ) …………………. (3.26)
2
YZ
B  Z (1  ) ……………….. (3.27)
6

YZ
C  Y (1  ) …………….. (3.28)
6

For any lossless transmission line the voltage and current at any point x is given as:-
Vx  V cos  ( L  x)  jZoIR sin  ( L  x) …………………(3.29)

V 
Ix  j   sin  ( L  x)  IR cos  ( L  X ) ………………. (3.30)
 Zo 
The value of  represents the electrical length of the transmission line & it is given in radian.

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Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

3.2 REACTIVE POWER REQUIREMENT OF AN UNCOMPENSATED LINE

As we discuss in the earlier sections in any electric circuit representation of transmission line there is one
sending end voltage E and the other side is receiving end voltage V. For the maximum & successful
power transfer in the network the phase angle between E & V is δ , it means sending end voltage E leads
the receiving end voltage V by angle δ. So,

E=│E│e

= E (cos δ+ jsin δ) …………………(3.31)

In the lossless transmission line   j  as derived in the previous section. So eq.(3.31) of sending end
voltage becomes:-

E  V cos  L  IRZo sin  L ……………….. (3.32)

But, if we take  L =  , then

E  V cos  IRZo sin  ………………… (3.33)

Now compare eq.(3.31) and (3.33) we get,


E (cos δ+ jsin δ) = V cos  IRZo sin  …………………. (3.34)

From power triangle we can easily derive the relation between active and reactive power as given
below:-
P  jQ
IR 
V
Put the value of IR from eq.(3.35) to eq.(3.34) we get,

P  jQ
E (cos δ+ jsin δ) = V cos   jZo sin  ( ) ……………..(3.35)
V
Separating real and imaginary part of eq.(3.35), we get
Q
E cos   V cos   Zo sin  …………………… (3.36) and
V
P
E sin   Zo sin  …………………… (3.37)
V
Now calculate the reactive power value from eq.(3.36) we get,
Q
E cos   V cos   Zo sin 
V
So the reactive power Q is given as:-
EV cos  V 2 cos 
QR   ………………. (3.38)
Zo sin  Zo sin 
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Automatic Reactive
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From eq.(3.38) we can calculate the sending end power as given below:-
 EV cos  E 2 cos  
Qs     ……………….. (3.39)
 Zo sin  Zo sin  

The eq.(3.38) and (3.39) we give the values of reactive power for both end of the system sending end
and receiving end.

But whenever we consider the lossless line than sending end and receiving end voltage becomes equal.
So, E=V, due to that the sending end & receiving end reactive power equation can be given as:-

E 2 cos   E 2 cos 
QR  …………… (3.40) and
Zo sin 
 E 2 cos   E 2 cos  
Qs   
Zo sin   ………………. (3.41)
 
From eq.(3.40) and (3.41) we can say that

QR  QS

Reactive power at receiving end= - Reactive power at sending end

Here for lossless transmission line,  is very small and that’s why cos 1 and the value of
Zo sin  X (line) . So eq. (3.41) can be written as given below:-

E 2 (1  cos  )
Qs   QR ………………. (3.42)
X

In electric network for a small amount of active power transfer, the reactive power becomes surplus
that’s why the terminal devices needs to absorb the reactive power. That will be calculated using
eq.(3.40) and (3.41) with lower value of δ and sending end voltage E=1.0 p.u. While in the long
transmission line the reactive power generation is high compared to the small transmission line. On the
other hand, for large amount of active power transfer, the reactive power becomes low and its demand
increases that’s why need to inject the reactive power from terminal devices. That higher value of δ and
sending end voltage E=1.0 p.u due to that more reactive power is required to supply in large
transmission line during heavy load conditions.

From all that calculation and the equations we can find the reactive power values at different points and
draw the reactive power profile as shown in fig 3.5 below:-

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Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

Fig 3.5-Reactive power profile of transmission line against the transmission line length

From fig 3.5 of the reactive power profile we can say that the characteristics crosses the X-axis at a
particular point and this point shows that the magnitude of the active power of their point the reactive
power requirement is null.

It means that under this condition the reactive power generated by the transmission line is absorbed by
itself and due to that at this point the active power is said to be the surge impedance loading (SIL) point.
In this surge impedance loading conditions the transmission line can easily operate without any external
reactive power support & line is operated with its active power value at some specific value.

3.3 SURGE IMPEDANCE LOADING (SIL)

The surge impedance is the apparent impedance of the transmission line along the whole length
transmission line. So it can be given as:-

Vx
Zs  ………………. (3.43)
Ix

We can put the values of Vx and Ix from eq. (3.29) and (3.30) to eq.(3.43) we get,

VCos  ( L  x)  jZoIRSin ( L  x )
Zs 
V 
j   Sin ( L  x )  IRCos  ( L  x )
 Zo 

V [Cos ( L  x)  jSin ( L  x)]


 * Zo
V [Cos ( L  x)  jSin ( L  x)]

 Zo ……………….. (3.44)

So from eq.(3.44) we can say that the value of surge impedance does not depend upon the transmission
line length. The characteristics Impedance Zo is also known as the surge impedance or natural
impedance of a distortionless transmission line. So,
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Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

Z l
Zo (For distortionless line) =  ……………. (3.45)
Y c

For the surge impedance in distortionless line the series resistance & conductance has been neglected.

In the transmission line the value of Zo depends on the design of line, and mostly case its value is
numerical near about 400  in lossless line. In A.C electrical circuit phasor form the voltage &current
values at any point x in transmission line can also be calculated as given below:-

Vx=Vejβ(L-x) ………………………. (3.46) and

Ix=IRe β(L-x) ……………………… (3.47)


j

eq.(3.46) and (3.47) shows that the phase angle between sending end and receiving end quantities is
same as βx radian. So the angle between voltage and current becomes zero,that’s why the power factor
becomes unity during the surge impedance loading condition.

From that discussion, we can say that the surge impedance loading (SIL) of a transmission line is the
power delivered by a transmission line to a purely resistive load equal to its surge impedance. The line
current during SIL condition is given as:-

VL
IL 
3Zo

Where, VL =line to line voltage

The power has been given as:-

Pn  VL IL

VL
Pn  3 VL
3Zo

VL 2 V2
Pn  = MVA ……………. (3.48) ( VL  V assume)
Zo Zo

The main benefit of operating the transmission line at natural loading is that the voltage profile remains
flat during the whole length of the transmission line, the insulation stress is uniform at all points in the
transmission line & also the power factor also remains unity during the whole length of transmission
line. Due to that the reactive power does not absorb or injected into the transmission line. When the
reactive power is generated in the line by the distributed capacitance same value reactive power is
absorbed by the series inductance of the line. This is very important and with the help of this the reactive
power balanced through unit length of the line given as:-

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Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

V2  c=I2  l …………….. (3.49)

Which is also given as:-

V l
  Zo ………………. (3.50)
I c

From that we can say that the lossless transmission line achieves the reactive power balance at its natural
loading, with a flat voltage profile & unity power factor operation at both sending end and receiving end
in the system.

3.4 REACTIVE LOSS CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSMISSION LINES

The total series reactive losses in transmission lines are given by:-

QSL  I L 2 X

 VA 
=   2X ………………… (3.51)
V 

For a particular situation in the system load remains unchanged, then VA will become constant. So the
change in reactive power is dependent on voltage. So, eq.(3.51) is given as:-

dQSL 2
  3 VA  X ……………. (3.52)
2

dt V

But, VA=Constant and X and 2 also constant. So,eq.(3.51) can be written as:-

dQSL 1
 3 ………………….. (3.53)
dt V

From eq.(3.53) we can say that in transmission line if we maintain the load value constant receiving end
side using ON load tap changer than the series reactive power losses are increasing with a decrease in
transmission line voltage value. So, we can say that if there is no proper source is provided in the system
for reactive power than there is large disturbances are occurring in voltage of the system which creates
voltage collapse in the system.

Eq.(3.51) can also be represented as:-

 
 1 
QSL  VA   2
2

 V 
 X 

V2 V2
If we consider = than it is the eq. of surge impedance loading. So, the above eq.is represented
X Zo
as:-
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Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

VA
2

QSL  ………………. (3.54)


 SIL 
So, eq.(3.54) represents the series reactive power losses in relation with surge impedance loading. Now,
we can easily show the relation between series reactive losses and line loading with the help of fig 3.6 as
given below:-

Fig 3.6-graph between series reactive losses Vs SIL

From fig 3.6 of reactive power losses Vs SIL profile we can say that as we increases the transmission
line loading in the system it wil directly affects the series reactive losses due to which voltage unbalcing
problem occurs in the system. In some cases if we continuously creates high series reactive losses with
increases in load than it directly effects on voltage stability in transmission line and some it also steps the
system operation for some little time intervals also in the system.

3.5 OPERATION OF A TRANSMISSION LINE AT NO-LOAD CONDITION

Assumption of transmission line to be lossless, during No load condition, operation of a transmission


line the receiving end current becomes zero. So, the sending end voltage eq.(3.29) for x=0 can be given
as below:-

E  VCos  L

 VCos ……………….. (3.55)

Where  is the line’s electrical length in radians.

Same as above, we can also write it for sending end current eq. (3.30) can be given as:-

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Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

V 
Is  j   Sin L ……………….. (3.56)
 Zo 

E
From eq.(3.55) V  value put into eq.(3.56) we get,
Cos

E
Is  j sin 
Zo cos 

E
 Is  j tan  …………….. (3.57)
Zo

From eq.(3.55) and (3.57) we can easily shows the phasor diagram for No Load condition as shown in
fig 3.7 below:-

Fig 3.7-No load condition phasor diagram of an uncompensated line

The voltage and current profile with respect to line length for No Load condition is shown in the fig 3.8
and 3.9 belows:-

Fig 3.8-voltage profile of an uncompensated line during No load condition

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Automatic Reactive
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Fig 3.9-current profile of an uncompensated line during No load condition

It is shown from the above fig we can say that in steady state condition the transmission line voltage is
increase with respect to the increase in transmission line length. This effect is also known as “Ferranti
Effect” and it will increase the voltage level very high for open ended or lightly loaded long transmission
lines. This occurs due to the effect of distributed shunt capacitance along the whole length of the
transmission line. Ferranti effect can also be calculated by representing the transmission line operation in
terms of sending end voltage & current as given below:-

E=AV+BIR …………………………..(3.58)

IS=CV+DIR ………………………… (3.59)

Where, A=D= Cos  L

2 fl
= Cos

2 fl
= Cos ………………….. (3.60)
v

Where, v represents the velocity of electric energy wave and  is the line length.

For open ended line, IR=0, so eq.(3.58) is given as:-

V 1 1
  ………………….(3.61)
E A Cos 2 fl
v

2 fl
In eq. (3.61) with an increase in transmission line length Cos decreases and the voltage is
v
increased. In condition of No-Load or sudden load changes the value of voltage will change compared to
calculated voltage values in above equations of transmission lines. For mitigation of over voltages
problem immediate voltage measurement is required in the system.

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Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

In a power system if we consider a synchronous tie line which provides a connection between two local
grid compare to the radial system than we can easily calculate further values & for that we consider an
equivalent synchronous generator in corresponding to the grid. Than our tie line provides a connection
between two generators which have the same rating. So, far that machines in no load conditions the
voltage rating is E1 and E2 than:-

E1= E2 …………….. (3.62)

Now we take the values of voltage and current from eq.(3.29) and (3.30) can given as below for x=0,

Voltage Eq.:-

E1  E 2 cos   jZoI 2 sin  ………………….. (3.63)

And Current Eq.:-

 E2 
I 1  j   sin   I 2 cos  OR
 Zo 

 E2 
 I 2  j   sin   I 2 cos  ( I 1   I 2)
 Zo 

OR

E 2 sin  E2  
I 2  j  j tan   …………………….. (3.64)
Zo 1  cos  Zo 2

Put the value of I2 into eq.(3.63) we get

 E2   
E1  E 2 cos   jZo   j tan    sin 
 Zo  2 

   
 E 2 cos   tan   sin  
 2 

 E 2 …………………………………………. (3.65)

So, we can prove that for No load condition the voltage values of two synchronous generator of tie line
system is equal, E1=E2.

And

E2  
I 1  I 2  j tan   …………………… (3.66)
Zo 2

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Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

Fig 3.10-synchronous tie line with two synchronous generator

The voltage values E1 and E2 are in phase , there will be no power transfer and there is only charging
current flowing at both ends of the system. For current eq. of (3.57) and (3.66) we can say that an
uncompensated radial power transmission line is equivalent to two equal half of synchronous tie lines
connected back to back value of charging current is half of the line current being supplied from each end
of the system. Fig 3.10 shown above is represents the synchronous tie line with two synchronous
generator and their equivalent radial line representation is shown in fig 3.11 below:-

Fig 3.11-Equivalent circuit representation of a radial line system

L
The voltage and current values at any point for half line is given as:- for x  ,
2

L 
cos    x 
L
V ( ) x  E1 2  ……………………… (3.67) and
2  
cos  
2

L 
sin    x 
L
I ( )x  j
E1 2  ………………………… (3.68)
2 Zo  
cos  
2

L
From the above eq.(3.67) and (3.68) we can say that the voltage at mid point of the tie line (for x= ) is
2

maximum and the current is minimum. That will be shown in below fig 3.12 and 3.13.

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Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

Fig 3.12-voltage increases at the midpoint of tieline in the system

Fig 3.13-current decreases at the midpoint of tie line in the system

For terminal voltage value the tie line is not equal at the two ends of the system and the voltage profile is
also not remain symmetrical in the system. The maximum voltage point is not in the middle of the
system, but it is nearer to the end which has the higher system voltage. From the fig 3.12 of voltage
profile we can say that as per the demand increase of reactive power and imbalance occurs in the
reactive power generation the voltage is also become maximum at mid point which is shown in the
graph. Due to that kind of problems system voltages are uncontrollable in the given system. Now, the
capacitive current at both ends sending end and receiving end of the system injects the reactive power in
the system. If we provide voltage value constant at both ends in the generator system that reactive power
can be absorbed into the system.

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Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

This control is provided by the generator operation in under excited mode, but it has several drawbacks
also like the heating in the stator core of generator and excitation current drops is reduced induced emf in
the generator which creates stability problem in the system. Some time reactive power is more than
absorption limit of generator than under excitation controlling is also not used and we need to provide
external compensation control in the system.

3.6 OPERATION OF A TRANSMISSION LINE UNDER HEAVY LOADING CONDITION

First of all take eq.(3.29) for sending end voltage calculation which is given as:-

Vx  VCos  ( L  x)  jZoIRSin ( L  x)

P  jQ
Now from power triangle we can get I  put that value in above eq. of sending end voltage. So
V
we get,

P  jQ
E  V cos   jZo sin  ………………… (3.69)
V

Where,  ( L  x) =0 and IR  I

Now, simplify the eq.(3.69) for receiving end voltage calculation:-

E  ( E 2  j 2Zo sin 2 ( P  jQ)


V ………………. (3.70)
2cos 

From the above eq.(3.70) we can easily say that the receiving end voltage depends on three parameters
mainly:-

 Load

 Power factor

 Transmission line length

Now if we take the simulation of a 350 km long transmission line than after the simulation results we
can plot the graph between receiving end voltage and active power at different ranges of the power factor
value than the graph is shown as below fig 3.14 :-

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Automatic Reactive
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Fig 3.14-Receiving end voltage Vs Active power for different power factor values

From the eq.(3.70) we can say that for any value of power flow in the system, there are two possible
solutions of receiving end voltage. For any power system normal & healthy operation is required and
that’s why the system has been operated for higher roots values of the receiving end voltage in the
system. If the system is operated for the lower range of voltage value than there will be an undesirable
small amount of current is flowing from sending end. This is not good for the operation of the system.
So we need to keep the receiving end voltage near about the rated voltage value. Form fig 3.14 we can
say that a near flat voltage profile is achieved at unity power factor until the voltage magnitude does not
reaches of the critical value. After the critical voltage value the system does not operate in normal
condition.

The power factor value provides the control for receiving end voltage and also the critical receiving end
voltage Vcri. The load with lagging power factor will reduce the receiving end voltage & with the
increase of power, power flow the critical receiving end voltage also reduced. While the power factor is
leading than this effect is reversal in the system. If the power factor value of load is leading than it will
generate reactive power in the system which improves the line voltage in the system. Now the below fig
3.15 and 3.16 shows the effect of transmission line length on the receiving end voltage & critical
receiving end voltage Vcri.

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Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

Fig 3.15-Effects of transmission line length on receiving end voltage

& Vcri at unity Power factor

Fig 3.16-Effects of transmission line length on receiving end voltage

& Vcri at 0.97 lagging Power factor

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Fig 3.15 shows the effect at unity p.f and fig 3.16 shows the effect at 0.97 lagging p.f value on the
receiving end voltage & critical receiving end voltage Vcri. From the simulation results and graph we
can say that the uncompensated lines between 150km to 350 km length can be operated within normal
range with unity power factor. On the other hand the operation of radial line is not feasible at common
values of power factor and lower magnitude of critical voltage. If there is the value of sending end &
receiving end voltages are same than after at the natural loading, the receiving end voltage is very
sensitive to any load variation more than 300 km line length. Due to that the possible solutions of
receiving end voltage from eq.(3.70) are lower that’s why voltage stability issues are occurring in the
radial line system.

3.7 VOLTAGE REGULATION OF THE TRANSMISSION LINE & ITS RELATION WITH
REACTIVE POWER

Voltage regulation has been defined as the per unit change in the sending end voltage magnitude for
specific variation in load current. It is also considered as the variation in the receiving end voltage from
No load condition to full load condition. Therefore the voltage regulation in the transmission line in p.u
is given as:-

E V
V  ………………… (3.71)
V

Fig 3.17-A simple transmission line representation model

Fig 3.18-phasor diagram of the power system shown in fig 3.17

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From the phasor diagram, we can calculate as:-

V =E  V = IZl …………….. (3.72)

Where, I=load current through the line

Zl= line impedance = Rl  jXl

If we take V as to be the reference phasor, then we can write it as:-

P  jQ P  jQ
I  OR I  ……………………… (3.73)
V V

Now, put the values of I and Zl into eq.(3.72) we get,

 P  jQ 
V = Rl  jXl 
 V 

RlP  XlQ XlP  RlQ


= j ………………… (3.74)
V V

= ∆V’+j∆V” ………………………… (3.75)

From phasor diagram:-

RlP  XlQ
∆V’= and
V

X l P  R lQ
∆V” =
V

From eq.(3.75) we can say that the voltage regulation ∆V has two main components:- ∆V’ and ∆V” from
which ∆V’ is in the phase phase with V and it is shown in the phase diagram with line ab and ∆V” is in
quadrature with V and is is represented by line bc in the diagram. It may be noted that the magnitude of
voltage V which is related to sending end voltage E may be controlled using the magnitude of line
current I. This will also shows that voltage regulation is dependent on both active & reactive power of
the system. The voltage eq. for lossless line is given from eq.(3.72) as below:-

V  E  jIXl ………………….. (3.76)

If we consider that the sending end power is equal to the receiving end power than if we neglected the
distributed line capacitance than sending end current is equal to line current and which is given as:-

P  jQ
Is  I  ………………… (3.77)
E

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Automatic Reactive
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From eq.(3.76) and (3.77)

 P  jQ 
V  E  j  Xl
 E 

Xl Xl
E Q  j P ………………… (3.78)
E E

From eq.(3.78) we can say that the receiving end voltage is also depends on the active power. So, as we
discuss earlier a change in reactive power affects the receiving end voltage because it is in phase with a
reference voltage. So, we can say that the receiving end voltage is very sensitive to any change in
reactive power status at the receiving end bus. In transmission system the nodal points short circuit
strength are frequently considered as the robustness of the system. If the source reactance is high in the
system than short circuit strength are lower and that’s why these systems are considered as a weak
system. In the current scenario voltage regulation has been presented in form of short circuit strength of
the given system.

The receiving end short circuit power in complex form is given as:-

Ssc  Psc  jQsc

 VIsc *

V2  V 
 ………………………. (3.79)  Isc*  
Zsc *  Zsc * 

Where, Zsc  Rl  jXl ………………….. (3.80)

If we take E V than

V2
Rl  Zsc cos  sc  cos  sc ………………………. (3.81) and
Ssc

V2
Xl  Zsc sin  sc  sin  sc ……………………… (3.82)
Ssc

Where,  sc = Angle between receiving end voltage & short circuit current

Xl
 sc  tan 1 ……………………… (3.83)
Rl

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Put the values of Rl and Xl from eq.(3.81) & (3.85) into eq.(3.74) we get,

V2 V2 V2 V2
cos  scP  sin  scQ sin  scP  cos  scQ
V  Ssc Ssc
j Ssc Ssc
V V

OR

V 1
  P cos  sc  Q sin  sc  jP sin  sc  jQ cos  sc  ………………….(3.84)
V Ssc

But from eq.(3.75) ∆V=∆V’+j∆V’’

So eq.(3.84) real and imaginary part is given as:-

V ' 1
  P cos  sc  Q sin  sc  ………………….. (3.85) and
V Ssc

V '' 1
  P sin  sc  Q cos  sc  …………………….. (3.86)
V Ssc

V ''
For simplicity and feasibility in the system we can ignored the value of because it is only
V
shows the phase displacement in the system of receiving end with respect to sending end, but the
V '
value is very important because it gives the magnitude of voltage at receiving end bus in the
V
system.

So eq.(3.85) can be written as:-

V ' 1  Rl Xl 
 P Q  ……………….. (3.87)
V Ssc  Zsc Zsc 

When we consider the Extra high voltage line we can easily neglect the value of series reactance
from the system, so eq.(3.87) is given as:-

V ' 1  Xl 
 Q 
V Ssc  Zsc 

1
  Q sin  sc  ……………………. (3.88)
Ssc

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For small variations in the system the eq.(3.87) is given as:-

V ' 1  Rl Xl 
  P  Q 
V Ssc  Zsc Zsc 

1
  Q sin  sc  ……………….. (3.89)
Ssc

The value of  sc is very high,so sin  sc =1. So finally eq.(3.89) given as:-

V ' V 1 Q
   Q sin  sc   ………………….. (3.90)
V V Ssc Ssc

So finally from eq.(3.90) we can say that the per unit change in the receiving end voltage value is
equal to the ratio of change in reactive power to the short circuit strength at the receiving end bus in
the system.

The eq.(3.90) can also be written as:-

V ' V 1
 Q
V V Ssc

Where sin  sc 1;

E V Q
  E  V  V 
V Ssc

E  Q
V E 1   …………………(3.91)  assumeQ Ssc 
1
Q  Ssc 
Ssc

So, eq.(3.91) shows the relation between receiving end voltage and reactive power in terms of short
circuit strength in the system.

3.8 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER IN AN UNCOMPENSATED LINE

The reactive power relation in the uncompensated line given from eq.(3.36) and (3.37) as:-

Q
E cos   V cos   Zo sin 
V

P
E sin   Zo sin 
V

Power can be given from above eq. as:-

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EV sin 
P ……………………. (3.92)
Zo sin 

EV
The eq.(3.92) is identical to the conventional power flow eq. P  sin  and it is applicable for
Xl
synchronous & asynchronous load in the system & also E  V .

l
But, Zo  and    L   lc
c

 
Zo sin   Zo  Ll  Xl     lc  
 v

1
where v being the propogation velocity v 
lc

so, eq.(3.92) can be written as:-

EV sin  EV
P  sin 
Zo sin  Xl

 2 fL  2 f 360*50 
Where  L becomes L  0.06 L for f=50Hz.      0.06 
 
5
v v v 3*10

If the terminal voltage in the system is fixed than the power transmitted is the function of angle  . If
E=V=Vo than eq.(3.92) can be given as:-

Vo 2 sin  Px
P  sin  ……………… (3.93)
Zo sin  sin 

Where V2/Z0 represents the SIL. Figure 3.19 represents the graph between P and δ. From this graph
we can say that successful power transfer can be done till δ reaches to 90° after δ= 90°, the system
stability is affected. So, δ= 90° represents the steady state stability limit in the system and the power
transfer is maximum at this point. The steady state stability limit is then given by the following eq.:-

EV Px
P max   (where E=V) ………………….. (3.94)
Zo sin  sin 

From the above discussion, we can say that with increase of transmission line lengths  will
increases and hence the steady state stability limit decreases. The Table 3.1 below represents the
effect of increase of transmission line length on the steady state stability limit.

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Fig 3.19- Graph between P and δ

Table-3.1 Effect of transmission line length on steady state stability limit

An uncompensated line is required to operate near its steady state stability limit otherwise it may
lead the system to the zone of system instability. The system instability occurs due to an occasional
or major disturbance caused by faults, switching operations and sudden load variations in the system.
It is important to keep the power angle usually below 30° for the steady state stability limit in the
system. Due to that the magnitude of the transmissible power becomes half of the maximum amount
of power that can be transmitted in the system. It is also evident from the above analysis that smaller
power can be transmitted over longer distances and once the line length increases the steady state
stability limit will disturb in system.

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At other side increase with of line loading the system needs reactive power support such that the
voltage profile can be maintained within the normal range. Hence, it can be concluded that medium
and long transmission lines face limitations in the capability of transferring active power due to
stability problems. Also, it may be extremely difficult to maintain the rated voltages at the two ends
of the transmission line if the line is not properly compensated.

3.9 LINE LOADABILITY

The power transfer capability of Extra High Voltage transmission lines is substantially affected by
node point power injections and topological changes of the system. It has been generally considered
that the nodal strength or the short circuit capacity is the nodal indicator of robustness and simplicity
of any power network. This value is the inverse of the positive sequence equivalent impedance in
p.u. for the node considered in the system. Normally this equivalent impedance is indicated by the
series reactance of the transmission line as well as terminal reactance when analysed in a lossless
transmission line.

Fig 3.20-Schematic diagram of simple power line model

A simple form of power supply system, being represented by an equivalent  network is shown in
Figure 3.20. The equation for line load ability (S) in per unit (p.u.) quantities can be derived in terms
of the surge impedance loading (SIL) and is given below:-

V2
So( SIL)  ……………… (3.95)
Zo

When the system voltage is held at its nominal value in p.u Eq. (3.95) can be written as given
below:-

1
So  ……………………. (3.96)
Zo

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Zo is the surge impedance of the system.

Also,

Zp
ZC is the characteristic impedance = …………….. (3.97)
Yp

γ is the propogation =   j   ZpYp ………………… (3.98)

where,

Zp =series impedance

Yp =shunt admittance

 =attenuation constant

 =phase constant

In basic power system the receiving end power is given as below:-

SR=PR+jQR=VI* ……………………….. (3.99)

Where,

E V Y
I  V
Z 2

 2E  2V  ZYV / 2Z ……………… (3.100)

Where all the quantities are in p.u. Now the receiving end power can also be given as:-

SR VI *  2 E  2V  ZYV 
   Zo    *V
SIL (1/ Zo)  2Z

 2  E / V   2   Zo sinh  L  2 / Zo tanh  L / 2   2
 Zo  * V
 2Zo sinh  L 

Zo  E /V cosh  L  2
 *V …………………. (3.101)
Z 0 *  sinh  L 
For the given values of E, V and L (line length) the ratio (SR/SIL) value is the function of the
propagation constant γ and the ratio (Zo/Zo*) . Because the series resistance R of the EHV
transmission lines is normally much smaller than its inductive reactance X & the attenuation constant
α is very small, and the propagation constant γ approaches the phase constant (jβ). Surge impedance
being a real quantity when Zo*= Zo.

Now eq.(3.101) has been given as below:-


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SR
j
 E / V  *  cos  L V 2

SIL sin  L

Where,


 and   2 f ………………………. (3.102)
v

V is the velocity of the light.

In any electrical network the line load ability is defined as the magnitude of receiving end power
under a certain operating condition of the transmission line, which is not dependent on the
transmission line electrical parameters. It depends only on the line length and terminal voltages along
with different phase displacement in the system. SR in terms of SIL is used to represent the
transmission line load ability.

Simulations for determining and comparing the line load ability of a set of `robust' and 'weak'
systems have been graphically shown in Figure 3.21 below from which it is clear that the 'line load
ability' of robust systems is better compared to that of weak capacity systems. High source reactance
of EHV transmission systems plays an important role in limiting the line load ability as which is
shown in Figure 3.21. Load ability can be improved by relaxing the voltage drop constraint for small
and medium transmission lines only, as well as by adopting conventional methods for reduction in
line power loss. Series capacitor insertion also enhances the load ability.

Fig 3.21- Line Load ability for ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ system

Where, a,b-strong system c,d,e,f-weak system and SCC-short circuit capacity

3.10 REACTIVE POWER-VOLTAGE (Q-V) COUPLING CONCEPT

We have earlier discussed that the voltage regulation in a transmission line is very important factor in
any power system. The voltage regulation is dependent on the reactive power status at the load bus.

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In fact the voltage control problems, generate from the reactive power mismatch problem, i.e. the
condition when the reactive power generation is either lower or higher than the reactive power
demand. During the heavy loading condition the reactive power demand is high leading to higher
voltage regulation while during the light loading condition of a medium or long line the reactive
charging is capacitive type and may lead to surplus reactive generation. It may result in increase in
receiving end voltage which is known as Ferranti effect. In the next section we will discuss about
different aspects of reactive power conditions and the consequent voltage control problems.

Normally, active and reactive power calculation equations at the sending and receiving ends of a
basic power transmission line model are given as:-

EV
Ps  sin  ………………………….. (3.103)
X

E 2 EV
Qs   cos  …………………… (3.104)
X X

EV
PR  sin  ……………………… (3.105)
X

EV V2
QR  cos   ………………….. (3.106)
X X

With δ=90  we can write above eq. as given below:-

EV
Ps  PR  P max 
X

The active power is given as:-

Ps  PR  P max sin  ………………… (3.107)

And the reactive power is given as:-

Qs  QR  P max 1  cos   ……………… (3.108) (assume E=V)

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Fig 3.22-Graph of PR and QR values with respect to power triangle

The above fig 3.22 shows the profile of active & reactive power at receiving end with respect to
power triangle values. In normal operation in the system value of power triangle is considered lower
so sinδ becomes δ and cosδ becomes 1. So due to that sending end active and reactive power can be
given as below:-

Ps  PR  P max  ………………. (3.109)

E 2 EV
Qs  QR   ……………….. (3.110)
X X

So from that eq. We can conclude the following relations in the electrical parameters of the system:-

 P and δ are closely coupled

 Q and V are closely coupled

These physical relationships are reasonably applicable with acceptable accuracy and that relationship
is used in the Fast Decoupled Load Flow (FDLF) algorithm in load flow studies.

3.11 GOVERNING EFFECTS ON REACTIVE POWER FLOW

The governing effects on reactive power flow in power system includes following parameters for
consideration:-

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 Line Demand

 Effect of Receiving end Bus Loading

 Implication of voltage Regulation

 Implication of Magnitude of Power Angle

 Load Bus Reactive Power Sensitivity

 Effect of series reactive loss

1:- Line Demand

Let us take a simple two bus power system with E = 1 p.u., V = 0.95 p.u. and δ= 30°. So the sending
end and receiving end power can be given as below from the above calculations:-

……………. (3.111)

The negative value of QR shows that the transmission line requires reactive power from the receiving
end. The transmission line has thus become drain of reactive power absorbing reactive power from
the sending end and demanding reactive power from the receiving-end; the line reactive loss is
(0.178+ 0.081) 0.26
becoming X
Which is given in Pu value as X
p.u. So from that we can say that the

transmission line with decrease in receiving end voltage the transmission line demands reactive
power from the system.

2:- Effect of Receiving end Bus Loading

In this section we look at the receiving end power circle diagram as shown in below Figure-3.23 for
a 400 kV, 150 km and 100 M VA rating power system model.

From that circle diagram in fig 3.23 we can say that for maximum active power transfer in the
system the receiving end reactive power value becomes negative, which shows that the transmission
line is demanding reactive power from the receiving end. With the drop in receiving end voltage the
situation improves marginally. With higher real loading the reactive power demand increases heavily
in the given system.

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Fig 3.23-Power circle diagram at Receiving end for thegiven system model

3:- Implication of Voltage Regulation

We can give the voltage regulation in the transmission line system as:-

(E-V) = Vi+jVq …………………(3.112)

Where,

Vi = (IpR+IqX) and Vq= (IpX-IqR)

In the above equations the suffixes i and q indicates the phase and quadrature components of the
system. If we neglecting the resistance of the transmission line than above eq. is given as:-

Vi=IqX and Vq=IpX

So, eq. (3.112) can be written as:-

(E-V) = (IqVX)/V + j (IpVX)/V

= QRX/V + jPR X/V …………………. (3.113)

From the above eq. we can conclude following:-

 Voltage regulation increases with the higher power transfer

 Angle between Vi and Vq increase when voltage regulation is higher

Since with higher active power transfer the demand for reactive power increases, it becomes evident
that for heavily loaded transmission lines the voltage regulation increases and becomes very sensitive
to reactive demand QR.

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4:- Implication of Magnitude of Power Angle

The reactive power at the receiving end is given by the following eq.:-

…………………….. (3.114)

But the active power is given by:-

…………………. (3.115)

If the load demand is constant than

dP
0
dE

So from eq.(3.115) we can say that

d tan 

dE E

So from this eq.(3.114) is written as:-

………………… (3.116)

dQ
With high values of δ the cosδ becomes zero and becomes infinite.
dV

dQ
From all this we can say that at higher values of power angle approaches 0 indicating loss of
dV
voltage at load bus in the system.

5:- Load Bus Reactive Power sensitivity

From load flow equations calculated above, we can write the change in active & reactive power
values as given below:-

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………………… (3.117)

With analogous reasoning of FDLF (Fast Decoupled Load Flow) model (i.e. the decoupling concept)
it is considered here that

dP dQ
0 and 0
dV d

So the reactive power change eq. can be given as below:-

 Q   
dQ 
 V    J  V  ……………………… (3.118)
 dV 

 QL
At load bus in the given system which includes diagonal elements of Jacobian matrix
 VL
 QL
represents the reactive power sensitivity. So, will approaching to 0 or  which represents the
 VL
 QL
instability and if the value of is positive than the the load bus voltage becomes stable in the
 VL
 QL
given system. Therefore the stability margin in the system depends on the magnitude of .
 VL

6:- Effect of series Reactive loss

The series reactive loss in any system is given as below:-

│QL│=│I2X│

For constant MVA load in the system:-

S
I 
V

Therefore QL is given as below:-

…………………………. (3.119)

From that change in series reactive loss in the system is given as:-

………………….. (3.120)

Now assume │S│and│V│ to be constant than eq.(3.120) is given as:-


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…………………….. (3.121)

The series reactive loss very rapidly increases with the decrease in the transmission voltage value.

 Q and V are closely coupled.


 For heavily loaded lines and with decrease in receiving end voltage the transmission line acts as a
source of reactive power.
 With higher level of active power loading reactive demand of the system increases sharply and may
cause voltage reduction at the receiving end bus with no additional support of reactive power.
 Line voltage regulation increases with higher amount of power transfer.
 Voltage regulation is particularly sensitive to reactive power demand of the system.
 At higher values of power angle, there is a chance of loss of voltage at the load bus.
 Diagonal elements of Jacobian indicate reactive sensitivity at load bus and for stability of load bus
voltage, this sensitivity should be positive (its value of zero or infinity indicates instability).
 Series reactive loss is voltage dependent and the change in series reactive loss in the line would
sharply increase with any decline in receiving-end voltage.

3.12 RELATION BETWEEN VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER AT A NODE IN A


POWER SYSTEM

In this section analytical expressions and calculations will be developed to illustrate the sensitivity of
the voltage to the reactive power for any perturbation in the operating power status of the system.
Observation of the reactive power expression in Eq. (3.78) of voltage regulation analysis shows that
the system voltage is a function of active and reactive power.

V=f(P,Q) ………………………………. (3.122)

Therefore, for small perturbations in the system

…………………. (3.123)

From the above eq.(3.123) we can say that the change in the voltage profile at any node in the power
dP dQ
system is controlled by and values.
dV dV

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It can be seen from Eq. (3.122) that the change in voltage at the specific node is governed by the
dP dQ
quantities and . It has been shown in the previous sections that the voltage regulation in a
dV dV
transmission line of radial system is composed of inphase and quadrature voltage drops Eq. (3.75),
where the inphase voltage drop plays the important role in determining the magnitude of voltage
regulation. The effect of quadrature drop is negligible and due to that the Eq. (3.74) can be given as
below:-

……………………… (3.124)

OR

…………………. (3.125)

If we assume the sending voltage to be constant than eq.(3.125) is given as:-

……………………. (3.126) and

………………………… (3.127)

dP dQ
Put the values of and from eq.(3.126) & (3.127) to eq.(3.123) so we get:-
dV dV

…………………….. (3.128)

dP
In a lossless system RL= 0 and applying the concept of decoupling the term is of greater interest.
dV
So Eq. (3.128) may be rewritten as given below:-

………………….. (3.129)
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So we can say that the smaller the reactance associated with the node in the system the larger is the
dQ
value of for a given voltage drop. In other words, it means that for a low resistance system, the
dV
voltage drop is inherently small. In the power system due to the limited number of EHV lines and
low system short-circuit strength, the reactance of the system is high. This causes a higher voltage
drop in the system. However, this drop can be compensated by artificial injection of reactive power
dQ
in the system with the help of making higher. It enhances the cost of the system. Also in case of
dV
light loading the receiving-end voltage is approximately the same as the sending end voltage and due
to that Eq. (3.129) nominalising the reactance Xl as X is given as:-

…………………… (3.130)

But E/X represents the short circuit current flowing through the system. Hence it is seen that the
dQ
magnitude of is equal to the magnitude of short circuit current. Systems with higher system
dV
reactance indicate lower magnitude of short circuit current and this has also been indicated earlier
sections.

3.13 REACTIVE POWER REQUIREMENT FOR CONTROL OF VOLTAGE IN LONG LINES

In the earlier section we have discussed that it has been established that voltage control is a problem
with long transmission lines and the problem is further affects on system due to high terminal
reactances. It is necessary at this stage to establish the reactive power requirement of long lines in
order to maintain the system voltage near the rated value (i.e. When the receiving end voltage varies
from 0.95 p.u. to 1.05 p.u the rated value being 1.0 p.u.). It is advantageous to use the generalised
line equation for the line including the source reactance and the terminal transformers.

Therefore,

……………….(3.131)

Assuming the phase angle as ØR at the receiving end (i.e. the load current lags behind the receiving
end voltage by angle ØR ) and taking V as the reference phasor so the value of A and B is given as:-

……………….. (3.132)

So eq.(3.131) can be written as:-

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Now if we find magnitude only than it is written as given below:-

……………. (3.133)

But the cos ØR and sin ØR is calculated as:-

………………. (3.134)

For the loading or apparent power (P+jQ) at the receiving end bus put the values from eq.(3.134) into
eq.(3.133) so we get,

………………….. (3.135)

Where, IPR= real part of IR

IQR= reactive part of IR

……………. (3.136)

Hence, for a given system A and B are known as generalized circuit constants, Q may be calculated
for any specific amount of real power flow to make the receiving end voltage of desired value in
terms of the sending end voltage.

3.14 OPERATIONAL ASPECTS IN REACTIVE POWER AND VOLTAGE CONTROL

In power systems EHV networks have been utilized where the transmission lines of these networks
often link the remote locations like hydro, thermal and nuclear power plants with the load centers,
transporting the large amount of electric power to load centers from these power stations.
Interconnected with this EHV system is the numerous generators, transformers, reactors, capacitors,
etc. that are directly or indirectly needed for required uninterrupted electricity supply to the
consumers at a desired voltage level and to various locations. Each series element in this system has
a reactance which has a reactive power loss proportional to the square of the current passing through
it. Reactive power losses are a system wide phenomenon and can increase during heavy loading and
may decrease during light loading. Any series winding will an inductance absorb the reactive power
while the capacitances of EHV lines and cables inject the reactive power in the system.
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Enhancements in the system voltage level invite the reactive power mismatch problem since EHV
lines have high (X/R) ratio that increases the series loss due to heavily loaded lines and transformers,
causing more reactive power to be drained. During light load conditions the reactive power surplus
due to high charging and low series reactive loss may affect the system operation by causing
overvoltage in the system normally considered as a Ferranti effect.

Much as frequency is a measure of the balance between the generation and the real load throughout a
power system, transmission voltage levels indicate the balance between the supply and demand of
reactive power. Although under a specific operating condition frequency is uniform throughout the
power system while voltage levels can vary at different points of the transmission network due to the
reactive power problem. Voltage control problem in its extreme stage may create voltage instability
which is basically a reactive power mismatch in a power system as shown in the previous discussion.
This may occur due to steady, transient and dynamic state variations in system operating conditions
like change in loading, transformer tap position, alteration of alternator outputs, switching of
capacitors. reactors, outages, etc.

3.15 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SYSTEM VOLTAGE CONTROL

In the operation of a power system, there is a continuous control of voltage levels are required for
normal and stable mode operation. For small transmission and distribution the voltages are controlled
by tap changing transformers due to lower ranges of voltage levels. However, for the core of the
network like in the transmission system the voltage levels are maintained by drawing on the reactive
reserves of the system’s controllable plant which is made up mainly of rotating units. For major
system reactive power disturbances larger demands are met with the reactive reserves and with
automatic control providing the short term correction of voltage levels in the system.

3.16 REACTIVE POWER FLOW CONSTRAINTS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS IN LOSS OF


VOLTAGE

In this section implications of reactive power mismatch in following a contingency in the


transmission network or at the load center have been calculated in the lossless frame. The advantages
of using adequate, effective reactive reserve at the load center along with the utility of high terminal
short circuit strengths at the source and load nodes have also been highlighted in this section.

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State prior to disturbance in the system:-

The system is assumed to remain under medium to heavy loading and some of the key lines are fully
loaded or might be to some extent overloaded due to adjacent EHV lines being out of service.
However the system frequency is within the tolerable limits and almost normal operating conditions
prevail. For understanding the reactive power flow constraints and their implications on voltage loss
in the system we have considered two cases given as below:-

CASE I: INITIATING EVENT OF DISTURBANCE IN TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

The initiating disturbing event may be the loss of a highly loaded EHV transmission line due to the
operation of its protective relays situated between a generation source and a major load centers. This
tripping will cause an immediate extra loading of the adjacent EHV lines causing as substantially
increased reactive power burden on the system.

Immediate post disturbance situation:- Immediately after the EHV line has been tripped, there
would be a considerable voltage reduction at the adjacent load centers, thereby causing a significant
load reduction. This in turn causes less demand in MW on the generating station and the system
frequency may rise marginally till regularized by governor control. In the meantime, due to increased
transmission line reactive loading, the automatic voltage regulator of the alternators would operate to
restore the generator terminal voltage. In case the system does not have enough reactive power
reserve and a voltage reduction occurs than following the disturbance will be observed at all
segments of the network down to the loads at distribution voltage levels. It also decreases the
charging capacity of cables, lines and shunt capacitors throughout the sub transmission and
distribution networks. In case the tap changing operation has started the distribution voltage is slowly
restored to normal level. But each tap change will increase the voltage on the secondary side of the
transformer or the voltage at LV winding and concurrently increase the load MW and MVAR
supplied by distribution transformers. This extra load passing through the subtransmission network,
will cause its voltage to fall as each tap change raises the distribution voltage. In the subtransmission
network this will increase the series reactive power losses and also reduce line, cable and capacitor
charging.

If the EHV line is heavily loaded the extra reactive loss for each extra increment of loading becomes
quite substantial and is even more pronounced if the EHV level reduces. This is evident from the fact
that when a transmission line surpasses SIL (Surge Impedance Loading) there is a significant rising
rate of reactive losses. Further the value of SIL reduces with the square of the voltage level as
voltage falls. In extreme cases there may be several MVAR of reactive line loss for each extra
MVAR received at the load centre.

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Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

Should the tap changing process continue unchecked on an important part of the network distribution
voltage will recover fully, subtransmission voltage may recover partly, but the transmission voltage
will continue to fall. Even though the load connected to the load center may not increase physically
when the voltage at the load center is restored by the transformer tap changing process the
transmission system requires extra reactive power which could be a final blow to system stability.
Each load center transformer taps change would directly increase the loads which would need to be
supplied by the system generators. The reactive load increase on the generator would be enhanced by
the additional series losses in the line and transformer. While the automatic voltage regulators
maintain the generator terminal voltage the extra reactive loading through the 'Gen-Transformer' or
generator and tap changing transformer section would reduce the power station EHV level
compounding with the series loss. With inadequate reactive reserve system generators would attain
and then exceed their continuous rated field currents. The result is the severe voltage crisis within the
system.

CASE II: INITIATING EVENT OF DISTURBANCE IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM


(CONTINGENCY IN THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM)

Assuming the operation of a protective gear say into the static reactive power injection device like
the static capacitor bank in the load center, the sequence of events can be analyzed to predict the
voltage control problems at the load center. With tripping of the capacitor bank load bus voltage
drops are compounded by a reactive power shortage due to fall in the charging capacity of lines and
cables. Real demand may also fall due to lower residential loads with drop in voltage. Wait On Load
Tap Changer (OLTC) in the distribution center in operation the sub transmission voltage and thus the
distribution voltage attains near normal levels while the main load bus voltage remains lower. As a
result the real demand on the load bus increases and may slightly overshoot the pre contingency
level. However, as the active power on the line increases the voltage drop required to deliver the
deficit reactive power also increases and is compounded by an increase in series reactive losses and
fall in reactive charging. The situation further deteriorates if the reactive power limits of the nearby
generators are exhausted. With OLTC operation, uninterrupted the distribution voltage is retained
near the nominal value by the transformer, while the voltage in transmission and sub transmission
zones falls steadily. In a reactive power constrained line this situation may lead to the voltage
collapse at the load end depriving the system from having a stable operating point, even if it did not
have any frequency instability in the pre contingency period.

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Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

During the steady fall of the load voltage, the collapse may accelerate due to over loading of the
motors in the system. During the voltage collapse there will be a transient voltage overshoot due to
release of motor contactors and extinction of fluorescent lamps. This overshoot may again result in
an enhancement in real power demand, thus accelerating the voltaic collapse in the system.

3.17 EFFECT OF TRANSFORMER TAP CHANGING IN THE POST DISTURBANCE


PERIOD

From all above sections, and previous discussion, we can say that if the sub transmission and
distribution transformer tap changer function before the full restoration of sub transmission voltage
by the EHV substation transformer there will be an overshoot of EHV substation active and reactive
loading. Hence, with reference to transformer tap changing the following factors should be carefully
considered for a post disturbance period:-

 Timing of transformer tap changing should be graded such that the higher the voltage the faster is the
tap changing.
 Load overshoot of both MW and MVAR can be avoided if the EHV substation transformer tap
changer can restore the sub transmission voltage levels before any downside transformer tap changer
functions.
 Normal tap changing will restore the system load to pre disturbance levels, even if EHV level is
falling. Under this condition, strategic load shedding may be effective.
 System load overshoot due to transformer tap-changing action may affect the balance unfavorably to
system voltage stability in an emergency situation.

3.18 EFFECT OF GENERATOR EXCITATION ADJUSTMENT IN THE POST


DISTURBANCE PERIOD

The sudden and sustained reduction in transmission voltage levels would cause field forcing and over
excitation of nearby rotating units. This field forcing will provide access to a normally untapped
level of reactive power reserve. If it can be sustained this over excitation will expand the power
system's range of reactive power co-ordination and hence its voltage stability. In case the over-
excitation is not permissible and when there is no effective reactive reserve, transmission voltage
will fall putting the system at risk of system collapse. In an extensive power system this effect would
mushroom outwards, so that progressively more and more units would soon become over-excited
and would then have their over excitation restricted. At the epicenter the voltage would fall to
remarkably low levels. It has been recovered from the records that during the 1978 France
disturbance. Paris power stations were island due to the above condition when the voltage dropped
below 0.7 p.u.

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Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

3.19 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF REACTIVE POWER FLOW PROBLEMS LEADING TO


VOLTAGE COLLAPSE IN EHV LINES

The voltage control problem is a typical problem encountered in dealing with the operation of
transmission lines. This problem typically classified into the following categories:

 Long transmission lines:- In power systems long lines with voltage uncontrolled buses at
the receiving ends create major voltage problems during light load or heavy load conditions.
When the loading level is low, i.e. below SIL the receiving end voltage rises while above SIL
for heavy loading conditions the receiving end voltage drops. The receiving end voltage case
of heavy loading conditions the series reactive drop may be very high, causing voltage
depression at the receiving end. In extreme cases the reactive power demand (i.e. Series
reactive loss) of the line may be enormously high, causing severe voltage control problems.
This voltage depression cumulatively increases due to the lower charging capacity and the
higher reactive current intake in the induction motor loads.

 Radial transmission lines:- In a power system most of the parallel EHV networks are
composed of radial transmission lines. Any loss of an EHV line in the network causes an
enhancement in system reactance. In case a condition appears where the increase in reactive
power delivered by the lines to the load for a given drop in voltage is less than the increase in
reactive power required by the load for the same voltage drop, a small increase in load puts
the system in an unstable state. On load tap changing transformer improves or maintains the
distribution voltage while there is no improvement in transmission voltage. This also affects
the voltage stability and has been discussed earlier.

 Shortage of local reactive power:- It has been explained earlier that there should be a
perfect match between reactive power generation and demand at any bus to have voltage
stability at that bus. However there may be a disorganised combination of outage and
maintenance schedule that may cause localised reactive power shortage and lead to voltage
control problems. In a reactive power constrained system the reactive power reserve in the
network is low. A disturbance in a load bus may cause a shortage of reactive power supply
and an increase in reactive power demand. The result is a voltage drop in the transmission
line. This gives rise to the problem of voltage control and also reduces the charging capacity
of the reactive power of the system. Until there is a local reactive power support any attempt
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Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

to import reactive power through the long EHV lines is not successful and does not serve the
purpose. Under this situation the bulk system voltage drops down.

 Reactive dispatch capability:- This problem is most likely to occur in any system where a
common trend is to use local generators to supply reactive loads and losses. At normal
operating voltage, the reactive power availability from generators, capacitors, and line and
cable charging balance the reactive load as well as the reactive losses in line and terminal
transformers. In case of a drop in system voltage & line loading being constant the reactive
loss increases and the charging capability of the system decreases. The result is an increase in
the reactive power output of the generator. Thus the voltage drop initiates an increase in
reactive power output of the local generators. In case of a continuous increase in reactive
power demand at the load bus or due to voltage drop in that bus the reactive power output of
the generators goes on increasing. However, this enhancement is limited due to thermal limits
of the generator. Any attempt to change the generator voltage set point by alteration in the
AVR system will cause enhancement of generator voltage. This may further enhance loading
on the bus or cause enhancement of reactive flow from it to other generators creating
undesired operation. In a weak capacity power system the operator of such a generator bus
may notice the rise in the reactive power output of the alternators as the problem of
undervoltage is attempted to be solved. The other alternative is to bring the reactive power
from remote sources.

 High voltage problem:- This is another problem to be tackled in any transmission system.
This has already been discussed and has conventionally been termed Ferranti effect and we
have discuss about that to how control high voltage problem in the system.

EXERCISE

1. Name the primary constants of the model of a transmission line. How are they related to the
secondary constants?

2. Briefly state the concepts of lumped parameter models of a transmission line. What are the
equations for sending end voltage and current at the sending and at the receiving end of a
line?

3. Develop expressions for power flows at the sending and receiving ends of a power line.

4. How do you obtain the expressions for the receiving-end of a power circle diagram? How can
you find the expression of maximum power from it?

5. Obtain the expression for reactive power requirements of a transmision line.


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Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

6. What is surge impedance loading? What is its expression?

7. Obtain the reactive loss characteristics of a transmission line.

8. How would you model the operation of an uncompensated line at no load? What is Ferranti
effect?

9. Find an expression for the receiving-end voltage in a heavily-loaded uncompensated line.


Draw the relevant characteristics.

10. Establish relationships between the voltage regulation of a short line model and reactive
power. How is it governed by system short-circuit capacity?

11. How do you obtain a relation for maximum power and line angle/line length of a power line?

12. What is line loadability? Obtain an expression for loadability.

13. What is decoupling concept? Show that for a lossless transmission two-bus model, Q-V and P-
δ quantities are closely coupled.

14. How would you prove that real power loading has got the implication in reactive power
demand?

15. What is the role of reactive power demand on the voltage regulation of a power line?

16. Show that for high values of power angle, (DQ/DV) approaches zero value and indicates a loss
of stability

17. Briefly explain the meaning of 'load bus reactive power sensitivity'.

18. Develop a relation between voltage and reactive power at a node in a power system.

19. How will you explain the implication of reactive power mismatch in system operation.

20. What is reactive power flow constraint and what is its role in loss of system voltage?

21. Explain the effect of tap-changing transformer and automatic voltage regulator of generator
voltage control of a transmission system.

22. List a few practical aspects for describing the reactive power flow problem in voltage collapse.

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Automatic Reactive
Power & Voltage Control

3-47
State Estimation

4. STATE ESTIMATION
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Least Squares Estimation: The basic solution
4.3 Static State Estimation of Power Systems
4.4 Tracking State Estimation of Power Systems
4.5 Computational Considerations
4.6 External System Equivalency
4.7 Treatment of Bad Data
4.8 Network Observability and Pseudo-Measurements
4.9 Application of Power System State Estimation

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Real time monitoring and control of power systems is very important for an efficient and
reliable operation of a power system. The state estimation model performs real time
monitoring and control functions of the power system.

To perform these functions, estimation and measurements of following state variables are
required. It estimates the true value of the state variables to minimize or maximize the
selected criterion.

In the Power System, State variable are:

 Voltage magnitudes and

 Relative phase angles at buses

Measurements:

 Voltage magnitudes

 Real and reactive transmission line flows

 Current through transmission lines

The main objective of the state estimation process is to obtain the best possible values of
voltage magnitudes and relative phase angles at buses by using the available network data.

4-1
State Estimation

The purpose of state estimation is to improve the dispatch of energy, system reliability and
planning capabilities by understanding the operating state of the power system. It plays an
important role in the monitoring and control of advance power system.

The state estimation is required because;

Today’s complex, large scale power systems require highly sophisticated techniques for
monitoring and control to maintain the system in a secure and reliable state. Also,

 Meters are not perfect.

 Meters are not everywhere.

 Very few phase measurements

4.2 LEAST SQUARES ESTIMATION: THE BASIC SOLUTION

"Least squares" means that the overall solution minimizes the sum of the squares of the
errors made on the results of every single equation.

Suppose the equations are linear and in the form;

y = Ax -------(1)

Where,

x is the state, (voltage magnitude and angle at each bus)

y the measurements, and

A is a matrix with more rows than columns.

In general Eq. (1) does not have a solution and should be written as;

y = Ax + ε -------(2)

Where the vector ε represents errors in the measurements.

The “least squares” solution is based on assuming the errors are independent and identically
distributed with mean zero and variance 1; that is, with the unit matrix denoted by I:

E    0, E  T   I

The best solution of the above equation is possible by least square estimation (LSE)
method. In this method, the optimization problem is to find the estimate, 𝑥̂ which
minimizes;

4-2
State Estimation

E ( y  Axˆ )( y  Axˆ )T   yy T  2 y T Axˆ  ˆxT AT Axˆ    ( 3 )

The solution of the state vector 𝑥̂ is;

A T .y
x̂ 
A T .A
Or
x̂  (A T .A)-1 A T .y

4.3 STATIC STATE ESTIMATION OF POWER SYSTEMS

The static state of an electric power system is defined as the vector of the voltage
magnitudes and angles at all network buses.

A static state estimate is obtained from measurements taken within a time interval of about
0-5 s.

The least square estimation technique is use to maximize the probability that the estimated
state variable is near the true value.

Consider a system having n buses, the state vector x may be defined as the 2n -1 vector of
then -1 voltage angles 2, ..., n and the N voltage magnitudes V1, V2, VN.

The power system state is a nonlinear problem and may be solved using either the batch
processing or sequential processing formula.

Let Pi and Qi is the active and reactive power injections of ith bus. These are related to the
components of the state vector through the following equations.
n
Pi   Vi Vk Yik cos   i   k  ik     ( 1 )
k 1
n
Qi    Vi Vk Yik sin   i   k  ik     ( 2 )
k 1

Where,

Yik represents the magnitude and ik , represents the angle of the admittance of the line
connecting the ith and kth buses.

The active and reactive components of the power flow from the ith to the kth bus, on the
other hand arc given by the following equations.

4-3
State Estimation

Pik  Vi Vk Yik cos   i   k  ik   Vi Yik cos ik    ( 3 )


2

Qik  Vi Vk Yik sin   i   k  ik   Vi Yik sin ik    ( 4 )


2

The Jacobian matrix

 A1 A2 
A A4 
 3
 A5 A6 
 
A   A7 A8 
 --- --- 
 
 I n 1 0 
0 I n 

Where,

I n is the identity of matrix n.

4.4 TRACKING STATE ESTIMATION OF POWER SYSTEMS

For real time monitoring of the power system, it is important to track the state of the power
system. The the voltages of all real power systems vary randomly with time, so it should be
considered to be stochastic processes.

Hence, it is necessary to employ the sequential state estimation techniques in order to


estimate state at any time point.

The bus real and reactive power equations,


n
Pi   Vi Vk Yik cos   i   k  ik     ( 1 )
k 1
n
Qi    Vi Vk Yik sin   i   k  ik     ( 2 )
k 1

are always valid, but it must be rewritten after indicating that the voltage magnitude and
angles are new functions of the discrete time index k.

4.5 COMPUTATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

State estimation is a computationally intensive process. Particularly for large power


systems which may have more numbers of buses. So it is very important to pay attention to
such computational issues as computer storage and time requirements.

4-4
State Estimation

Hence, it is run either at fixed intervals of time or once it is found that the power system has
sufficiently changed from its previous state. But the power system is a quasi-static system,
hence changes continuously, albeit slowly. Hence, a state estimation run at fixed intervals
of time, gives a snap shot of the system at that point of time, but fails to capture this
dynamic nature of the power system.

4.6 EXTERNAL SYSTEM EQUIVALENCY

The external system equivalency in power system state estimation is divided into three
subsystem. Fig. See an interconnected system as viewed from a control center and has three
subsystems.

The internal system is the control area for which a specific control center is responsible.
Normally the control area is observable,

The second subsystem consists of those buses which are not of direct interest to us and is
referred as external subsystem. Finally the buses which provide links between these internal
and external subsystems constitute the third subsystem referred to as ‘boundary’ subsystem.

In power system, identification of these three subsystems can be done by either in nature or
in an artificial way.

The external system can be replaced by an equivalent network or it can be maintained in the
unreduced form.

The state estimation can be extended to the boundary system.

4.7 TREATMENT OF BAD DATA

One of the essential functions of a state estimator is to detect measurement errors, and to
identify and eliminate them if possible. In the load dispatch center, the bad data detection

4-5
State Estimation

and identification are very important for the measurements. Measurements may contain
errors due to random errors usually exist in measurements due to the finite accuracy of the
meters and telemetering systems.

Bad data may appear in several different ways depending upon the type, location and
number of measurements that are in error. They can be broadly

Classified as;

 Single bad data: Only one of the measurements in the entire system will have a
large error.

 Multiple bad data: More than one measurement will be in error.

The treatment of bad data has two levels as:

A. Bad Data Detection:

The chi- squares (2) test methods use to detect bad data.

Consider the set of N independent random variables X1, X2, X3.....XN.

Where Xi is distributed according to the standard normal distribution. Then, a new random
variable Y defined by,
N
Y   xi2
i 1

It will have the chi – square distribution of Y2

Now, let us consider the function f(x), in terms of error it can be written as;
m
f ( x )   Rii-1 i2
i 1
2
m  
  i 
 R
i 1 

ii 
m
  (  iN )2
i 1

Where,

i is the ith measurement error

Rii is the diagonal entry of the measurement error covariance matrix and

m is the total number of measurements

4-6
State Estimation

The function f(x), will have the chi – square distribution with (m-n) degree of freedom.

B. Bad Data Identification:


After the detection of bad data in measurement set, their identification can be accomplished
by further processing of the residuals.

The largest normalized residual (  max


N
) techniques use to describe bad data identification.

Steps to identify the bad data are:

1. Solve the weighted least square (WLS) estimation and obtain the elements of the
measurement residual vector;

 i  zi  hi ( x ) , i = 1, 2 ...m

2. Compute the normalized residuals:

i
 iN  , i = 1, 2 ...m
Rii

3. Find kth measurement such that  kN is the largest among  iN , i = 1, 2 ...m

4. If  kN > c, then the kth measurement will suspected as bad data. Else, stop, no bad
data will be suspected. Here, c is a chosen identification threshold, for instance 3.0.

5. Eliminate the kth measurement from the measurement set and go to step-1.

After identification of bad data in measurement input data they could be removed before it
is proceed.

4.8 NETWORK OBSERVABILITY AND PSEUDO-MEASUREMENTS

Network Observability

The network observability is essentially determined by the type and location of the
measurements.

Network observability is an integral part of any real time state estimator. A power system is
said to be observable if voltage phasors at all system buses can be uniquely estimated using
the available measurements.

When sufficient measurements are available, state estimation can obtain the state vector of
the whole system. In this case, the network is observable.

Pseudo-Measurements

4-7
State Estimation

If the system is found unobservable, use pseudo-measurements in order to merge


observable data.

The most common “exact” pseudo-measurement is the bus injection at a substation that has
no generation and serves no load. Fig.1 below illustrates.

In Fig. 1, bus p has no generation or load. We therefore know the real and reactive power
injection of this bus with precision; it is 0. Therefore, we can add two more measurements;

yi  Ai ( x )   i - - - -( 1 )
yi 1  Ai 1( x )   i 1 - - - -( 2 )

Where:

yi  Pi  0 - - - -( 3 )
yi 1  Qi  0 - - - -( 4 )
n

i k  Gik cos(  i   k )  Bik sin(  i   k )   0 - - - -( 5 )


Ai ( x )  Pi   VV
k 1
n

i k  Gik sin(  i   k )  Bik cos(  i   k )   0 - - - -( 6 )


Ai 1( x )  Qi   VV
k 1

We recognize the summations of eqs. (5) and (6) as the power flow equations for real and
reactive power injection, respectively

The terms i and i+1 are zero-mean Gaussian distributed errors for the pseudo-
measurements.

4.9 APPLICATION OF POWER SYSTEM STATE ESTIMATION

The main application of state estimations is;

4-8
State Estimation

 Security monitoring

 Bad data processing and display (detection, identification)

 Optimal control

 Load frequency control

 Economic load dispatch

 Real-time Contingency Analysis

 On-line dispatcher power flow

See the block diagram of the role of state estimation in power system.

The state estimates typically include the following functions:

Topology processor:

Creates a one-line diagram of the system using the detailed circuit breaker status
information..

Network Observability:

Checks to make sure that state estimation can be performed with the available set of
measurements.

State estimator:

4-9
State Estimation

 Provides state of the system (voltage phase angles and magnitudes)

 Provides estimate of line flows, loads, generator outputs

 Estimates the system state based on the available measurements.

Bad data processor:

Checks for bad measurements. If detected, identifies and eliminates bad data. Also checks
for errors in circuit breaker status.

Parameter and structural error processing:

Detects structural errors in the network and identifies incorrect CB statuses if unwanted
measurements are available

EXERCISE

Q.1 What is state estimation? Why it is important in any power system operation and

control?

Q.2 Explain Least Squares Estimation

Q.3 Explain Static State Estimation of Power Systems

Q.4 Explain Tracking State Estimation of Power Systems

Q.5 Express Computational Considerations of state estimation of power system.

Q.6 How the bad measurement data are processed in state estimation process?

Q.7 State and explain the techniques use for data treatment.

Q.8 Explain Network Observability and Pseudo-Measurements

Q.9 State Application of Power System State with block diagram.

4-10
Load Forecasting

5. LOAD FORECASTING

5.1 Introduction;
5.2 Load forecasting Methodology;
5.3 Estimation of Average and Trend Terms;
5.4 Estimation of Periodic Components;
5.5 Estimation of ys(k), Time Series Approach;
5.6 Long-Term Load Predictions Using Econometric Models;
5.7 Reactive Load Forecasting.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Load forecasting is a technique used by power or electric utility companies to predict the power needed
to meet the demand and supply equbrilium.
Load forecasting is about estimating future load consumptions based on various data and information
available and as per consumer behavior
It is essential for the power system planning, operation and control.
It helps to electrcal utility to make;
 Purchasing and generating electric power
 Unit commitment
 Maintenance schedule and
 Future infrastructure development
It is classified as;
 Long term (10 to 20 years)
 Medium term (5 to 10 years) and
 Short term (Hour, week, month, year)

5.2 LOAD FORECASTING METHODOLOGY

The load forecasting methodology is presented in three major groups;


(1) Extrapolation
(2) Correlation
(3) A combination of both (Hybrid)
The above methods are further classified into deterministic and probabilistic (stochastic).
1. Extrapolation
Extrapolation methodology uses historical data for the estimating future outcomes. This technique based
on curve fitting to previous data available. This is simple method and reliable in some cases.
1-1
Load Forecasting

Deterministic extrapolation:
Errors in data availability and errors in curve fitting are not accounted.
Probabilistic extrapolation
Accuracy of the forecast available is tested using statistical measures such as mean and variance.
Standard analytical functions used in trend curve fitting are:
Straight line: y  a  bx
Parabola: y  a  bx  cx 2
S-curve: y  a  bx  cx 2  dx3
Exponential: y  cedx
Gompertz: y  ln 1 (a  cedx )
The best trend curve is obtained using regression analysis.
Best estimate may be obtained using the equation of the best trend curve.
2. Correlation
 Correlation methods of forecasting relates system loads to various demographic and economic
factors.
 Knowledge about the interrelationship between nature of load growth and other measurable factors.
 Forecasting demographic and economic factors is a difficult task.
 No forecasting method is effective in all situations.
 The designer must have good judgment and experience to make a forecasting method effective.
3. Combination (Hybrid)
Hybrid forecasting methods combine regression, data smoothing, and other techniques to produce
forecasts that can compensate for the weaknesses of individual methods. For example, some forecasting
methods are great at short-term forecasting, but cannot capture seasonality.
5.3 ESTIMATION OF AVERAGE AND TREND TERMS

For the estimation of load forecasting, a simple decomposition method use.


Let y(k) represents the total load demand at the discrete time k=1,2,3,4…… it is generally possible to
decompose y(k) into two parts;

y(k )  yd (k )  ys (k )

Where d is deterministic part and s is stochastic part of the load demand.

The simplest possible form of total load demand y(k), is given by;
yd (k )  y d  bk  e(k )-------(1)

Where;
y d represents the average or the mean value of yd (k )
bk represents the trend term
e(k) represents the error of modelling the complete load using the average and trend terms only.

The estimation of two unknown parameters y d and b required in the model.

1-2
Load Forecasting

LSE method use to determine y d and b, the estimation index J is obtained from the relation;


J  E e2 (k ) -------(2)
Where E represents the expectation operation,

Now from the equation (1); e(k )  y d  yd (k )  bk


 E y d  yd (k )  bk  0 
E bk 2

 yd ( k ) k  y d k  0

Since the E does not affect the constant quantities, it is easy to solve these two equations according to y d
and b,

y d  E  yd (k )  b E (k )
 E  yd (k )k   y d E k 
b  
E k  2

Now, N no. of data is to be assumed for determine the time average of y d and b quantities is express as
follows;

 1  N N

y d      yd ( k )  b  k 
 N   k 1 k 1 

N   N  N 
N   yd ( k ) k     k    y d ( k ) 
b   k 1   k 1   k 1
2

N
 N

N  k 2   k 
k 1  k 1 

These two parameters are employed to estimate the average and the trend coefficient for any given data.

5.4 ESTIMATION OF PERIODIC COMPONENTS

The deterministic part of the load may contain some periodic components, i.e. some fluctuations in load
data during some particular periods.

If we assume that total N data available for that period, the periodic load pattern may be expressed in
terms of a Fourier series with the fundamental frequency  equal to 2  /N. A suitable model for the
deterministic load y(k) is then given by;
L
y (k )  y   ai sin(i k )  bi cos(i k )  e(k )-------(1)
i 1

Where;

y, represents the average and the polynomial terms in a combined form,

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Load Forecasting

L, represents the total number of harmonics present, and

a i and bi are the amplitudes of the sinusoidal and the cosinusoidal components respectively.

In case of a i and bi only dominant harmonics are needed to be calculated.

Now, assume;

x(k )  1A1 A2 ..... AL B1B2 .....BL  -------(2)


T

h  ( yd sin  k sin 2 k....sin L k cos  k cos 2 k....cos L k )T -------(3)

The equation (1) can be written as;

yd (k )  hT x(k )  e(k )------(4)

In the above equation, x(k ) can be easily estimated by LSE Method. From that future load yd (k  j ) can
be predicted as;

yd ( k  j )  hT ( k  j ) x( k )

5.5 ESTIMATION OF YS(K), TIME SERIES APPROACH:

A time series is a sequential set of data points, measured typically over successive times. Time series
prediction is the use of a model to predict future events based on known past events. It is a sequence of
data points, measured typically at successive times, spaced at (often-uniform) time intervals.
The power system load assumed to be time dependent. The two models are used to determine a time
series approach for load forecast.
1. Auto-Regressive (AR) Model
2. Auto-Regressive Moving Average (ARMA) model
1. Auto-Regressive (AR) Model
The nth order auto-regressive model can be expressed as;
n
ys (k )   ai ys (k - i )  w(k )-------(1)
i 1

Where the coefficient;


ai are the model parameter and
w( k ) is a zero mean
To get the solution of equation (1); it is required that the coefficient ai represents the root of the
characteristic equation and is given by;
1  a1 z 1  a2 z 2  -----  an z  n  0
Lie inside the unit circle in the z plane for the value of.

Now to solve a problem, auto-correlation functions are first computed for given data and next to estimate
the statistic of the noise process w(k). The best estimation of w(k) may be obtained from the residual
e(k)=ys(k)-𝑦̂s(k)
Where the estimate 𝑦̂s(k) is determine from;
1-4
Load Forecasting

𝑦̂𝑠(𝑘) = −𝑛 ∑ ai ys ( k  i )
𝑖=1

The variance 2 of w(k) is then given by;


1 n 2
2  e ( k )
n i 1
2. Auto-Regressive Moving Average (ARMA) model

In some cases; the AR model may not be helpful to represent the available load behavior unless the order
n of the model is made very high. In such a case ARMA model is used and mathematically ARMA(n,m)
model is represented as;
n m
ys (k )   ai ys (k - i)   b j w(k  j )  w(k )-------(1)
i 1 j 1

Here the model orders n, m refer to n autoregressive and m moving average terms.

The estimation of two structural parameter n,m and model parameter ai and bj and the variance w(k) is
required.

Usually ARMA model can be modified to incorporate the wind velocity, rainfall, temperature and
humidity data.

5.6 LONG-TERM LOAD PREDICTIONS USING ECONOMETRIC MODELS

The long-term load prediction using an econometric approach combines economic theory and statistical
techniques for forecasting electricity demand.
The long term plan is related to a few months to a few years. In such cases, the load demand reflects the
base of the load on the various segments of the economy of the concerned region.
As an example, the total load demand y (k) may be decomposed as;
m
yk   ai yi ( k )  e( k )
i 1

Where the coefficient;


ai are the model parameter,
yi ( k ) are the chosen economic variables and
e( k ) represent error of modeling
The above equation can be rewritten in vector notation as;
yk  h' ( k )x  e( k )
Where;
h' ( k )   y1( k )y2 ( k )-----yn ( k ) and

x   a1a2 -----an 

The future load 𝑦̂(𝑘 + 1) can be predicted as;

1
𝑦̂(𝑘 + 1) = 𝑥̂(𝑘)ℎ̂(𝑘 + )
𝑘
1-5
Load Forecasting

Where;

𝑥̂(𝑘) is the estimate of the coefficient vector and based on the data available.

5.7 REACTIVE LOAD FORECASTING.

The reactive power forecast is based on the use of first differences of active and reactive power
measurements for evidence unclassified events. This approach represents the main point in the proposed
reactive forecast. From this it is measured the influence of each consumer type in transformer, power
factor, using monthly power factor estimated values and a multiple regression with monthly consumer
energy data. Simultaneously an optimization routine, which minimizes loads related errors, returns the
consumption forecast by consumer types using the active power forecast for each consumer type and
typical load curves. Reactive loads are not easy to forecast as compared to active loads, since reactive
loads are made up of not only reactive components of loads, but it includes of transmission and
distribution network and compensating reactive power devices such as SVC,FACTS ,etc.

EXERCISE

Q.1 What is load forecasting? Give its objectives.

Q.2 State and explain load forecasting methodology.

Q.3 Estimate the average and trend term for forecasting.

Q.4 Estimate Periodic Components of load forecasting

Q.5 Explain Time Series Approach for estimation of total load demand.

Q.6 Explain Long-Term Load Predictions Using Econometric Models

Q.7 Explain Reactive power Load Forecasting

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Power system Deregulation & Restructuring

6. INTRODUCTION TO POWER
SYSTEM DEREGULATION AND
RESTRUCTURING

6.1 Introduction;
6.2 Motivation for Restructuring of power system;
6.3 Electricity market entities and model;
6.4 Benefits of Deregulation;
6.5 Deregulation – International scenario;
6.6 Milestones of deregulation in the world;
6.7 Indian power sector – Past and present status:
6.7.1 Growth of power sector in India – An Overview,
6.7.2 A time line of the Indian power sector,
6.7.3 Players in the Indian power sector,
6.7.4 Research and professional bodies.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Deregulation in power industry is a restructuring of the rules. Power system deregulation is the process of
changing rules and regulations that control the electric industry to provide customers the choice of
electricity suppliers who are either retailers or traders by allowing competition.
Deregulation improves the economic efficiency of the production and use of electricity. Due to
competition in the electric industry, the power prices are likely to come down which benefits the
consumers.
The main objectives of the deregulated power market:
 To provide electricity for all reasonable demands.
 To encourage the competition in the generation and supply of electricity.
 To improve the continuity of supply and the quality of services.
 To promote efficiency and economy of the power system.
6.2 MOTIVATION FOR RESTRUCTURING OF POWER SYSTEM

Since the 1980s, the electricity supply industry has been undergoing rapid and drastic changes,

A significant feature of these changes is to allow for competition among generators and to create market
conditions in the electricity supply industry, which are necessary to reduce costs of energy production and
distribution, eliminate certain inefficiencies and increase customer choice and benefits.

6-1
Power system Deregulation & Restructuring

The reasons for restructuring are different in different countries. Many countries made the changes due to
the failure of the state to adequately manage electricity companies. In other countries, the force behind
this has been the lack of public resources to finance the required investment for the development. The
World Bank took initiative to give loans to the utilities with a condition to start deregulation processes.
Hence, a great variety of organizational forms are emerging.

The main reasons behind the restructuring are given below:

High tariffs.
The price of electricity in several countries is much more and it is expected that the price will decrease
after deregulation. Service may improve as a result of the restructuring. However, there is also a serious
concern in many countries about falling maintenance standards.

Pressure from financial institutions.


The electricity supply industries in the developing countries are suffering from financial crisis and require
huge financial assistance/loan foreign financial institutions like the World Bank, the Asian Development
Bank etc. Knowing the situation of ESI that it is difficult to get the loans back from these industries,
financial institutions are providing the loans/assistance with condition. These conditions are nothing but
to restructure their operational and managerial structure.

Lack of public resources for future development.


Public resources are very lack. As the economic development of developing countries is faster than the
other developed countries, the resource required is also enormous. The governments are unable to
concentrate much on electric sectors, as there are several other sectors where much attention is required.
Due to limited resource, the electricity sector is now open to private investors, which required some
regulation to be changed. Restructuring of ESI gave an opportunity to the private investors to build, own
and operate in the electricity business.

The need for regulation changed.


The regulation is to be required change because the basic need of regulation was to provide risk-free
investment to build infrastructure, which is no more important. Now, a power system grid, which
comprises generation, transmission and distribution, is in a mature state. The network is expanded to
reach each customer. The revenue obtained from t used for future extension and development of the
systems. No matured and there is only incremental addition in the system.

Some other forces behind the restructuring are:

 Global economic crisis


 Overstaffing in the regulated electric industry
 Lack of public recourses for the further development
 Political and ideological changes
 Rise in environmental issues
6.3 ELECTRICITY MARKET ENTITIES AND MODEL;

The restructuring of electricity has changed the role of traditional entities in a vertically integrated utility
and created new entities that can function independently. Here, we categorize market entities into market
operator (ISO) and market participants. The ISO is the leading entity in power market and its functions
determine market rules.
The following are the various entities involved;
 GENCO
 TRANSCO
 DISCOM
6-2
Power system Deregulation & Restructuring

 RESCO
 MARKET OPERATOR
 SYSTEM OPERATOR
 CUSTOMERS
GENCO:
Generating company sells energy at its sites in the same manner that a coal company might sell coal in
bulk at its mine.
TRANSCO:
Transmission Company maintains transmission facilities and performs functions required to smooth
running of the system. In some deregulation, industries Transco function done by ISO.
DISCOM:
Discom delivers power to individual businessman and homeowners.
RESCO:
Retail energy Service Company
It is the retailer of electrical power
A RESCO buys power from ENCO and sells it directly to the consumers. It does not have own electricity
networks.
MARKET OPERATOR
It provides a platform for the buyers and sellers to buy and sell electricity. It runs a computer program to
fill bid.
SYATEM OPERATOR
It is an independent authority and does not involve in the electrical trades. It procures supplies of
emergency reserves.
It coordinates, control and monitor the whole system.
Electricity Market Models
Four basic models of industry structure are suggested. These are:

1. Monopoly model
2. Single buyer model
3. Wholesale competition model
4. Retail competition model

1. Monopoly model

In this model, a single entity takes care of all the businesses such as generation, transmission and
distribution of electric power to the end users. Two models of monopoly.

See in fig.6.1

6-3
Power system Deregulation & Restructuring

Fig. 6.1 Monopoly Model


Model (A),
 In this model, Single utility integrates the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity
and monopoly lies with the Government.
 Before deregulation, that this kind of model is mostly used.
 They have their own rules and regulations.

Model (B),

 In this model, generation and transmission is integrated and operated by a single company.
 It sells the energy to local distribution companies, which themselves represent local monopolies.

2. Single buyer model

In this model, there is competition in the


wholesale sector, i.e., generation. Here, the
single buyer agency buys power from
Independent Power Producers (IPPs) in
addition to its own generation.

Fig. 6.2 Single buyer model

6-4
Power system Deregulation & Restructuring

The power-purchasing agency in turn sells it to state distribution utilities or distribution companies in the
service area. All power generated by generating companies (Gencos) must be sold only to a purchasing
agency and not to any other agency. Distribution companies (Discoms) are only able to purchase from the
single buyer agency. They do not have a choice of choosing their power supplier.

Merits:
Private participation in power generation
Introduction of some competition without expensive set up for a competitive market.

3. Wholesale competition model

This model provides the choice of supplier to Discoms, along with competition in generation.
Implementation of this model requires open access to the transmission network. Also, a wholesale spot
market needs to be developed. Since this model permits open access to the transmission wires, it gives the
IPPs to choose an alternative buyer. DISCOM can purchase energy for their customers either from a
wholesale market or through long term contracts with generators.

Fig. 6.3 Wholesale competition model

The customers within a service area still have no choice of supplier. They will be served by a DISCOM in
their area. With this model, the Discoms are under the Universal Service Obligation (USO), as they have
a monopoly over the customers. They own and operate the distribution wires. The transmission network
is owned and maintained either by government and/or private transmission companies. System operators
manage the centrally accomplished task of operation and control.

4. Retail competition model

In this model, all customers have access to competing generators either directly or through their choice of

6-5
Power system Deregulation & Restructuring

retailer. This would have complete separation of both generation and retailing from the transport business
at both transmission and distribution levels. Both, transmission and distribution wires provide open access
in this model. There would also be free entry for retailers. In this model, retailing is a function that does
not require the ownership of distribution wires, although, the owner of distribution wires can also
compete as a retailer.

Fig. 6.4 Retail competition model

Main features of this model are;

 100 % deregulated model


 Every consumer has a choice of buying
 No regulation in energy pricing

6.4 BENEFITS OF DEREGULATION;

The following are the benefits of deregulation;

 Power system capacity will be used efficiently.


 Electricity prices are reduced due to competition and innovation.
 Improved Economy
 Price of the electricity will become clearer.
 Choice for customer will improve
 Customer centric service
 Encourages innovation
6-6
Power system Deregulation & Restructuring

 Energy supply optimization will take place.


 New and efficient technologies are replaced in place of bad technology.
 The usage efficiency is improved due to restructuring in price signals.
 Power flow will take place from surplus areas to shortage areas.
 The cost of ancillary services is reduced by reserve sharing.
 Privatization
 Power production and retail sales will be competitive, monopoly franchise business

6.5 DEREGULATION – INTERNATIONAL SCENARIO;

Deregulation of electricity is taking place all over the world, in different rates and shapes. Most
developing countries have adopted liberalization and privatization as the cornerstone of the strategy for
private sector development. Issues of regulatory reform in the developing countries have ranged widely
from deregulation or re-regulation (to improve existing regulation) in some, to establishing new
regulatory structures and mechanisms, in others.

Different terms are used in for restructuring power system in all over the world. Commonly used terms in
the power system are as follows;
Competition:
In competition, two or more entities are vying for the same business or opportunity. In power system,
competition can be introduced in generation and distribution businesses. The competition is at two levels
in the deregulated power industry: Wholesale (generation) and retail (distribution).
Deregulation:
The better word is re-regulation which creates changes to encourage competition wherever it is possible.
In power system, deregulation is more frequently used; however re-regulation is very common in
economics and regulatory aspects. Deregulation is a restructuring of the rules and economic incentives
that the government sets up to control and drive the power industry.
Restructuring:
In ESI, it is disassembly of the original structure and re-assembly into another form or cooperatives are
created for better efficiency and performance.
Open A ccess
A common way for a government to encourage competition in power market is an open access of wire
business (transmission and distribution), which provides a way for competing generators to reach the
customers.

In the USA. PURPA (Public Utility Regulation Policy Act) was enacted in the year 1978.
Next one is of the European Union (EU) in the year 1999. The two power pools functioning in the EU are
UK Power Pool (British Power Pool) and Nord Power Pool.

The purpose of European Transmission System Operator (ETSO) is to implement the efficient European
Electricity Market. National Grid Company (NGC) and Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB) is
functioning in the UK Power Pool. Nordic countries such as Norway and Sweden. Finland and Denmark
are functioning in the Nord Power Pool from the year 1996. 1998 and 1999 onwards.

In Norway, an entire generation is based on hydro plants. A larger player, namely Statkraft is having 35%
generation in addition to the transmission network. National Electricity Market Management Company
(NEMMCO), Australia starts to operate in the year 1994 onwards. Similarly, in New Zealand, New
Zealand Energy Market (NZEM) and Trans Power are responsible for power market from the year 1996.

6-7
Power system Deregulation & Restructuring

The following shortcomings are noticed in the developing countries before going to implement the
deregulation:

1. Inefficiency in electricity generation, high transmission loss, distribution (energy theft, improper
use of agriculture) and use (not efficient metering).
2. Non-uniformity pricing policies
3. Underutilization and lack technological advancements.
6.6 MILESTONES OF DEREGULATION IN THE WORLD;

The electricity sector reform in many developed countries has already undertaken since the 1980s. A
transparent, open marketplace would encourage competition among generators and reveal the
inefficiencies of the current system to improve the efficiency of the electricity sector.
The major transformation took place throughout the electric power industry in South America. Chile was
the first nation to restructure its electricity sector. The year wise milestones of restructuring are given
below:
1982: Chile
1992: Argentina
1993: Peru
1990: United Kingdom
1992: Argentina, Sweden and Norway
1993: Bolivia and Colombia
1994: Australia
1996: New Zealand
1997: Panama, Costa Rica, Honduras, Guatemala and El Salvador
1998: California, USA and others
6.7 INDIAN POWER SECTOR – PAST AND PRESENT STATUS:

When India became independent in 1947, the country had a power generating capacity of 1,362 MW.
Generation and distribution of electrical power was carried out primarily by private utility companies.
Notable amongst them and still in existence is Calcutta Electric. Power was available only in a few urban
centers; rural areas and villages did not have electricity.

In the Past, the power sector is normally divided into three sub-systems …

 Power Generation, which is done at power plants or stations. …

 Power Transmission which describes the process of transferring the generated power to a
distribution system. …

 Power distribution which involves conveying the transmitted power to individual homes,
commercial areas etc.

6.7.1 Growth of power sector in India – An Overview

Power industry restructuring, around the world, has a strong impact on Asian power industry as well.
Indian power industry restructuring with a limited level of competition, since 1991, has already been
introduced at the generation level by allowing participation of independent power producers (IPPs). The
6-8
Power system Deregulation & Restructuring

new Electricity Act 2003 provides the provision of competition in several sectors. It is felt that the
prevailing conditions in the country is good only for wholesale competition and not for the retail
competition at this moment. A suitable model is suggested based on the current and future market
participants.

At Present in power sector nearly half i.e., 49.15% is under State electricity Boards, which is followed by
Public Sector Unit’s like NTPC, NHPC, NPCIL etc. The role of the private sector is about 19.85%, which
is present at least among the three sectors, but private sector is growing at a far greater pace than any
other sector, the latest advancements in this direction are allotment of UMPP’s to the private sector.

Presently; the electricity sector in India had an installed capacity of 308.83 GW as of 30 November 2016.
Renewable power plants constituted 28.9% of total installed capacity. The gross electricity generated by
utilities is 1,106 TWh and 166 TWh by captive power plants during the 2014–15 fiscal. The gross
electricity generation includes auxiliary power consumption of power generation plants. India is the
world's third largest producer and the fourth largest consumer of electricity.

6.7.2 A time line of the Indian power sector

The Indian power sector timeline has been provided according to pre Independence and after the
independence of India.

Pre Independence:

1879: Electric lighting demonstrated in Calcutta

1897: First generating station set up near Darjeeling. A 130 kW hydroelectric station.

1899: The first thermal generating station set up in Calcutta

1899: with electric lights, fans, Calcutta is the first electrified city in India. (New York in 1882 and
London 1888)

1900-1920: Generating stations at Khopoli, Maharashtra (set up by the Tatas to supply Bombay),
Sivasamudram, Mysore (power to Kolar gold fields), Mettur dam. Madras (power to Madras city), etc.
Distribution by private companies.

1910: The Indian Electricity (supply) Act

1947: Installed capacity of 1363 MW (74% with the government), around 10 lakh consumers in 1500
locations (80% distribution in private hands).

After Independence

1948: The Electricity (supply) Act.

1956: Industry Policy Resolution. Generation and Distribution to be undertaken by the government. CEA
to co-ordinate the sector. SEBs to be set up. Five private distribution licenses remain.

1960-90:

SEBs set up, River Valley Corporations (DVC, BBMB), NLC (Lignite based power), DAE (Nuclear
Power), REC to give thrust to rural electrification, central generating companies (NTPC, NHPC,

6-9
Power system Deregulation & Restructuring

NEEPCO), central transmission company (POWERGRID), external funding for a generation and big
transmission projects.

1980s: Flat rate tariff for power for agriculture announced in many states (Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Andhra
Pradesh, etc.).

1991:

 Opening up of Power Sector for IPPs (Private Opening up of Power Sector for IPPs

 8 Fast Track Projects

 Unbundling & Privatization of Orissa SEB; followed by unbundling & regulatory reforms in
Haryana & AP

1998:

 Electricity Regulatory Commission Act

 Setting up of CERC & SERCs

 External funding for reforms.

 A few SEBs unbundled. Distribution Privatised in Orissa and Delhi.

2001: Electricity Bill Introduced

2003: Electricity Act 2003

2005: National Electricity Policy

2006: National Tariff Policy

2009: Procedure, Terms and Conditions for grant of trading license and other related matters

6.7.3 Players in the Indian power sector

Public sector: Contains major players in the public sector like NTPC, NHPC, NPCIL, DVC, CERC etc.

Private sector: contains major players in the private sector like Reliance Energy, Suzzlon, TATA Power
etc.

State electricity board: contains a complete list of all the companies in the state sector with a brief
overview of all the companies in generation, transmission, distribution, and the regulatory commission.

6.7.4 Research and professional bodies

The Research & Development is a priority focus area in the Indian power sector.

The Central Power Research Institute (CPRI) was established in Bangalore and Bhopal by the
Government of India in 1960. It became an Autonomous Society in the year 1978 under the aegis of the
Ministry of Power, Government of India.

Research & Development Centre was established by the NTPC in 1981. Subsequently, to enhance the
research activities Energy Technology Centre was established in 2004.

6-10
Power system Deregulation & Restructuring

Now, two professional bodies are constituted;

1. National power training institutes (NPTI) and

2. Central Power Research Institute (CPRI)

The Objectives of the Institute are to serve as a national Laboratory for furthering applied research in
electrical power engineering besides functioning as an independent National Testing & a Certification
Authority for electrical equipment and aid product development.

The Institute has set up State of Art Research & Test facilities in the areas of Short Circuit & High Power,
High Voltage & Ultra High Voltage, Insulation, Power Systems, Materials, Transmission line towers &
accessories.

An Excellence Enhancement Centre for the Indian Power Sector is being set up (with German assistance)
with the following basic aims & objectives:

 To provide a common platform to share best practices in all areas of the power sector and
providing broad based expertise

 To raise awareness for the need of excellence

 To provide a platform for interaction amongst the power industries and power plant operators for
technological development

 To provide common solutions and joint action plans for mitigating problems associated with
power sector in consultation with top experts of power sector

 To disseminate the best practices at power stations

 To translate, print, publish and circulate appropriate material for dissemination of useful
knowledge through magazines, pamphlets or other printed mode for the development and
advancement of excellence in power sector

EXERCISE

Q.1 What is deregulation of the power system. Give its main objectives.
Q.2 Why restructuring of power system needed?
Q.3 List the entities involved in Electricity market and its role in restructuring power system.
Q.4 State and explain various models of restructuring power system.
Q.5 Give the Benefits of Deregulation
Q.6 Explain International scenario of Deregulation electricity
Q.7 Express Milestones of deregulation in the world
Q.8 Give an overview about the growth of power sector in India
Q.9 Express A time line of the Indian power sector
Q.10, List the major Players in the Indian power sector,
Q.11 Explains about Research and professional bodies involved in Indian power sector

6-11

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