FORCE AND MOTION

 Force is a push or a pull. It can make objects move, stop, or change their direction of motion.
 An object maybe acted upon by several forces. For example, an object may be pushed and
pulled in different directions at the same time. To identify which of these forces would be able to
cause change in the motion of the object, it is important to identify all the forces acting on it.
 Forces are described in terms of magnitude. Magnitude refers to the size or strength of the
force which is commonly expressed in Newton (N); direction of the force, point of application
and line of action
 Types of force are contact and non-contact forces
Contact forces are forces where objects touch or contact with each other.
Examples of Contact forces: - Applied force-a force given to a person by another
 Frictional force- a force acting against or opposite an object in contact with which makes the
movement of the object slows down, it always opposes the motion of the object. Its symbol is
written as Ff. Air resistance denoted by FAIR is an example of frictional force of the air against a
flying kite, airplanes, parachutes or those in skydiving sports. For free-falling objects, this force
is always considered negligible, meaning the magnitude.
 Normal force- a force that acts perpendicular to the surface of the object in contact with. Its
symbol is FN.
 Tension force – a force applied to hanging string, rope, chain or cable. Its symbol is T.
Non-contact forces are forces where objects do not touch or contact with each other. These
forces act over a zone or area called field.
Examples of Non-contact forces:  Gravitational f o r c e (Fg) – a force of attraction between
two objects.
 Magnetic force- a force exerted on a field of attraction or repulsion as in the case of magnets and
other magnetic materials.
 If two forces acting on an object are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, they are
considered as balanced forces. These forces must lie along the same line. If the forces are
balanced, the objects either stay at rest or continue to move at constant velocity. If the sum of the
forces equate to zero, they are considered balanced. The algebraic signs + and - are used to
indicate the direction of forces. Unlike signs are used for forces acting in opposite direction.
 Forces that cause a change in the motion of an object are unbalanced forces. Unbalanced
forces are not equal and in opposite direction.
Formula for Net force:

NEWTON’s LAWS OF MOTION

 Newton’s First Law states that an object at rest will remain at rest or an object in motion will
stay in motion and travel in straight line, as long as no external net force acts on it. The object
will change its state of motion only if there is unbalanced or net force acting upon it. It is also
known as the LAW OF INERTIA.
 Newton’s Second Law of Motion: Law of Acceleration states that the acceleration of an
object is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force acting on it and is inversely
proportional to its mass. The statement concerned with the relation of acceleration to mass and
force. This can be expressed in equation form as:

This often rearranged as Fnet = ma; force has a unit and is expressed in Newton (N). One Newton
is defined as the amount of force required to give a 1 -kg mass an acceleration of 1m/s/s or 1
Newton (N)= 1 kg m/s2

 Newton’s Third Law of Motion is sometimes called the Law of Action-Reaction or Law of
Interaction. Every action has a corresponding and opposing reaction. When one object exerts a
force on another, the second object responds with an equal amount of force.
 Even though the forces are of equal magnitude (strength) and opposite direction, they do not
cancel out.
 Two important points to remember in Law of Interaction:
1. Forces usually happen in pairs at the same time.
2. A pair of forces affects two bodies, one that pushes and the other that pulls.

WORK AND ENERGY

SOUND

 Sound is a disturbance that carries energy and travels through a medium. It is produced by
vibrations in the medium through which it travels. The medium can be solid, liquid or gas.
 As you speak, vibrations are produced by the vocal cords inside the throat. You can hear the
vibrations when sound waves reach your ear. When an object vibrates, it creates sound energy.
 Sound energy travels in the form of sound waves. These waves are examples of longitudinal
waves where the vibrations are parallel to the direction of the wave. They are also known as
mechanical waves since sound waves need a medium in order to propagate.
 These media can either be solids, liquids or gases. Sound waves travel fastest in solids and
slowest in gases.
 Density refers to the ratio of mass and volume of a substance. Denser objects have more mass
per volume, and they have more compact atoms and molecules. Sound travel in denser materials
provided they have the same elastic properties.
 Elasticity is the tendency of a material to return to its original shape after being deformed when
force is applied on it. Sound can travel faster through media with higher elasticity than through
low elasticity. In general, solids are more elastic than liquids and gases. Thus, sound travels
fastest in solids and slowest in gases.
 Speed of sound refers to how fast the disturbance travels in the medium. It is the distance that
the disturbance travels per unit of time. Its speed through the medium is affected by some
factors. One of the factors is temperature.
 When sound travels through dry air, its speed increases by 0.6 m/s per 10C increase in
temperature.
 The speed of sound at a certain temperature in air can be computed using the formula: v =
331m/s + 0.6m/s/oC (T). Where v is the speed of sound in air, 331 m/s is the speed of sound at
0oC, 0.6m/s/oC is the increase in speed of sound per oC increase in temperature, and T is the
temperature of air.

COLORS OF LIGHT

 Light exhibits the characteristics and properties of a wave. It is classified as an electromagnetic

wave located between the spectrum of infrared and ultraviolet. As an electromagnetic wave it
does not need a medium in order to propagate. It moves in its maximum speed in vacuum. But
this speed decreases as it moves along different media.
 Refraction is the bending of light when it travels from one medium to another of different
optical densities.
 Light travels so fast. It is approximated to travel at a speed of 3 x 108 m/s in a vacuum. This
speed decreases when light travels in a dense medium. This means that the speed of light is
dependent on the properties of the medium. In the case of light, it is dependent on the optical
density of the medium.
o Physical density is described as the mass per unit volume of the medium.
 o Optical density, the sluggishness of the atoms of a medium to maintain the absorbed
energy before reemitting.
 When light crosses the boundary of two media of different optical density, a change in speed
takes place. This change in speed is manifested as bending of the light ray.
 The refractive index of many materials (such as glass) varies with the wavelength or color of
the light used. This causes the different colors of light to be refracted differently. They leave the
prism at different angles, creating an effect similar to a rainbow.
 As a rule, longer wavelengths bend the least and shorter wavelengths bend the most during
refraction or dispersion. Differential bending causes separation of colors.

 A known indicator of the optical density of a material is the index of refraction of the material.
Index of refraction represented by the symbol n is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum and
its speed in another medium. In symbols;

 The index of refraction of a material is a quantity that compares the speed of light in that
material to its speed in a vacuum. Since the speed of light in vacuum is the highest attainable
speed in the universe, the index of refraction is always greater than 1. The n values of other
media are shown in Table 2.
 With the table of indices, one can predict the index of refraction of other media. This can be
done using “Law of Refraction or Snell’s Law” as shown below:

 When Isaac Newton first experimented with a prism, the bending resulted in a showcase of
colors of light. This phenomenon is particularly known as dispersion.
 Dispersion, is a phenomenon in which white light separates into its component colors.
 A prism is a transparent element with flat and polished surfaces that disperse light. Usually a
prism has a triangular base and rectangular sides. Prisms can be made from any transparent
materials like glass, plastic or fluorite. Water in a glass can also acts as prism. It also breaks
white light into constituent colors namely: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet
(ROYGBIV).
 Higher frequencies (blue) are more absorbed than those with lower frequencies (red). This
process is called Rayleigh scattering, named after Lord John Rayleigh, an English Physicist, who
first described it in the 1870’s.
 Sunlight reaches Earth's atmosphere and is scattered in all directions by all the gases and
particles in the air. Blue light is scattered more than the other colors because it travels as shorter,
smaller waves. This is why we see a blue sky most of the time.
 During sunset, the light has to travel longer than usual. Therefore, the sun’s brightness seems to
decrease. You notice that yellow, orange and red are the dominant colors that you see because
the shorter wavelength colors (green, blue, indigo, violet) are already scattered. Only longer
wavelengths reach your eyes.
 The retina of the human eye contains rods and cones. Rods enable you to see in black and
white in dim light. Cones provide you with color vision in bright light.
 A rainbow is formed by the dispersion of sunlight. You will usually see a rainbow during a
shower when the sun is low in the sky. When sunlight passes through each spherical raindrop, it
is refracted and dispersed and then internally reflected one or more times before it finally
emerges out of the raindrop, where, it is again refracted and dispersed some more. is refracted
and dispersed and then internally reflected one or more times before it finally emerges out of the
raindrop, where, it is again refracted and dispersed some more

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

 Heat is produced from molecules of matter that continuously vibrate. Heat is an energy form
that transfers from a body of higher temperature to another body of lower temperature.
 Joule (J)[ jool, joul ] is the SI unit of heat. Another common unit of heat is calorie, defined as
the amount of heat needed to change the temperature of one gram of water by 1ºC at a pressure
of 1 atm.
 Temperature is a measure of the hotness or coldness of an object. Kinetic molecular theory
tells us that all matter has molecules or atoms which are constantly moving; thus, they have
kinetic energy. The faster these molecules move, the more kinetic energy they have. The more
kinetic energy, the higher is the temperature of an object. Temperature is a measure of the
average kinetic energy of molecules.
 Internal Energy is the sum of kinetic, potential, chemical, electrical, nuclear, and other energy
associated with the atoms and molecules of a system. An increase in internal energy results in a
rise in temperature or a change in phase.
 Temperature Scales: The three common temperature scales are:
o Celsius-Anders Celsius introduced the Celsius scale in 1741. On the Celsius scale, the
freezing point of water is 0ºC, while its boiling point is 100ºC under a pressure of 1 atm,
having 100 intervals between two reference points.
o Fahrenheit-Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit introduced the Fahrenheit scale in 1724. On
the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 32ºF, while its boiling point is 212ºF,
having 180 intervals between two reference points.
o Both scales used the freezing and boiling points of water as reference points. The
difference between these two reference points is divided equally into intervals called
degrees (º).
o Kelvin-William Thompson, also known as Lord Kelvin, introduced the third
temperature scale, which is called Kelvin. On the Kelvin scale, the freezing point of
water is 273K, while its boiling point is 373K. The temperature difference is 100K.
 Phase Change: When the temperature of substances changes, their molecular structure and
movement also change, this results to phase change. Fusion or melting is the process that causes
a solid to change to its liquid state.
o The amount of heat required to produce this change is called heat of fusion. When
liquids release heat, the water molecules begin to move at a slower pace. The space between the
molecules becomes compact. The process of changing liquids to solids is called solidification or
freezing. When water boils, evaporation takes place. Heat is absorbed, and water is converted
into steam or water vapor.
 o The amount of heat needed for a liquid to evaporate depends on the boiling point of the
liquid. When water vapor releases heat, its gas state changes to the liquid state through
condensation, which accounts for the formation of clouds in the water cycle. In addition,
sublimation is the process of transforming a substance from the solid phase directly to the gas
state without passing the liquid phase and requires additional energy.
o On the other hand, deposition is the process of transforming a substance from gas to
solid without passing the liquid phase and requires a release of energy. During any of these phase
changes, energy is either given off or taken in. When a substance changes phase, the temperature
does not change, and only the amount of energy changes.
 Thermal Expansion is the tendency of matter to change its shape, area, volume, and density in
response to a change in temperature, usually not including phase transitions.
 Most matter expands when the temperature is increased, or contract when the temperature is
reduced. This is what happens to the mercury inside the glass tube of thermometers. The mercury
expands at a different rate than the tube; thus, as the temperature increases, it rises and drops
when temperature decreases.
 Water does not follow the rule of thermal expansion. Water expands when it freezes because
the crystalline structure of ice takes up more space than liquid water.  Heat Capacity of a body
is the quantity of heat necessary to raise its temperature by 1ºC.  Specific Heat is the amount of
heat necessary to raise the temperature of a mass of a substance by 1 ºC.

ELECTRICITY