TRAINING MANUAL FOR

POWER TRANSFORMERS
&
REACTORS

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BHART HEAVY ELECTRICALS LIMITED,
BHOPAL

1
 CONTENTS
Page No.

INTRODUCTION : The Transformation Begins 3

TRANSFORMER : Then And Now 6
TCB PRODUCTS : A Lightening Spectrum 7
Chapter -1 Introduction To Transformer & Reactor 8
Chapter -2 Principles of Transformers 11
Chapter -3 Materials Used in Transformers 14
Chapter -4 Magnetic Circuit 18
Chapter -5 Windings and Insulation 24
Chapter - 6 Voltage Regulation and Tapchanger 29
Chapter -7 Electromagnetic Forces in Power Transformers 33
Chapter -8 Cooling Arrangemetns 36
Chapter - 9 Design Procedure 38
Chapter -10 Structural Design of Transformer Tank 42
Chapter -11 Transformer Auxiliaries and Oil Preservation Systems 46
Chapter -12 Manufacturing and Assembly 50
Chapter -13 Drying and Impregnation 54
Chapter -14 Reactors 59
Chapter -15 Testing of Transformers and Reactors 74
Chapter -16 Capacitor 77
Chapter -17 Instrument Transformers 91
Chapter -18 High Voltage Condenser Bushings 107
Chapter- 19 Erection and Commissioning 118
Chapter - 20 Computerisation–A Tool to Enhance
Engineering Productivity 131

2
 INTRODUCTION : The Transformation Begins……

A transformer, in its simplest form, consists of coils wound around a magnetic

core, linking the flux flowing through this core.

The transformer owes its birth to the famous principles of Electromagnetic induction
propounded by Michael Faraday and Lenz.
The first type of transformer to see wide use was the induction coil, invented by
Rev. Nicholas Callan of Maynooth College, Ireland in 1836.

Till 1880, open core transformers i.e. a coil linking the flux flowing through air,
were common. However, in 1884, Ganz Company engineers Károly Zipernowsky,
Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri invented the closed core transformers wherein the flux
linking both the primary and secondary coils, flew entirely through the iron core.

The commercial operation of transformers began in 1886 in United states and

since then, the transformer has grown in rating to meet the increase in demand of
electricity.

A transformer works on the principles of induction , wherein the energy is transferred

from one electrical circuit to the other through a magnetic circuit. The underlining
principle is that only the current and voltages shall be transformed and energy will
only get ‘transferred’. An ideal transformer may be seen in its equivalent electric
circuit with certain no-load and load losses occurring inside the transformer. In
power system, this may also be seen as a black box having a fixed percentage
impedance.

A transformer is essentially made of materials like copper, cold-rolled grain oriented

(CRGO) steel, insulating oil, pressboard and paper insulation, and other ferrous
and non-ferrous materials. The characteristic of each of these material is vital to
the functioning of transformer.

Windings and Insulation system are the heart of transformer. The size of conductors
used in windings relate to the current flowing therein and the insulation used
depends on the voltage level and the expected impulse characteristics. Besides,
the transient voltage distribution and the internal heat transfer in the windings, are
also critical to the trouble-free operation of transformer. Adequately strong clamping

3
structures for wound coils, ensure their stability during the axial and radial stresses
developed due to short circuit forces.

Transformer core, which is made of CRGO laminations of different thickness,

depending upon the transportability, operational limitations of flux density in the
core and guaranteed performance parameters for the transformers. Besides, a
solid clamping structure is essential both to lift the core during manufacturing as
well as to keep it in shape during operation.

Due to the systemic change in voltage requirements, voltage regulation is an

important phenomenon in Power Transformers. For this, selection of suitable Tap-
Changing equipment according to the specified range is critical. Also, its control,
both local and remote, are important for its integrated operation with the system.

Power Transformers, being an electrical device, generate a lot of heat depending

upon their rating, which needs to be adequately dissipated. This calls for employing
suitable cooling system in the form of ONAN/ONAF/OFAF/OFWF cooling. This
cooling is achieved through adequately designed cooler/ radiator banks.

The protection of the equipment while in service is very important and so the
protection devices / auxiliaries such as Buchholz relay, temperature indicators,
pressure relief valve, bushing, cable box, oil preservation system (Air cell), breathers
etc. are as important to the operation of transformer.

A good design is only as good as the finished manufactured product so the

manufacturing is vital for proper operation of Transformer. Activities like core
building, preparation of windings, coil assembly, core and winding assembly,
Terminal Gear Assembly, Assembly inside tank, Processing and servicing of
transformer, Tanking etc. are to be carried out with meticulous care and applicable
quality norms. Being hygroscopic material, the insulation inside the transformer
absorbs moisture during manufacturing. This needs to be extracted through
conventional vacuum drying or Vapour phase drying according to applicable
standards.

The testing of transformer verifies the correctness of design and manufacturing.

Through different tests such as Routine and Type testing, specified in national
and international standards such as IS:2026, IEC-60076 etc., the transformer is
checked against stringent operating conditions and its smooth working in the field
is ensured.

Erection and commissioning of transformers is the precursor to its full-fledged

operation. It involves steps like inspection of material upon its arrival at site, the
handling and installation according to specified norms, pre-commissioning tests
as specified, and final commissioning through either back-charging or gradual

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application of voltage etc. The maintenance of transformer in operation is crucial
for its long life which may vary from 20 years to 50 years depending upon the
efficacy of maintenance. Condition monitoring through tools like online Dissolved
Gas analysis, Online moisture removal, Residual Life assessment etc. helps
enhance the operational life of transformers.

In the pages to follow, an attempt has been made to familiarize the entrants to the
organisation with one of its core products i.e. transformer and reactors, with a
comprehensive coverage of above mentioned aspects involved in designing,
manufacturing, testing, erection, commissioning and healthy operation of
transformers and reactors.

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6
 TCB PRODUCTS : A Lightening Spectrum
BHEL Bhopal, is a leading Engineering Enterprise which Supplies wide Spectrum of Power Trans-
mission Systems/ Solutions. Power transformers, Reactors, Capacitors and bushing supplied by
BHEL Bhopal have carved a niche for themselves in the fiercely competitive market scenario of the
segment.

The Installed manufacturing capacity of BHEL is 45000 MVA/Annum with BHEL Bhopal capable of
manufacturing 30000 MVA/ Annum, rest being catered by BHEL, Jhansi.

Product range of Transformer, Capacitors and Bushings division at BHEL Bhopal is:

Power Transformers:
765kV Class Transformers : 500 MVA 3 Phase; 1500 MVA 1 Phase Bank
400 kV class Auto transformers : 315 MVA 3-phase ; 500 MVA 1-phase Bank (Typical Ratings)
400 kV Class Generator Transformers : upto 400 MVA 3- phase; 825 MVA 3- phase Bank

Gapped Core Reactors:

Upto 765 kV Class; 120 MVAR with Neutral Grounding Reactor

HVDC Transformers & Smoothing Reactors

± 500kV DC Converter Transformers;315 MVA, 3 winding,1 Phase

± 500kV DC Smoothing Reactors; 254 MVAR

Instrument Transformers & Bushings

Upto 800kV Class
Transformer Bushings - upto 800 kV Class
Tap Changers - M&V Type
Radiators and Air/ Water Coolers

Besides the product mix, BHEL has also catered to the demands of a gamut of
Power sector utilities both in India and abroad. It boasts of supply of approx. 4700
Nos. of Transformers and reactors totaling approx. 3,45,000 MVA, till Dec. 2010.
The major customers include National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC),
Powergrid Corporation Of India Ltd., Nathpa-Jhakhri Power Corporation (NJPC),
National Hydro Power Corporation (NHPC), Nuclear Power Corporation Of India
Ltd. (NPCIL), and various State electricity boards In India. The worldwide pres-
ence of BHEL Transformer owes its services To TNB Malasiya, PPC,Greece,
OCC,Oman, GECOL,Libya, Trinidad & Tobago, Tanzania etc.

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 Chapter -1
Introduction To Transformer &
Reactor
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 Power Transformers
The term 'Power Transformers' is refer to the transformers used between
the generator and the distribution circuits, and these are usually rated at 500 kVA
and above. Power systems typically consist of a large number of generation
locations, distribution points, and interconnections within the system or with nearby
systems, such as a neighboring utility. The complexity of the system leads to a
variety of transmission and distribution voltages. Power transfomrers must be
used at each of these points where there is a transition between voltage levels.
Power transformers are selected based on the application, with the emphasis
toward custom design being more apparent than larger the unit. Power transformers
are available for step-up operation, primarily used at the generator and referred to
as generator step-up (GSU) transformers; step-down operation, mainlty used end
to feed distribution circuits and to connect grids operating at diffrent voltage levels
through in terconnecting transformers. Power transformers are available as single-
phase or three-phase apparatus.
Power transformers have been lossely grouped into three market segments based
on size ranges. These three segments are:
1. Small power transformers 500 to 7500 kVA
2. Medium power transformers 7500 to 100 MVA
3. Large power transformers 100 MVA and above.
1.1.2 SHUNT REACTORS
Shunt Reactors are used in high voltage systems to compensate capacitive
generation from long lightly loaded overhead lines or extended cable systems

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and also for control of dynamic over voltages.
Gapped core construction is preferred for high system voltages over coreless
construction due to the high energy density that can be achieved in gapped core
construction. The core sections between consecutive air gaps are moulded in
epoxy resin to prevent movement between individual laminations. The spacers
forming the air gaps are blocks of ceramics with a high modules of elasticity and
the whole stacking of core modules is cemented together during the assembly to
form a solid column without possibility of rocking, or rubbing between individual
parts.
The core segments are of radial laminated configuration. The radial laminations
prevent fringing flux from entering flat surfaces of core steel which would result in
eddy current overheating and hot spots.
Five limbed core construction is adopted to achieve high zero sequence
impedance. In addition to the three gapped core limbs with windings, there are
two continuous outer return limbs. The two unwound side limbs help in achieving
zero sequence impedance approximately equal to the positive sequence
impedance. Other construction type can be a three limbed construction. For single
phase reactors e.g. 800 KV class middle leg wound with two return legs type of
construction is adopted.
Interleaved disc winding has been used for rate voltages 220 KV and above.
This type of winding configuration provides better impulse voltage distribution.
For lower voltage classes a continuous disc winding or a multilayer helical winding
are used. The tank is rectangular in construction with flat cover welded to the tank
rim at top. The associated cooling control equipment is housed in a tank mounted
weather proof marshalling box.
1.1.3 NEUTRAL GROUNDING REACTOR
When single pole reclosing is used on lines, the Neutral Grounding Reactor
is used.
The Neutral Grounding Reactors are connected between neutral point of
400 KV/800KV reactors and earth, where the neutral of shunt Reactor is suitable
for 145 KV class insulation.
The reactors are oil immersed type ONAN cooled (oil immersed with natural
air cooling) with continuous rating of 10/15 Amps and a 10 sec. rating as indicated
in the Rating Data sheet. As continuous losses of the reactors are negligible,
reactor tank surface is adequate for dissipation of these losses. Hence radiators
are not provided.
Considering linear impedance characteristic requirement upto rated short time
current a core less design with magnetic shielding of CRGO sheet has been made.
The magnetic circuit, therefore consists of rectangular frame of CRGO steel
lamination packets of adequate area. Area of magnetic circuit is selected such

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that saturation does not take place under short time current. A rigid clamping
structure is provided for clamping of magnetic frame and a very low flux density is
used to minimize the vibration and achieve linear impedance characteristic.
The graded disc type concentric winding suitable for a rated voltage of 145 KV
and basic insulation level of 550 kVp has been provided without core inside.
Winding is held in position by way of special insulation structure inside winding
and finally kept under pressure between top and bottom yokes of magnetic frame.
Return path of flux is provided by way of two return limbs.
The line terminal is taken out through the tank cover via 145 kV, 800 Amps
OIP condenser bushing provided with suitable terminal connector. The neutral
lead is taken out through the tank cover via a 36 kV, 630 Amps porcelain bushing.
The tank is of welded mild steel plate construction shot blasted on the inside and
outside to remove scales before painting. The tank is painted on the inside with
yellow paint and its outside surface is painted with two coats of primer paint and
finishing coat, of light grey paint to shade 631 of IS:5. This is a standard painting
scheme followed for all equipment.
The fittings include a conservator with a magnetite oil gauge, pressure relief
device, drain and filter valves, sampling valves, thermometer pockets, Buchholz
relay, temperature indicator for oil and silicagel breather.

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 Chapter -2
Principles of Transformers
1. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a static piece of apparatus used for transferring power
from one circuit to another without change in frequency. It can raise or lower the
voltage with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. In its simplest form,
a transformer consists of two conducting coils having a mutual inductance. The
primary is the winding which receives electric power, and the secondary is the one
which may deliver it. The coils are wound on a laminated core of magnetic material.
The physical basis of a transformer is mutual inductance between two circuits
linked by a common magnetic flux through a path of low reluctance as shown in
fig. 1
The two coils possess high mutual inductance. If one coil is connected to a
source of alternating voltage, an alternating flux is set up in the laminated core,
most of which is linked up with the other coil in which it produces mutually induced
emf (electromotive force) according to Faraday's laws electromagnetic induction,
i.e.
di
e = M dt

where, e = induced emf

M = mutual inductance
If the second circuit is closed, a current flows in it and so electric energy is
transferred (entirely magnetically) from the first coil (primary winding) to the second
coil (secondary winding).

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 Figure 1. Diagram showing magnetic circuit and windings of a transformer.

2. LOSSES IN TRANSFORMERS
Losses in transformers are
No-Load Losses
It includes both hysteresis loss and eddy current loss. As the core flux in a
transformer remains practically constant at all loads, the core-loss is also constant
at all loads.
Hysteresis loss Wh = Khf Bm1.6 watts (2.16)
Eddy current loss We = Kef2Kf2 Bm2 watts (2.17)
Where Kh = the hysteresis constant
Ke = the eddy current constant
Kf = the form factor
These losses are minimized by using steel of high silicon content for the
core and by using very thin laminations. The input power of a transformer, when
on no-load, measures the core-loss.
Load Losses
This loss is mainly due to the ohmic resistance of the transformer winding.
Copper-loss also includes the stray loss occurring in the mechanical structure
and widening conductor due to the stray fluxes. Copper-loss (I2R-loss plus stray
loss) is measured by the short-circuit test.

3. THREE-WINDING TRANSFORMER
Purpose
A transformer may have additional windings apart from the two conventional
main windings depending upon the particular application and type of connection

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(of the main windings). In three-winding transformers, the third winding is normally
called as tertiary winding and it is provided to meet one more of the following
requirements:
(a) For an additional load which for some reason must be kept isolated
from that of secondary.
(b) To supply phase-compensating devices, such as condensers,
operated at some voltage not equal to primary or secondary or with
some different connection (e.g. mesh).
(c) In star/star-connected transformers, to allow sufficient earth fault
current (zero-sequence component current) to flow for operation of
protective gear, to suppress harmonic voltages and to limit voltage
unbalance when the main load is asymmetrical, the tertiary winding
is delta-connected.
(d) As a voltage coil in a testing transformer.
(e) To load charge split winding generators.
(f) To inter-connect three supply systems operating at different voltages.

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 Chapter -3
Materials Used in Transformers
Apart from active materials like copper and cold rolled grain oriented silicon
steel, a number of ferrous, nonferrous and insulating materials are employed for
building up a transformer. Optimum utilization of all materials in consonance with
their electrical, mechanical, physical, chemical and thermal characteristics is
necessary for obtaining a compact size transformer. One basic requirement for all
materials used in an oil-filled transformer is that they should be compatible with
insulating oil and should not react with or deteriorate oil.
Table 1 gives application, applicable national and international standard's
of various materials used in a transformer.
1. INSULATING OIL
Insulating oil forms a very significant part of the transformer insulation system
and has the important functions of acting as an electrical insulation as well as a
coolant to dissipate heat losses. The basic raw material for the production of
transformer oil is a low-viscosity lube termed as transformer oil base stock (TOBS),
which is normally obtained by fractional distillation and subsequent treatment of
crude petroleum. Important characteristics of TOBS given in Table 2 must be kept
within permissible limits in order to produce good insulating oils. TOBS is further
refined by acid treatment process to yield transformer oil.
Table 1. Materials Used in Power Transformer and Reactor
Sl.No. Material Applicable Standards Application
and Grade
1. 2. 3. 4.
A. Insulating Materials
1. Transformer oil IS : 335, BS : 148 Liquid dielectric and coolant
IEC 296
2. Electrical grade paper
(i) Kraft insulating paper of IEC 60554-3-1 Layer winding insulation, cond-
medium air permeability enser core of oil impregnated
bushing.
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Sl.No. Material Applicable Standards Application
and Grade
1. 2. 3. 4.
(ii) Kraft insulating Paper IEC 60554—3—1 Covering over rectangular
of high air permeability copper conductor
Covering over continuously
transposed copper conductor
Covering over stranded
copper cable
(iii) Crepe Kraft paper BS 5626–3–3 Covering over flexible copper
cable
Base paper as per (i) Insulation of winding lead
above Insulation over shield
(iv) Press Paper IS : 8570, BS : 3255 Backing paper for axial
cooling duct
(v) kraft Paper with Base paper as per (i) Line and common shield in
aluminium bands above winding
(vi) Crepe kraft paper with Base paper as per (i) Metallization of high voltage
aluminium foil above lead and shield
3. Pressboard
(i) Pressboard moulding IEC 60641–3–1 Angle ring, cap, sector, snout,
from wet sheet or wet square tube, lead out and
wood pulp moulded piece of intricate
profile for insulating ends of
windings, insulation between
windings and numerous other
applications.
(ii) Soft calendered Type C of Cylinder, barrier, wrap,
pressboard—solid IS : 1576 spacer, angle washer,
IEC : 60641–3–1 crimped washer and yoke
. insulation etc.
(iii) Soft pressboard— BS EN 60763–1.2 Block, block washer, terminal-
laminated gear cleat and support,
spacer, etc.
(iv) P r e c o m p r e s s e d IEC 60641–3.2 Dovetail block and strip,
pressboard—solid clack-band, cylinder, warp,
barrier, spacer, block, block
washer, corrugated sheet,
yoke bolt, washer etc.

(v) Precompressed IEC 60763–3.1 Top and bottom coil clamping

pressboard— ring, block, block washer,
laminated dovetail strip, spacer etc.
4. Wood and laminated wood
(i) U n i m p r e g n a t e d IEC : 61061 Cleat and support, core/yoke
densified laminated clamp, wedge block, winding
wood—low density support block, sector, core to
coil packing etc.
(ii) Unimpregnated IEC : 61061 Coil clamping ring, block,
densified laminated cleat support etc.
wood—high density

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Sl.No. Material Applicable Standards Application
and Grade
1. 2. 3. 4.
5. Insulated copper
conductor and cable
(i) Paper covered IEC : 60317 For making different types of
rectangular copper IS : 13730 windings
conductor
(ii) Paper covered IEC : 60317 For making different types of
continuously windings
transposed copper
conductor
(iii) Paper covered IS : 8572 conductor to For making lead and terminal
stranded copper IS : 8130, IEC : 60228
cable
(iv) Crepe paper Conductor to For making lead and terminal
covered flexible IS : 8130, IEC : 60228 required to be bent to a small
copper cable IS : 1554, BS : 6346 radius
(v) PVC insulated IEC : 60502 Control wiring in marshalling box,
copper cable— nitrogen sealing system.
single and multicore

6. Insulating Tape
(i) Cotton tape IS : 1923 For various taping purposes
(ii) Cotton newar tape — For taping and banding
(iii) Glass woven tape IS : 5352, IEC : 61067–1 Used in core bolt insulation
(iv) Woven terylene tape IS : 5351, IEC : 61068–1 For taping purposes at places
requiring higher strength
(v) Polyester resin — Banding of transformer cores
impregnated
weftless glass type
7. Phenolic laminated paper IS : 2036, BS : 2572 Terminal-gear support and cleat,
base sheet gap filler in reactor, tap changer
components
8. Phenolic laminated cotton IS : 2036, BS : 2572 Terminal board, for making core
fabric sheet duct, support and cleat.

B. Sealing Materials
9. Synthetic rubber bonded IS : 4253 (Part II) As gasket in different places to-
cork prevent oil leakage from joints
viz. tank rim, turret opening,
inspection cover and with
mounting flange of various
fittings etc.

10. Nitrile rubber sheet and BS : 2751 As gasket in different places to

moulding prevent oil leakage from joints,
'O' ring in bushings, moulded
component in fittings.

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Sl.No. Material Applicable Standards Application
and Grade
1. 2. 3. 4.
C. Ferrous Materials
11. Cold rolled gain oriented BS : 6404/ASTM For making transformer core
silicon steel (CRGO) A876M/ DIN 46400
12. Cold rolled carbon steel IS : 513 For making radiator
sheet ASTM A620 M
BS : 1449–1.1
13. High tensile strength IS : 8500 Core clamp plate, anchoring and
structural steel plate clamping core to bottom tank
14. 1.5% nickel-chromium- IS : 5517 Lifting pin, roller shaft
molybdeum steel bar and
sections hardened and
tempered
15. Austenitic chromium nickel IS : 6911, BS : 1449 Turret opening, non-magnetic
steel titanium stabilized insert, etc. to neutralize the effect
plate (stainless steel) of eddy currents
16. Stainless steel sections IS : 6603, BS : 970 Non magnetic bar for high current
(austenitic) applications.
17. Structural steel—standard IS : 2062 Tank, end frame, clamp plate, 'A'
quality (plate, section, flat, frame for radiator, conservator,
bar, channel, angle, etc.) turret, cable box and for other
structural purposes
18. Bright steel bar and IS : 7270 Threaded and machined
sections— cold drawn components

D. Non-Ferrous materials
19. High conductivity copper For various current carrying
(i) Sheet, strip, foil—hard IS : 1897 applications, e.g. bushing
and soft conductor, terminal lead, divertor
(ii) Rod IS : 613 and selector contacts of on-load
(iii) Tube BS : 1977 tap changers, winding shield,
(iv) Casting and forging BS : EN 1982 cable box components, off-circuit
(v) Tinned foil IS : 3331 switch items, etc.
(vi) Flexible cable IS : 8130, IEC : 60228
(vii) Flat flexible braid —
20. Copper alloys
(i) Free machining brass IS : 319 Tie rod and for making different
rod, square and components.
hexagon
(ii) Phosphor bronze rod IS : 7811 Tapchanger components
(iii) Nickel silver strip IS : 2283 For making winding shield
21. Aluminium
(i) Aluminium alloy plate Alloy 54300 M Flange in bushing, cable box,
(NP 8—M) of IS : 736 other non-magnetic applications
(ii) Aluminium plate (99.0 Alloy PIC of IS : 736 Shielding of reactor tank,
percent)
(iii) Aluminium foil — Condenser layer in bushings

17
 Chapter -4
Magnetic Circuit
In a transformer, energy is transferred from one electrical circuit to another
through the magnetic field. Transformer core made of laminated sheets provides
the magnetic circuit for the flow of magnetic flux mutually linking the electrical
circuits. As against the air core, iron core provides a comparatively low reluctance
path to the magnetic flux with consequent benefit of (a) smaller magnetizing current,
(b) increase in the total flux linkage and (c) a high ratio of mutual to leakage flux
resulting in reduction of stray losses. Its design, type and manufacturing methods
have significant bearing on quality, transportability, operational limitations and
guaranteed technical performance of the transformer.
1. MATERIAL
Some of the very early transformer cores were made of inferior grades of
laminated steels which had inherently higher core losses and showed pronounced
ageing effects, further aggravating the hysteresis component of iron-losses in the
equipment. It was subsequently found that very small quantities of silicon alloyed
with low carbon content steel produced a material with low hysteresis losses and
high permeability. These steel sheets alloyed with silicon mitigated the problem of
ageing and improved the permeability and consequently reducing the magnetizing
current and core losses. In the ever increasing pursuit of increasing the power
ratings and reduction of core-losses, another innovative technique from steel
manufacturers came in the form of cold rolling with orientation of the grain in the
direction of rolling. This core steel known as CRGOS (cold rolled grain oriented
silicon steel) has the minimum epstein losses to the flow of magnetic flux along
the directions of grain orientation and this material is universally used for the
manufacture of transformer cores.
The adoption of CRGOS has brought about considerable reduction in the
specific iron-losses (W/kg.) over the earlier grades of core steel. However, CRGOS
is susceptible to increased losses due to flux flow in directions other than that of
grain orientation, effect of mechanical strain due to clamping pressure, bolt holes,
jointing of limb with yokes, etc. Apart from this sensitivity to the direction of rolling,
CRGOS sheets are also very susceptible to impaired performance due to impact

18
of bending, blanking the cutting. Both surfaces of the core steel sheets are provided
with an insulating of oxide coating (commercially known as Carlite). The stacking
factor of lamination improves by using thicker laminations, but eddy current loss
goes up in proportion to square of the thickness of the lamination. For reducing
the eddy current losses, thinner laminations are preferable even though the stacking
factor goes down. Deburring of the laminations improves the stacking factor and
minimizes the eddy losses. After machining, the material has to be annealed at
800-900C in a neutral gas environment. The material properties of core steel are
further discussed in Chapter-3.
2. DESIGN OF MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
For a transformer design, the basic governing factors are:
(a) Rating of transformer and its performance.
(b) Operational conditions,
(c) Transport limitations (i.e. height, length, width and weight etc.)
The design of the magnetic circuit, i.e. transformer core is also based on
the above considerations and it has significant bearing on the overall economy of
the transformer. For CRGOS, saturation may occur at the magnetic flux densities
exceeding 1.9 tesla. Based on the input voltage and frequency variations, a suitable
value of flux density can be adopted to avoid any chance of core saturation under
operating conditions. By increasing the operating value of magnetic flux density
(magnetic loading) the net weight of core can be reduced, but this leads to
corresponding increase in the core losses. One has to compute an optimum value
of the magnetic flux density, keeping in view all the above considerations.
Constructional Features
The type of transformer core construction depends on the technical
particulars of the transformer and transport considerations. In general it is preferable
to accommodate the windings of all the three phases in a single core frame. Three-
phase transformers are economical over a bank of three single-phase transformers.
Another important advantage of three-phase transformer cores is that component
of the third and its multiple harmonics of mmf cancel each other, consequently the
secondary voltage wave shape are free from distortions due to the third harmonics
in mmf. However, if the three-phase ratings are large enough and difficult to
transport, one has no choice but to go for single-phase transformer units.
For single-phase and three-phase transformers, the cores can be broadly
classed as:
(a) Single-phase three-limbed core
(b) Single-phase two-limbed core
(c) Three-phase three-limbed core
(d) Three-phase five-limbed core.

19
(a) Single-phase Three-limbed Core fig. 1 (a)
The windings are placed around the central limb, also known as main limb.
The main magnetic flux generated in the central limb gets divided into two parallel
return paths provided by the yokes and auxiliary limbs. For the same magnetic
flux density as that in the main limb, the auxiliary limbs and the yokes need to
have the cross section only half of the main limb. This type of transformer core is
generally preferred for single-phase transformer, as this is more economical than
two limbed construction discussed below.
(b) Single-phase Two-limbed core fig. 1(b)
Sometimes the single-phase power ratings of transformers are so large
that if the windings of full power ratings were to be placed on the central limb, its
width would become too large to be transported.

Figure-1 (a) Single-phase three-limbed core.

(1) main limb (2) Top yoke (3) Bottom yoke (4) Aux. limb

Figure 1 (b) Single-phase two-limbed core. (1) Main limb (2) Top yoke (3) Bottom yoke

To mitigate such difficulties the windings are split into two parts and placed
around two separate limbs. Here the cross-sectional area of the legs (limbs) and
the yokes are identical. Consequently these cores are bulkier than the single-
phase three-limbed arrangements. Also the percentage leakage reactance for
this type of core construction is comparatively higher due to distributed nature of

20
the windings in the two limbs separately.
(c) Three-phase Three-limbed cores (fig. 2)
This type of core is generally used for three-phase power transformer of
small and medium power ratings. Each phase of the winding is placed around one
leg. Fore each phase of magnetic flux appearing in a limb, the yokes and the
remaining two limbs provide the return path. If the phase fluxes are denoted as
ØA, ØB, ØC, their summation at any instant of time is identically zero, which can be
mathematically stated as ØA + ØB + ØC = 0. In this type of construction, all the legs
and the yokes have identical cross section.

Figure 2 Three-phase three-limbed core: (1) main limbs, (2) top yokes, (3) bottom yoke.

(b) Three-phase Five-limbed cores (fig. 3)

For large rating power transformers, cores have to be built in large diameters.
In case of three-phase three-limbed cores, the yokes have the same diameter as
the limbs.

Figure 3. Three-phase five limbed core: (1) main limbs, (2) top main yokes, (3) bottom main yokes,
(4) auxiliary top yokes, (5) auxiliary bottom yokes, (6) auxiliary limbs.

In case of large diameter cores, the overall core height will go up leading to
transport problem. For such cases the yoke cross-sections (and consequently
yoke heights) are reduced by approximately 40% or more and auxiliary paths for
the magnetic flux are provided through auxiliary yokes and limbs. The cross-section
and the height of the auxiliary yokes and limbs are lower than that of the main
yokes.

21
3. CORE ASSEMBLY
Core building from the finished lamination sheets is done in horizontal
position on specially raised platforms. The lamination sheets are susceptible to
mechanical stresses of bending, twisting, impact, etc. A lot of care is exercised
while handling and normally two persons are needed to hold the two ends of the
laminations at the time of laying.
At first the clamp plates and end frame structure of one side of the core
assembly are laid out. Guide pins are used at suitable positions for maintaining
the proper alignments during core building process. Oil ducts are formed by sticking
strips on lamination and put in position as required.
For each packet, the laminations are manufactured in two different lengths
and these sets are laid out alternately, keeping at a time two to four laminations
together. The two alternate arrangements provide overlapping at the corner joints
and when the lamination packets are clamped together, these overlapping edges
provide sufficient mechanical strength in holding the edges in tight grip. After laying
out the complete laminations, the clamp plates, and end frame structure of the
other side are laid out and the entire core-end frame structure is properly secured
through bolts and steel bands at a number of positions.
The platform on which the core building takes place is of special design
and the core-end frame assembly can be raised to the vertical position alongwith
the platform which serves as a cradle. Subsequently the platform is disengaged.
In this process, the core assembly is spared from the mechanical strain of lifting
and raising in the vertical position. Small-size cores can however be built up without
these special platforms.
Steel bands used for tightening the laminations is only a temporary
arrangement and are later removed, otherwise these will form short circuited turns.
Two commonly used methods of holding the leg laminations together is their
clamping by either (a) resiglass tape or (b) using skin stressed bakelite cylinders.
In case of resiglass tapes, these are tightly wound around the legs at specified
pitch and cured by heating. The tape shrinks after heating and provides a firm
grip. The tensile strength of resiglass tapes is even higher than that of steel tapes.
In the case of core legs tightened by skin stressed cylinders (base cylinder of
innermost coil), these are lowered from the top and the steel bands and cut
progressively. Wooden wedges are inserted along the packet corners and
hammered down, so that the enveloping bakelite cylinder and the leg laminations
are fitting tightly against each other.
Conventionally, the core is assembled along with all the yokes, and after
assembly the top yokes are unlaced after removing the top-end frames for the
purpose of lowering the windings. This takes a lot of labour and manufacturing
time. The latest development is to assemble the core without top yokes and insert
the top yokes after lowering all the windings in the core leg.

22
4. FITTING OF CORE IN THE TANK
The most commonly used method of putting the core assembly is to rest
the core frame on its feet, which in turn is firmly fixed on the tank base. The
extreme end feet are enclosed in a steel bracket welded on the tank base. The top
portion of core assembly is also suitably locked with the tank cover, so that any
possible magnification of the vibration during transit is fully arrested. An alternative
to this is construction of the tank base in the shape of a channel. The laminations
along with the bottom-end frames are jacket from either side against the channel
walls of the tank. As such, no bolts are needed in the bottom yokes and iron-
losses are comparatively lower.

23
 Chapter -5
Windings and Insulation
Windings form the electrical circuit of a transformer. Their construction should
ensure safety under normal and faulty conditions. The windings must be electrically
and mechanically strong to withstand both over-voltages under transient surges,
mechanical stress during short circuit and should not attain temperatures beyond
the limit under rated and over-load conditions. For core-type transformers, the
windings are cylindrical, and are arranged concentrically. Circular coils offer the
greatest resistance to the radial component of electromagnetic forces, since this
is the shape which any coil will tend to assume under short circuit stresses.
TYPES OF WINDINGS
The choice of the type of windings is largely determined by the rating of the
winding. Some of the common types of windings are described below.
1. Distributed Cross-over Windings
These windings are suitable for currents not exceeding about 20A. They
comprise wires of circular cross-section (fig. 1) and are used for HV windings in
small transformers in the distribution range. A number of such coils are joined in
series, spaced with blocks which provide insulation as well as duct for cooling.

Figure 1. Cross-over Coils

24
2. SPIRAL WENDING
This type of winding is normally used up to 33 kV and low current ratings.
Strip conductors are wound closely in the axial direction without any radial ducts
between turns. Spiral coils are normally wound on a bakelite or pressboard cylinder
(Fig. 2)

Figure -2 Spiral coil (single layer, wound on flat side)

Though normally the conductors are wound on the flat side, sometimes
they are wound on the edge. However, the thickness of the conductor should be
sufficient compared to its width, so that the winding remains twist-free (Fig. 3)

Figure 3 Spiral coil (edge wound)

Spiral windings may be made as single layer or multilayer type. Figure 4

shows a double-layer spiral coil where an oil duct separates the two layers. For
such a coil, both the start and the finish leads lie at one end of the coil and may at
times prove to be advantageous for making the terminal gear.

Figure 4. Spiral coil (double layer)

Normally it is not necessary to provide any transposition between the parallel

conductors of a spiral winding as the lengths and the embracing of leakage flux
are almost identical.
3. HELICAL WENDING
This type of winding is used in low-voltage and high-current ratings. A number
of conductors are used in parallel to form one turn. The turns are wound in a helix
along the axial direction and each turn is separated from the next by a duct. Helical
coils may be single-layer (fig. 5) or double layer (fig. 6) or multi-layer, if the number
of turns are more.

25
 Unless transposed, the conductors within a coil do not have the same length
and same flux embracing and therefore have unequal impedance, resulting in
eddy losses due to circulating current between the conductors in parallel. To reduce
these eddy losses, the helical windings are provided with transposition of the
conducors which equalise the impedances of the parallel conductors.
4. CONTINUOUS DISC WINDNG
This type of winding is used for voltage between 33 and 132 kV and medium
current ratings. These coils consist of a number of sections placed in the axial

Figure 5. Helical coil (Single layer) Figure 6. Helical coil (Double layer)

direction (fig. 7), with ducts between them. Each section is a flat coil, having more
than one turn, while each turn itself may comprise one or more conductors (usually
not more than four or five), in parallel. The sections are connected in series, but
without any joints between them. this is achieved by a special method of winding.
It is not necessary to provide a cylindrical former for these coils, as these are self-
supporting. Each disc is mechanically strong and exhibits good withstand of axial
forces. Another particular advantage of these coils is that, each section can have
either integral or fractional number of turns (for example 4 15
18
turns per section).

Figure 7 Continuous disc winding.

26
5. TRANSPOSITION
(a) For helical windings, usually three transpositions are provided. The complete
transposition [fig. 8(a)] is provided in the middle of the windings. Two partial
transpositions are provided, one at 25% of turns [Fig. 8 (b)] and the other at 75%
of turs [Fig 8 (c)]. In complete transposition, each conductor position is varied
symmetrically, relative to the middle point, whereas in partial transpositions, two
halves of parallel conductors are interchanged in the positions: the upper half
becomes the lower, and vice versa. Such a transposition needs extra space in the
height of the coil.

Figure 8. Transpositions in helical winding (a) Complete transposition (b) and (c) Partial transposition.

(b) With a multi-start helical winding, the transposition can be achieved by using
rotary transposition. Figure 9 shows transposition in a double-start helical winding.
By this arrangement, every conductor occupies every position by turn and thereby
complete equalization of impedance is possible. Also, there is no need for extra
space in the coil height.

Figure 9. Rotary transposition for double-start helial windng.

(c) For disc windings having more than one conductor in parallel. transposition
is made between the conductors by changing their mutual position at each cross-
over from one section to another (Fig. 10)

Figure 10. Transposition at each cross-over in continuous disc winding.

27
6. INTERLEAVED DISC WINDING
A disadvantage with the continuous disc winding is that their strength against
impulse voltages is not adequate for voltages above, say, 145 kV class. The impulse
voltage withstand behaviour of disc coils can be increased if the turns are
interleaved in such a fashion that two adjacent conductors belong to two different
turns. Figure 11 shows such a winding in which interleaving has been done in
each pair of discs. It will be noticed that it is necessary to have 2n conductors in
havnd for winding when n in the number of conductors in parallel. Conductors of
turns 8 and 9 are joined by brazing. A cross-over is given at the bottom of the disc.

Figure 11. Interleaved disc winding (2 discs per group)

Apart from interleaving between every double-disc, it is also possible to have

more number of discs (say four) in each interleaved group (Fig. 12)

Figure 12. Interleaved disc winding (4 discs per group)

This gives further improved behaviour against impulse voltage, though there
are concomitant increased complexities.
Interleaved windings require more skill and labour than plain continuous
disc windings. Sometimes a part of the winding is interleaved while the remaining
part is plai disc, so as to combine the advantages of better impulse withstand at
the high voltage end of the winding and reasonable labour cost for the winding as
a whole. These are known as partially interleaved windings.

28
 Chapter - 6
Voltage Regulation and
Tapchanger
Voltage variation in electrical systems is a normal phenomenon, because
of rapid growth of industries and distribution network. It is very essential to maintain
the system voltage within prescribed limits for the better health of electrical
equipments. Voltage of the system can be varied by changing the turn ratio of
transformer. The device tapchanger is used for adding or cutting out turns of primary
or secondary winding of the transformer. Basically tapchanging equipment can be
divided in two categories.
1. OFF-CIRCUIT TAPCHANGER
The cheapest method of changing the turn ratio of a transformer is the use of off-
circuit tapchanger. As the name implies, it is essential to de-energize the transformer
before changing the tap.
An off-circuit tapchanger, as shown in Fig. 1, consists of principally the following
three parts:
(a) Operating handle projecting outside the transformer.
(b) Fixed contact with connecting terminal
(c) Insulating shaft with moving contact system.

29
 Figure 1. Off-circuit tapchanger.

The basic transformer winding circuit arrangements using off-circuit

tapchanger are as shown in Fig. 2 They are :
(a) Linear
(b) Single-bridging
(c) Double-bridging
(d) Series-parallel
(e) Star-delta
Depending upon the requirement, any of the above arrangements of the
winding can be made use of to get desired voltage regulation. To prevent
unauthorized operation of an off-circuit tapchanger, a mechanical lock is provided.
Also to prevent inadvertent operation, an electromagnetic latching device or
microswitch is provided to open the circuit breakers to de-energize the transformer
while operating the handle of tapchanger before movement of contacts on tap
switch.

30
 Figure 2 . Off-circuit tapchanger connection circuits.

2. ON-LOAD TAPCHANGER (OLTC)

On-load tapchangers are employed to change turn ratio of transformer to
regulate system voltage while the transformer is delivering normal load. With the
introduction of on-load tapchanger, the operating efficiency of electrical system
has considerably improved. Now-a-days, almost all the large power transformers
are fitted with on-load tapchanger.
All forms of on-load tapchanging circuit posses an impedance, which is
introduced to prevent short circuiting of tapping section during tapchanger
operation. The impedance can be either a resistor or centre-tapped reactor. The
on-load tapchanger can in general, be classified as resistor or reactor type.

31
Methods of Potential Connections
Figure 3. shows a typical selector and switching arrangement generally
followed by transformer design engineers depending upon transformer specification
requirements. During change over operation of reversing switch or coarse tap
selector, the tapping winding gets temporarily disconnected from the main winding.
During this period tap winding acquire a potential determined by the winding
capacitances. The difference in voltage will, therefore, appear during contact
separation of the change-over selector as a recovery voltage. If the calculation
results show recovery voltage more than the specified limit declared by the
tapchanger manufacturer for the particular design, the tapping winding should be
connected continuously or during change over operation to a fixed potential.
This is possible by the following methods shown in Fig. 3.

Figure 3. Method of potential connection

32
 Chapter -7
Electromagnetic Forces in
Power Transformers
The most severe mechanical stressing occures in a transformer, when it is
subjected to a sudden short circuit. Since the currents flowing through the windings
at that time are enormous, the forces generated are also enormous. Much work
has been done to analyze and calculate these forces. The problem does not yield
easy solution due to the transient and dynamic nature of the phenomenon.
1. LEAKAGE FLUX IN A TYPICAL TWO WINDING
TRANSFORMER
The typical leakage flux pattern in a two winding transformer of core-type is
given in Fig. 1. The flux lines are almost axial at the middle of the winding and start
bending in the radial direction as we move towards the winding ends. In other
words, the axial component is predominant along the height of the winding, except
at winding ends (top and bottom), where the radial component becomes significant.
The direction of current in the winding conductors is perpendicular to the flux
lines, thus resulting in the axial and radial component of forces.

Figure 1. Typical leakage flux pattern in a two winding transformer.

33
2. NATURE OF FORCES
Forces are produced due to the interaction of the current and the magnetic
flux density vectors. Thus, in general, the force vector can have any direction.
Nevertheless, it is easier to speak of the radial forces and the axial forces in a
transformer, since these two components of the force can be calculated and
analyzed independently. Also, the two components have influence on different
parts of the total transformer and it is necessary to obtain the two components for
design purposes. The nomenclature axial and radial is applicable to concentric
wound core type transformer and is assumed in the following discussion.
Radial Forces
Radial forces are those that act in the radial direction and are generated by
the interaction of the current and the axial component of the leakage flux density.
They tend to squeeze the inner winding and burst the outer winding. The calculation
of radial forces does not present much difficulty since the axial component of the
leakage flux density is calculable fairly accurately. Calculation of the stresses due
to this force acting on the conductors is more complex, especially for inner windings.
The compressive strength of winding is influenced by the radial thickness of
conductors, its work hardening strength, number of blocks per circle, and winding
dimensions etc.
Similarly, the outer winding experiences outward radial force which results
in tensile stress. The tensile strength of winding depends on the work hardening
strength of the conductors.
Axial Forces
Axial forces are those that act in the axial direction and are generated by
the interaction of the current and the radial component of the leakage flu density.
These forces tend to bend the conductors in the axial direction, and their sum
total act on the coil-clamping ring and other clamping structures. The calculation
of axial forces presents some problems since the radial component of the leakage

Figure 2. (a) Radial forces. 1. Inner winding 2. Outer winding.

34
 Figure 2. (b) Axial Forces. (c) Most common pattern of radial component of leakage flux.

flux density is difficult to calculate accurately. When ampere turns are perfectly
balanced so that the leakage flux pattern is symmetrical, then the leakage field is
axial over the major part of the coil height. But due to the flux lines dispersing in
the radial direction in the vicinity of the winding ends, the axial flux density tends
to decrease, and the resultant flux density at the ends can be resolved into the
radial component causing axial forces. These axial forces are unequally distributed
between the outer and inner winding, due to the presence of core.
The axial forces at the top and bottom are in opposite directions as the
currents are in the same direction. In case the ampere turns are perfectly balanced
and the leakage flux pattern is symmetrical, the resultant force on the winding
would be zero. Any axial displacement between the magnetic centres of HV and
LV windings will result in a net axial force, tending to increase the displacement
even further. However, in practice, a complete balance of all elements of the winding
cannot be achieved entirely for a number of reasons like provision to tappings, HV
line lead exit from the centre of winding, dimensional accuracy and stability of
windings etc.

35
 Chapter -8
Cooling Arrangemetns
In power transformer, the oil serves a dual purpose as an insulating medium
as well as a cooling medium. The heat generated in the transformer is removed
by the transformer oil surrounding the source and is transmitted either to
atmospheric air or water. This transfer of heat is essential to control the temperature
within permissible limits for the class of insulation, thereby ensuring longer life
due to less thermal degradation.
1. VARIOUS TYPES OF COOLING
ONAN Type Cooling
The generated heat can be dissipated in many ways. In case of smaller
ratings of transformers, its tank may be able to dissipate the heat directly to the
atmospheric air, whilst bigger ratings may require additional dissipating surface in
the form of tubes/radiators connected to tank or in the form of radiator bank. In
these case, the heat dissipation is from transformer oil to atmospheric air by natural
means. This form of cooling is known as ONAN (oil natural, air natura) type of
cooling.
ONAF Type Cooling
For further augmenting the rate of dissipation of heat, other means such as
fans blowing air on to the cooling surfaces are employed. The forced air takes
away the heat at a faster rate, thereby giving better cooling rate than natural air.
This type of cooling is called ONAF (oil natural, air forced) type of cooling. In this
cooling arrangement, additional rating under ONAN condition viz. after shutting
off fans, is available, which is of the order of 70-75%.
OFAF Type Cooling
Still better rate of heat dissipation could be obtained if in addition to forced
air, means to force circulate the oil are also employed. The oil can be forced within
the closed loop of transformer tank and the cooling equipment by means of oil
pumps. This type of cooling is called OFAF (oil forced, air forced) type of colling.
Mixed cooling transformers of radiator type can have two or three ratings available,
one for each type of cooling, viz, OFAF, ONAF and ONAN.
36
OFAF cooling can also be obtained by using OFAF compact coolers. These coolers
offer the advantage that they occupy less space. The disadvantage of OFAF
compact coolers is that, there is no ONAN rating available in case of failure of
fans and pumps, thereby necessitating provision of a stand-by cooling equipment
for switching in, immediately upon receipt of failure signal. Continuity of auxiliary
supply to fans and pumps is to be ensured for uninterrupted power flow.
OFWF Cooling
Since the ambient temperature of water is always less than the atmospheric
air, it is possible to use water as a better heat-transfer media. Such an arrangement
employs oil to water heat exchangers. A prerequisite for such an arrangement is
the availability of a source of sufficient quantity of water. In most of the transformers
for hydropower stations, this type of cooling is used. Such a cooling is called
OFWF (oil forced, water forced) type of cooling.
Forced Directed Oil Cooling
Additional means of improving the heat dissipation rate are also employed
on higher ratings for transformer. These comprise arrangements which direct the
transformer oil in the windings through predetermined paths. This directed oil flow
type of cooling is utilized with advantage in case of forced oil system. The cool oil
entering the transformer tank from the cooler/radiators is passed through the
windings in a pre-decided manner ensuring faster rate of heat transfer. This type
of cooling is called ODAF (oil directed, air forced) or ODWF (oil directed, water
forced) type. Figure 1 shows a typical arrangement used for directing the oil in the
winding.

Figure 1. Directed oil flow.

37
 Chapter - 9
Design Procedure
1 SPECIFICATIONS OF A TRANSFORMER
Transformers have large number of variables and their requirements differ
a great deal. Complete specifications as stipulated in Chapter 15 must be furnished
for designing the transformer to suit the specific requirements. In the following
paragraphs design procedure, selection of various parameters and their effect on
the various performance criteria have been discussed.
2 SELECTION OF CORE DIAMETER
Core diameter of a transformer depends upon a number of factors like
rating, percentage impedance between windings, basic insulation level, transport
height, overfluxing requirements, type of core and quality of core steel. Hence, it
is fairly complicated to derive a universal and exact formula for determining
diameter. In practice, the core diameter is selected by the designer keeping into
view the limiting conditions as mentioned above. Based on this, guaranteed
parameters, viz percentage impedance and losses are worked out. Core diameter
is adjusted to meet the guaranteed parameters.
2.1 Influence of Varying Core Diameter
Increasing core diameter increases area of cross-section, thereby increasing
voltage per turn, which reduce the number of turns in various windings. The
percentage reactance between windings is directly proportional to number of turns
and diameters of various coils and is also inversely proportional to volts per turn
and coil depth. In order to have specified reactance, increased core diameter
necessitates reduction in coil depth and increase in coil dimensions in lateral
direction, which leads to reduction in core height and increase in core leg centres.
Inspite of reduction in core height due to increase in core diameter, overall weight
of core steel increases, which also increases no-load loss of transformer. Also,
reduced number of turns in windings even with larger length of mean turn results
in reduced copper weight, which in turn also reduces the load loss of transformer.
Similarly, reduced core diameter results in reduced core steel weight and no-load
loss increased copper weight and load loss.
38
2.2 Core Area
Stepped core construction is used to obtain an optimum core area within
circumscribing circle of a core. Core area depends upon number of steps, grade
of core steel, insulation on the laminations, i.e. varnished or unvarnished, and
method of core clamping. As the number of steps increases, core area also
increases, however it needs extra labour to cut the various sizes of laminations.
Optimum number of steps are used to give overall economy. Large rating
transformers are usually provided with high tensile steel clamp plates for clamping
the core laminations, which provide increased core area for a particular core
diameter. Depending upon the flux density in the core, adequate number of ducts
are provided to keep its hot-spot temperature and cooling ducts in core.
3 SELECTION OF FLUX DENSITY
Value of flux density is chosen to suit the guaranteed performance. Normally
flux density is chosen near knee point of magnetization curve, however, adequate
margin should be kept to take care for system conditions like overfluxing, frequency
and voltage variations. In certain cases value of flux density is reduced to limit the
noise level of transformers.
3.1 Influence of Varying Flux Density
Keeping the other parameters same, increase in the value of flux density in
the core result in higher volts per turn. Hence number of turns in various windings
are reduced. Effect of increase of flux density on reactance is similar to that of
increase in core diameter. In order to meet the requirement of specified reactance,
coil depth is reduced and lateral dimensions of coils are increased. Inspite of
small increase in core leg centres, reduced core height results in lower core-steel
weight results in higher no-load loss of transformer. Also reduced number of turns
in windings results in lower copper weight and load losses. Similarly, reduction in
the value of flux density causes increased core-steel weight, lower no-load loss
and increased copper weight and load loss.
4 SELECTION OF TYPE OF CORE
The cores are made of CRGO steel, which is available in various grades
having different properties. Suitable grade of steel is chosen to suit the performance
requirement and overall economy. Selection of type of core depends upon the
rating of transformer and transport limitations. For large three-phase transformers,
five-limb construction is adopted to overcome the problem associated with the
transport height. For single-phase transformers, one centre-wound limb with two
return limbs is a common configuration, though sometimes both limb wound cores
are also adopted. For very large ratings, core construction having two wound
limbs with two return limbs may also be adopted.

39
5. SELECTION OF LEG LENGTH
Maximum leg length available for designing the windings, is dependent
upon maximum transport height, type of wagon to be used for transportation and
type of core selected. By proper shaping of the transformer tank for well wagon,
the leg length can be increased. Generally for larger transformers maximum value
of leg length gives the overall economy. Whereas, lower rating transformer may
have reduced leg length to give economical design. By reducing leg length,
reactance of transformer increases, and vice versa.
Influence of core diameter, flux density and leg length over various
parameters while maintaining the % reactance as constant is tabulated below:
Parameter Increased Increased Increased
core diameter flux density leg length
Copper weight Decrease Decrease Increase
Load loss Decrease Decrease Increase
Core steel weight Increase Decrease Decrease
No-load loss Increase Increase Decrease

6 SELECTION OF TYPE OF WINDINGS

The windings along with its insulations form the electric circuit of the
transformer. Due care must be taken while designing the windings to ensure its
healthiness during normal as well as fault conditions. The windings must be
electrically and mechanically strong to withstand both over-voltage under incidence
of surges and mechanical stresses during short-circuit conditions. The temperature
of windings at rated, over-load and short-life of transformer.
The power transformers are manufactured for a very wide range of outputs
and voltages and realization of these requirements is possible only by using different
kinds of windings. The following types of windings are used in power transformers.
(a) Spiral winding
(b) Helical winding
(c) Reversed section winding
(d) Paralled layer winding
(e) Tapered layer winding
(f) Interleaved disc winding
Spiral winding is a medium-current and low-voltage winding. Tertiary winding,
of star/star/delta connected power transformer used for stabilizing purposes and
sometimes feeding small loads, could be generally spiral winding.

40
 Helical winding is a high-current and low-voltage winding. Normally, it is
used for LV coils of large generator transformers.
When number of turns preclude the use of helical winding, the reversed
section winding is used. It is generally used for highvoltage and low-to medium
current rating. Reversed section (disc) winding is usually used up to 132 kV class
windings.
Higher voltage windings above 132 kV class are mostly multilayer or
interleaved disc winding. Number of layers of layer-type windings are generally
five to nine. Ordinary reversed section disc winding is not suitable for voltage
above 132 kV because of impulse distribution characteristics of winding. However,
by doing the interleaving of conductors/turns, impulse distribution characteristics
improves and therefore, interleaved disc windings are used for HV coil above 132
kV class.
7. SELECTION OF TAPCHANGER
To cater for the voltage regulation in the transformer and system voltage
variation, off-circuit/on-load tapchanger is provided. Off-circuit tap switch is provided
when tapchanging is required only occasionally. Generally generator transformers
are provided with off-circuit tap switch. When tapchanging is required under loaded
conditions, on-load tapchangers are provided. Generally, unit auxiliary transformers,
station transformers, and system transformers are provided with on-load
tapchangers. The choice of tapchangers is governed by the following factors:
(a) Tapping range
(b) number of steps
(c) Step voltage
(d) Current rating
(e) Location of tapping
(f) Design of tapping winding, i.e. linear, reversing, coarse and fine.
(g) Insulation level
(h) Type of voltage variation, i.e. constant flux, variable flux and mixed type.
(i) Power flow requirement, i.e. unidirectional or bi-directional

41
 Chapter -10
Structural Design of
Transformer Tank
Transformers are housed in metallic tanks, which are structurally robust
enough to withstand the loadings such as full vacuum during processing of
transformers, oil pressure and concentrated point loads of lifting, hauling, jacking
etc. The tank sizes reach the transportable limits and call for a lot of ingenuity in
the design to meet such stringent conditions as minimum electrical clearances
from high voltage points of windings and leads, and proper shaping to reduce oil
quantity, transportable profile suitable for loading on rail wagons, transportable
weight, etc. From these design considerations, in general, and for large power
ratings, transformer tanks are structurally quite complicated. Though, for medium
size, plain tanks are also used quite often for the sake of ease, and economy of
cost of fabrication.
The structural design of transformer tanks comprises the computation of
the combined behaviour of plate and shells with stiffeners, which involves a realistic
estimate of boundary conditions. For computing the stresses and displacements
at a few selected points the classical method is handy, however for computing the
stresses and displacements in global sense, the classical method is not sufficient
and one has to make use of rigorous methods such as finite element method.
1. TYPES OF TANK CONSTRUCTIONS
Rectangular tanks are simpler in fabrication. However for large rating
transformers, shaping of tanks becomes necessary to conform to transportable
profile. Shaping is provided by rounded corners at the ends, truncation of lower
portion of wall from consideration of loading in well wagon girder and on the covers
to reduce the height. To minimize the tank oil, the tank profile may closely follow
the electrical clearances along the coils. As is evident, shaping gives saving in
tank material and oil but increases complexity and fabrication cost. From the
standpoint of structural strength, shaping is advantageous and this aspect is
discussed later in the text.

42
Transformer tanks may be classified as-
– plain tanks
– shaped tanks
– bell-shaped tanks
– corrugated tanks
– stub end type tanks
Plain Tanks
Plain tanks are rectangular box type in shape. These tanks may sometimes
also have rounded corners. These are commonly used for small and medium
rating transformers. This type of construction may however be uneconomical for
larger sized tanks, particularly if the welding is done manually.
Shaped Tanks
In order to make more economical transformers, it is possible to shape the
profile of the tank body suitably, so that the inside volume of the tank is less. It is
suitably truncated in the lower portion for ease of loading inside the well of the
wagon and it also ensures the required minimum electrical clearance at all points.
Usually many shaped tanks have the tank walls shaped towards HV-leads side,
where electrical clearances are comparatively much larger, and a flat wall towards
the LV side. Structurally the curved portions in the tank walls act as stiffener,
which is an added advantage. The shaping in the tank construction is decided by
the electrical layout considerations of transformer windings and terminal gear/
tapchanger mounting arrangements.
Bell Shaped Tanks
Sometimes it is desirable to construct the tank in two parts, so that if the top
portion is removed, the height of the lower part is such that the core and the
winding of the tank are easily accessible for inspection and maintenance. This
arrangement is preferable at site, where it is not possible to lift the core and windings
together from tank for inspection and maintenance work. Such tanks which are
made into two separable parts are known as bell type. The profile of the tank walls
can be either rectangular or bell shaped.
Corrugated Tanks
An alternative for providing vertical ribs welded to the plates is to form
corrugation on the plates by suitably folding the plates. These corrugations play
the role of stiffeners and this process reduces welding by replacing the welding
vertical ribs on the tank walls. The usual type of tank construction with corrugated
plates for tank walls employs box type of horizontal stiffeners to provide necessary
structural strength against bending stresses. Another advantage of corrugated
tank walls is that, it provides additional cooling area on the tank walls and tank
weight reduction.
43
Stub-end Wagon Type Tanks
It may not be possible to transport, very large rating power transformers, on
any conventional wagon. The height of the girder on which the consignment rest
adds to the overall transport height. As a remedy, such large-size transformers
are not supported on such girders. The tanks are suitably designed such that they
can be supported from either end by stub-end wagons and the transformer hangs
in the vertical position, leaving the minimum necessary clearance between the
bottom of the tank and railway track. These tanks are of special construction and
designed to withstand the dynamic loads during transit in addition to static loads.

Figure-1. Stub-end type Tank

2. TESTING OF TANKS
The oil pressure and vacuum testings are conducted on tanks to ensure
against leakages and to check for strength.
Oil Pressure Test
The oil pressure testing on tank is done to ensure leakage proof welding
joints. For this the oil connection is made at the base of tank and all the openings
are blanked properly. The oil is filled up to tank cover and the required pressure is
applied by a pump. The pressure is maintained for a few hours and all the weldings
are checked manually. If any leakage is found, the oil is drained and the welding is
rectified. After rectification oil pressure is again applied. The tank deflection readings
are measured before starting of oil pressure, at full oil pressure and after releasing
the oil pressure.

Figure - 2

44
Vacuum Test
After oil pressure test, the oil pipe connection is opened and complete oil is
drained. This opening is blanked and vacuum pump connection is made at top of
the tank wall and oil pressure gauge is replaced by a vacuum gauge. After ensuring
all the fitting, the vacuum pump is started and the required vacuum is measured
by a vacuum gauge. During vacuum testing the air leakage points are detected by
air leakage detecting instrument. Wherever the leakages are found in gasketed
rims, the bolts are tightened. The temporary deflection at full vacuum is measured,.
If it is considerably high and consequently a rectification is needed, the vacuum is
released and rectification covered on the tank. Subsequently, it is again vacuum
tested. The full vacuum is maintained for one hour. After releasing vacuum the
deflection readings are taken for finding out the permanent deflection. This shall
be within specified allowable limits of deflection, depending on the size of the
tanks.

45
 Chapter -11
Transformer Auxiliaries and Oil
Preservation Systems
Transformer auxiliaries play a vital role in ensuring proper functioning of the
main equipment. Some of the auxiliaries provide protection under fault conditions.
Transformer oil being a major insulation requires special attention against
contamination by moisture and oxygen for preservation of quality.
TRANSFORMER AUXILIARIES
1. GAS OPERATED (BUCHHOLZ) RELAY
The relay serves as main protection for any minor or major faults that may
develop inside a transformer. Such faults always result in generation of gases
which causes the operation of mercury switches giving signal for audible alarm or
isolates the transformer from the network.
Figure 1 (Plate 4) shows the internal view of a relay. It comprises a cast
housing which contains two pivoted buckets, each bucket being counter-balanced
by a weight. Each assembly carries a mercury switch, the leads from which are
taken to a moulded terminal block.
Operation
The relay is mounted in the pipe at
an inclination of 3-7º as shown in Fig. 1 In
healthy condition of the transformer, the
relay is full of oil and both the mercury
switches are open. In the event of a minor
fault like damage to core bolt insulation,
local overheating, etc. the arcing causes
slow generation of gas in the oil, which
passes up in the pipe and gets trapped in
the relay housing. As gas accumulates,
the oil level in the relay falls, leaving the
Figure.1 Method of mounting Buchholz-
top bucket full of oil. relay on Transformer.
46
 When a sufficient volume of gas is collected in the relay, the top bucket,
because of its extra weight due to oil contained, tilts, overcoming the balance
weight which closes the mercury switch and initiates an audible alarm.
With a major fault like short-circuit between turns, coils or between phases;
the generation of gases is rapid and the gas and the displaced oil surges through
the relay and impinges on the baffle plates, causing the lower assembly to tilt and
close the mercury switch and provide signal for tripping the circuit breaker, which
disconnects the transformer from the network.
Relays for Earthquake Zones
Shock and vibrations acting on tube of the mercury switch can cause the
mercury within it to move and momentarily bridge the switch contact, even though
it may be tilted in open-circuit position. This is considered to be a mal-operation of
the relay, as it is caused by external disturbances like earth tremors and not by a
fault within the transformer. Consequently, relays for such situations are provided
with magnet operated reed switches in place of mercury switches.
The external appearance and principle of operation of these relays is exactly
similar to those with mercury switches. The reed type switches have rhodium
contacts located midway along the glass tube which has an atmosphere of nitrogen.
2. TEMPERATURE INDICATORS
Temperature indicators are precision instruments, specially designed for
protection of transformers and perform the following functions.
– Indicate maximum oil temperature and maximum or hottest spot
temperature of winding.
– Operate an alarm or a trip circuit at a predetermined temperature.
– Switch on the cooling equipment when the winding attains a preset high
temperature and switch it off when the temperature drops by an established
differential (so as to avoid too frequent on and off operation of the switch).
Normally two separate instruments are used for indicating oil and winding
temperatures.
3. PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
The pressure relief valve plays a significant role in the protection of power
transformer systems. As mentioned before, a major fault inside the transformer
causes instantaneous vaporization of the oil, leading to extremely rapid build-up
of gaseous pressure. If this pressure is not relieved within a few milliseconds, the
transformer tank can get ruptured, spilling oil over a wide area. The consequent
damage and fire hazard possibilities are obvious. A pressure relief device provides
instantaneous relieving of dangerous pressure.

47
4. OIL LEVEL INDICATOR
Normally all transformers are provided with an expansion vessel called
conservator, to take care of expansion in the oil volume due to rise in temperature,
when the load on the transformer increases or due to increase in ambient
temperature. The oil level in the conservator consequently goes up. Conversely, it
falls when the temperature or load reduces. It is essential that the oil level in the
conservator is maintained above a pre-determined minimum level. All large
transformers are, therefore, fitted with a magnetic oil level gauge which also
incorporates a mercury switch. The switch closes and actuates an audible alarm
in the even of oil level dropping to near empty position in the conservator. (fig.2)
5. BUSHING AND CABLE SEALING BOX
It is necessary to bring the low and high voltage leads out of transformer tank, to
be able to make connections between transformer and generator or transmission
lines, etc. This is accomplished by terminating these leads through what are known
as bushings or cable box.
A bushing is a structure carrying a conductor through a partition in the tank
and insulating the conductor form partition.
Cable Sealing Box
Generally used for termination of leads of low voltage, a cable sealing box
is designed for the purpose of receiving and protecting the end of a metal-sheathed
cable or cables and containing a suitable insulating medium.

Figure- 2. Sectional view and schematic of a magnetic oil level indicator

It is a unit complete with bushings, to which the terminals of the transformer can
be connected. The insulating medium in a cable box can be air or a bituminous
compound. Figure-3 shows a typical 3-pole, 9-glan cable sealing box.

48
6. TRANSFORMER OIL PRESERVATION SYSTEMS
Transformer oil deterioration takes place due to moisture. Moisture can
appear in a transformer from three sources, viz. by leakage past gasket, by
absorption from air in contact with the surface, or by its formation within the
transformer as a product of deterioration as insulation ages at high temperature.
The effect of moisture in oil is to reduce the electric strength, especially if loose
fibres or duct particles are present.
Methods available to reduce oil contamination from moisture are silicagel
breather, thermosyphon filter, sealed conservator tanks using gas cushion, rubber
diaphragm or air-cell sealed refrigerated dryers.

Figure -3 A Three-pole, Nine-gland cable box.

Silicagel Breather
A silicagel breather is most commonly employed as a means of preventing
moisture ingress. It is connected to the conservator tank, which is fitted to
transformer to allow for changes in volume due to temperature variations. As the
load reduces, air is drawn into the conservator through a cartridge packed with
silicagel desiccant, which effectively dries the air. Freshly regenerated gel is very
efficient, it will dry the air down to a dew point of below- 40 ºC, but quickly falls in
efficiency. A well maintained silicagel breather will generally operate with a dew
point of - 35ºC, as long as a large enough quantity of gel has been used for the
cycling duty.
Silicagel may be reactivated by heating in a shallow pan at a temperature
of 150º to 200ºC for two to three hours when the crystal should have regained
their blue tint.

49
 Chapter -12
Manufacturing and Assembly
Manufacturing and assembly of the transformer involves the following main
stages and the manufacturing techniques basically depend on the design philoso-
phy.
(a) Core building
(b) Preparation of windings
(c) Core and winding assembly
(d) Terminal gear assembly
(e) Placement of care and winding assembly in tanks.
(f) Processing
(g) Servicing and tanking
1. CORE BUILDING
The core forms the magnetic circuit of the transformer. Core is built up from
cold rolled grain oriented, silicon alloy sheet steel of the best magnetic properties.
The material is either received in rolled coil form or in finished sizes of core sheets,
ready for core building. When the material is received in coil form, it is slitted,
cropped and mitred to the required dimensions based on the design requirements.
CNC machines are now available which can perform the above operations with
perfect control on burrs. The size, type, and construction of the core, like the
number of steps, number of limbs, height, etc. depend on the number of phases
and the size of the transformer.
The sequence of operations for core building and assembly are as under:
(a) Slitting of core steel rolls to required width on slitting machines.
(b) Cropping and mitring to the required dimensions.
(c) Hole punching in the laminations where required.
(d) Stacking of laminations of different size to the required thickness.

50
 (e) Laying of clamp plates and end frame and its leveling.
(f) Assembly of insulation between clamp plate/end frame & core lami-
nations.
(g) Preparation of oil duct in core.
(h) Core building.
(i) Clamping of core after assembly of the top end frame.
(j) Tightening of core.
(k) Lifting of core by use of a cradle, and carrying out isolation checks
after treatment of insulation items.
The core assembly is now ready for further processing and assembly.
2. PREPARATION OF WINDINGS
The windings form the electrical circuit of a transformer. Various types of
windings, i.e. spiral, helical, disc, layer, etc. are used, depending upon the rating
of the transformer and the design considerations. Generally, low voltage windings
are either spiral or helical and high voltage windings are either layer or disc type.
Various types of windings have been discussed in detail in Chapter 5.
The sequence of manufacture of windings is given below:
(a) Loading of moulds (formers) on the windings machines.
(b) Loading of the conductor reels on stands.
(c) Dressing of the mould, i.e. assembly of insulation spacers and blocks on
the mould.
(d) Manufacture of the winding on horizontal/vertical winding machines depend-
ing on design, type of winding, number of conductors, to be handled at a
time and the type of conductor.
(e) Preparation of the leads etc.
(f) Dismantling of winding from the machine.
(g) Preparation of the joints between conductors, if any.
(h) After removing the winding from the winding machine, each winding is
clamped between top and bottom plates through tie rods, and kept in an
oven for heating. The windings are individually shrunk to the required axial
dimensions by heating in the steam heated oven and by applying the re-
quired pressure. Heating ensures removal of moisture from the insulation
items. This process is called stabilization of the windings, and the windings
are stabilized to such an extent that they do not shrink further during ser-
vice.

51
3 CORE AND WINDING ASSEMBLY
Core is placed on suitable levelled platform. Top-end frame and yoke lami-
nations are removed. Bottom insulation items are placed on bottom yoke/end
frame on each core leg. Various windings are either lowered one by one or com-
posite winding assembly is lowered on each core leg. After lowering of the wind-
ings, top insulation arrangement is completed. Top-end frame and yoke lamina-
tions are placed back in position. Coils are kept under pressure by either coil
clamping bolts or spring loaded hydraulic devices provided on the top-end frame.
4 TERMINAL GEAR ASSEMBLY
After relacing of the top yoke, the preparation of the Terminal Gear Assem-
bly done as described below:
(a) Cutting of the leads as required.
(b) Crimping/brazing of the leads with cables.
(c) Brazing of bus bars.
(d) Fixing of different cleats.
(e) Crimping/brazing of cables with terminal lugs.
(f) Mounting of the tap changer/tap switch.
(g) Preparation of HV line lead.
In this stage, connections between phases to form the required vector group,
tapping lead connections, line and neutral leads formation, etc., are completed.
Low-voltage connections are done on one side of the winding and are designated
as LV terminal gear. On the opposite side, high-voltage connections are done and
are designated as HV terminal gear. Medium voltage leads (in system or autotrans-
former are taken out on LV side and tapping connections on either LV or HV side
depending upon design layout. Generally in generator transformer, a three-phase
on-lad or off-circuit tap-changer is mounted on one end and in case of autotrans-
former three single-phase tapchangers are mounted in front of the windings.
Tapchangers are supported from end frame during terminal gear assembly. All
leads, i.e. line and neutral leads of low-voltage, medium-voltage and high-voltage
windings, tapping leads, etc., are laid out and connected using different types of
joints (i.e. bolted, crimped, soldered or brazed) and insulated for the required
insulation level. Leads are properly supported by cleast mounted on end frames.
The clearances between various leads, coil to leads, leads to end frame and other
parts are maintained and checked.
5 PLACEMENT OF CORE AND WINDING ASSEMBLY IN TANK
After completion of terminal gear assembly, the core and winding assem-
bly is placed in the tank. The tank may either be of conventional or bell-shaped
construction depending upon requirement. In case of bell-shaped construction,

52
the top part of tank and for conventional construction the bottom tank is prepared
for this purpose. Preparations include mounting of shunts, barriers, etc., on tank
walls as required and also laying of gaskets on the flange joints. In conventional
tank, the core and wnding assembly is lowered on the core and winding assembly.
In bell-shaped tank construction, top tank is lowered on the core and wind-
ing assembly.
After placement of core and winding assembly in tank, various electrical
and mechanical clearances, viz. coils to tank, line, neutral and tapping leads to
tank, etc., are checked. After the above checks are over, all the openings in tank
and cover are blanked by blanking plates and gaskets. The transformer is then
sent for drying and impregnation.
6. PROCESSING
The quality of a transformer and, consequently its performance and life
depends essentially on the factory processing. The assembled active part of the
transformer after tanking or before tanking as the case may be, is heated in an
oven for extraction of moisture under vacuum. Sometimes, vacuum drying is done
by drawing vacuum in its own tank and keeping the whole transformer in an oven.
Besides the conventional method of drying, the most modern vapour phoper
dry out, as otherwise windings would become loose in service, and may get dis-
torted under short circuit conditions.
Once the moisture is extracted to the desired level, oil is filled under vacuum
and the transformer is soaked in oil.
7. SERVICING OF TRANSFORMER
The transformer active part is then taken out and all the terminal gear cleating
of the leads are retightened and the coils are clamped and secured in position.
The transformer tank cover is then placed in its postion and the transformer is
now ready for further assembly of bushings etc.
8. TANKING
After servicing the transformer is assembled with all the necessary fittings.
The oil is filled under vacuum and it is circulated in order to get the desired ppm
and BDV levels before being offered for final testing and subjected to high voltage
testing.

53
 Chapter -13
Drying and Impregnation
In the construction of a transformer, the insulation system is the most
important feature, and hence requires maximum attention. Normally, the oil, paper,
and pressboard insulation has to be freed of dirt, dust, and moisture for obtaining
the optimum insulation properties.
Cellulose insulation used in power transformers and reactors has 8 to 10%
of moisture by weight at ambient temperature, being a hygroscopic material. Water
is injurious to transformer insulation system, since it reduces the electric strength
and the resistivity of the oil and accelerate the deterioration of solid insulation.
Figure 1 shows the effect of moisture content on impulse voltage strength of oil
and paper. The decrease in impulse voltage strength is clearly evident as soon as
the moisture content of the paper is greater than 0.1%. Paper with a 1.5% moisture
content ages ten times faster than on with only 0.3% as shown in Fig. 2. Processing
eliminates all types of impurities and foreign particles from trans former, e.g. dust,
dirt, fine metallic particles and fibres of diverse origins.

Figure-1. Impulse voltage strength of paper.

Any impurity and particle which remains inside transformer after vacuum drying is
taken away by transformer oil during circulation, which are separated at the filter.
During vacuum drying and oil impregnation, the gases trapped inside solid insulation
and occluded among intricate profile of insulation components are also removed,
which result in low partial discharge inception voltage. Optimal utilization of the

54
excellent properties of oil-cellulose dielectric system depends upon efficient drying,
degassing and impregnation process adopted and hence the proper processing
of transformers is a vital requirement.

Figure-2. Influence of moisture in paper on ageing time of paper; a

multiple of the ageing time of oil-impregnated paper with
moisture content X compared to that of a well dried, oil-
impregnated paper with 0.3% residual moisture.

1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DRYING

Cellulosic insulation is dried by creating conditions in which water vapour
pressure (WVP) around the insulation is less than that in the insulation. The vapour
pressure in the insulation is increased by heating the insulation and the vapour
pressure around the insulation is decreased by removing water vapour. Figure 3
shows pressure plotted against humidity and temperature, from which it is seen
that a 20 ºC temperature rise increases the internal
pressure by more than 100% (a factor of two). Basically
one should aim at achieving the highest processing
temperature consistent with the type and ageing
properties of the insulation. The upper temperature limit
is set by the maximum permissible drying temperature
for paper, i.e. about 110 ºC (or 130 ºC in an oxygen-free
atmosphere). Drying efficiency also depends on diffusion
coefficient of the insulation material. This coefficient is
dependent on the material to be dried, its temperature,
pressure and moisture content as shown in Fig. 4. A 20ºC
temperature rise increases the diffusion coefficient by
about 100% and reduces drying time by half.
Two basic processes are adopted for drying of
transformers.
(a) Conventional vacuum drying Figure-3. Partial insulation water
(b) Vapour phase drying vapour pressure v. temperature,
for various insulation moisture
contents.
55
PRINCIPLES OF DRYING
1.1 Drying Time
The drying time of the insulation increases considerably with the operating
voltage and size of the transformer. The longer the drying time, the higher the
partial discharge inception voltage.
The time of drying depends on the final moisture content required in the
insulation pressure rings, supporting components and pre-compressed press
boards basically determine the minimum drying time.

Figure-4. Diffusion coefficient of low density oil-free pressboard for

various drying temperatures. (a) under atmospheric pressure.
(b) over a 0.1 to 1.0 torr vacuum range.

2. CONVENTIONAL VACUUM DRYING

The moisture content in a cellulose insulation can be brought down to 2%
from 8-10% by dry hot air circulation. For further reduction of moisture content,
heating under vacuum is resorted to, so that the time required for drying can be
reduced.
The core and windings assembly is placed in the clean transformer tank.
Drying is carried out either in a vacuum vessel or in an air circulating drying oven.
In the latter case, vacuum is drawn in the transformer tank.
2.1 Loading of Transformer
The tank containing core and windings is loaded into the vacuum vessel.
For bell shaped tanks the openings on the top of the tank are kept open such that
complete cellulose insulation is oil impregnated subsequently. For drying in its
own tank, the tank alongwith core and windings is loaded into the drying oven.
Tank cover is placed in position and all openings are closed.

56
2.2 Vacuum Drying
The transformer is heated initially to 100ºC for about 24 hrs and a high
vacuum in vessel or in its own tank is drawn. Higher the vacuum, better and
quicker is the drying. Vacuum level to be achieved also depends upon voltage
class of transformer. Vacuum corresponding to an absolute pressure as low as
1.33 Pa (0.01 torr) can be obtained. In order to maintain the transformer temperature
at the required value, the pressure is increased to atmospheric level by the
admission of hot dry air at intervals during the first few days of drying. This is
necessary since winding temperature drops considerably as latent heat of
transformer is utilized in conversion of insulation moisture into water vapours.
During vacuum drying, the quantity of water collected at pump is recorded
at regular intervals. Insulation resistance, power factor and dispersion factor of
windings are also monitored. Vacuum drying is considered to be complete, when
desired condensate extraction rate is achieved and other parameters indicated
above become reasonably steady.
2.3 Reconditioning of Insulating oil
There is a tendency for oil to absorb water due to breathing during transport
and storage. Impurities, by they solid ones like hygroscopic fibres, suspended
particles or liquid ones like dissolved water, bring about a considerable reduction
of the dielectric strength of oil. Oil at 20 ºC saturated with water (44 ppm) attains
only about 25% of the original electric strength with a water content of 10 ppm.
Under the same conditions, the resistivity of oil also drops considerably. Air,
especially oxygen, dissolved in the oil represents a risk not only with regard to the
formation of bubbles but also due to accelerated oxidation process leading the
chemical deterioration of oil. Hence, it is necessary to treat and purify the oil
before impregnating the windings, so as to attain a degree of purity which meets
the operational requirements. Oil is reconditioned to eliminate the following
elements.
(a) Solid impurities
(b) Free and dissolved water
(c) Dissolved gases
The physical means that are used for treatment of oil include several types
of filtration, centrifuging and vacuum dehydration techniques. If vacuum treatment
is employed, temperatures up to 80 ºC can be used; if not, it is advisable to limit
the temperature of oil to 60 ºC to prevent oxidation. The filters used should be
capable of removing particles larger than one micron diameter.
Along with drying of transformer, raw oil is reconditioned in a vacuum
dehydrator, till desired characteristics are obtained.

57
2.4 Oil Impregnation
After completion of vacuum drying, the reconditioned oil is admitted to the
transformer with out breaking vacuum in the vessel or tank, as the case may be.
The transformer is allowed to cool to a temperature of about 70 ºC before filling
with oil. Temperature of reconditioned oil is maintained at 50 + 10 ºC.Care is taken
to ensure that pressure in vessel or tank is not too low to vaporize the oil. The oil
flow rate normally does not exceed 3 kl/h so that all residual gases occluded in
crevices among insulation items are released and the possibility of gas bubbles
being trapped at any place inside tank is prevented. Oil is filled until all cellulose
insulation is covered.
2.5 Redrying and Oil Circulation
Oil impregnated transformer is kept under vacuum for a few hours so that
solid insulation is completely soaked with oil. Winding insulation shrinks to some
extent during drying as the initial water in cellulose is extracted. Hence, windings
and cleats of terminal gear are retightened after taking the assembly out of tank.
A little moisture reabsorbed by the insulation due to exposure to atmosphere during
this period is extracted by redrying under vacuum and subsequently oil is again
impregnated inside the transformer. Oil is circulated to regain its electric strength
and moisture content which deteriorate due to contact with materials used in the
construction of transformer. Solid particles, fibres of different origins and all other
impurities are separated at filter. A settling time is given before conducting high-
voltage dielectric tests on the transformer, so that suspended fine particles are
settled and occluded gas is fully released.
3. VAPOUR PHASE DRYING
The main difference between conventional vacuum drying and vapour phase
drying is that, in the latter process the heat carrier is a vapour of low viscosity
solvent, more like kerosene with a sufficiently high flash point instead of air. The
vapour is condensed on the transformer and then re-evaporated in the plant. For
this reason, vapour phase installation include an evaporator and condenser system
in addition to the vacuum equipment and vacuum vessels associated with
conventional drying equipment.

58
 Chapter -14
Reactors
Reactors find a number of applications in the transmission and distribution network
as well as industrial plants. They are usually classified according to duty application,
viz. current limiting, neutral earthing, shunt, damping, tuning or filter, arc-
suppression, smoothing, etc. These reactors have typical characteristic
requirements and call for different constructions, viz. with air core or with gapped
iron core, with or without magnetic shield, for indoor or outdoor installtion, for fixed
and variable reactance, with or without taps, etc.
1. Series Reactors
These reactors are intended for series connection in a system, either for limiting
the current under system fault condition or load sharing in parallel circuits.
Types
Series reactors are classified by their location or applicaiton in a system. Some of
the more common types are described hereafter.
(i) Generator Line Reactor
This is usually used with a generator to reduce stresses under 3-phase short-
circuit.
(ii) Feeder Reactor
This is located on feeders from operating stations or on sub-station buses and is
used tominimise the resultant effects of a short-circuit on other parts of the system.
This application often allows a lighter Construction fo feeder circuit which can
result in appreciable cost saving due to their association with circuit breakers of
smaller capacities.

Fgure 1 Generator reactor Fgure 2 Feeder reactor

59
(iii) Duplex Reactor
It is a centre tapped reactor used as an effective device in dividing current source
and limiting the magnitude of fault current.
It is usually applicable where:
(a) There is a heavy concentration of load as in a power house.
(b) Local generation is present.
(c) The utilisation and the generation voltages are same.
(d) There is a large amount of load distribution at the same voltage.

Fgure 3 Duplex reactor

(iv) Tie Line Reactor

It provides an easier method of expanding a system at the existing voltage. It has
following advantages:
(a) Existing switchgear can be used with a little modification.
(b) It is a relatively low cost means of expanding a system.

Fgure 4 Tie Line reactor

(v) Synchronizing Reactor

This reactor provides a method for exapanding a system when the utilization voltage
and generated voltage are the same and it is not feasible to go to higher voltage.
This is done by sectionalizing the existing bus and tying all the bus sections through
reactors to a common bus. By this method interrupting duty is greatly reduced on

60
the existing breaker and new loads and additional incoming capacity may be added.
this arrangement is frequently found in industrial power plants on very large system.

Fgure 5 Synchronizing reactor

(vi) Motor Staring Reactor

This is used wehen it is necessary to reduce the starting current of AC motors.
This decreases stresses on the motor and reduces the system dusturbances.

Fgure 6 Starting reactor

(vii) Reactor for Capacitor Bank

This reactor is used to limit high transient
inrush current flowing into the capacitor
bank when capacitor bank is switched
in. This also helps in suppressing
harmonics present in the system. This
is also called damping reactor. This is
connected in series with the capacitors
and is rated for highest inrush current
and continuous current.
Fgure 7 Reactor with Capacitor bank.

61
(viii) Smoothing Reactor
This is employed to filter out all harmonics present in DC power system. This can
be both HV DC smooting reactor and low voltage DC smoothing reactor with large
superimposed harmonic components.

Fgure 8 Smoothing Reactor

(ix) Line Trap

This is used on power lines having carrier channels for equipment control and
communication purposes and as such is a resonated inductance coil. It helps in
blcoking out unwanted frequencies and noise from the carrier channels.

Fgure 9 Line trap

Calculation Data
If it is desired to reduce fault from Z to Y MVA by connecting the reactor in series.

2 1 1
Xi = U
Y Z
A x 1000
I=
3U
Y x 1000
Is =
3U
Q = I2 x X1 x 10-3

62
Where U = System voltage (kV)
A = System throughput power (MVA)
I = Reactor current (amperes)
Xi = Reactor reactance (ohms)
Q = Rating (kVAR per phase)
Is = Short time current (kilo-amperes)
General Consideration/Characteristics
(i) Linear Characteristic
The reactor should have linear characteristic which means a sttraight line
relationship between its current and voltage. Such a characteristic helps in limiting
current under system fault conditions. The advantages of this characteristics are
mentioned below:
(a) Expensive equipments are protected from failure due to excessive
mechanical stresses and heating caused by shortcircuits.
(b) Service on other parts of the system is not interrupted during a fault,
since the main bus voltage is not appreciably reduced.
(c) There is a reduction in the current interruption duty of circuit breaker,
thereby permitting the installation of circuit breaker of reduced rating.
However, it may be noted that in case of starting reactor it is not necessary to
have a linear characteristic as it is required for shorter duration and not for limiting
the short-circuit current.
(ii) Ability to Withstand Short-Circuit
Since the reactor is basically required to limit short-circuit current, mechanical
forces (radial and compressive forces) are taken care of during design by selecting
proper parameters of reactor and by proper clamping of the winding. reactor must
also be able to withstand short-circuit current from thermal point of view. The
maximum permissible value of temperature of the winding during a short-circuit is
given below as per IS:2026.
Class of Temperature ºC
Type Insulation Copper Aluminium
Oil A 250 200
Dry A 180 180
Dry E 250 200
Dry B 350 200
Dry F and H 350 -

63
(iii) Fully Insulated Winding
Series reactor is connected in series in the system and therefore both the ends
should be suitable to withstand lightning impulse voltage. This can be achieved by
having fully insulated winding.
(iv) Other Requirements
Rated continuous current and rated short-time currents are usually specified for
such reactors. the rated impedance, in ohms per phase, for such a reactor, usually
pertains to short-time current at rated frequency. rated impedance in such a case
is determined from the oscillogram records of the steady-state value of test voltage
and current during demonstration of dynamic ability in accordance with IS: 2026
(PartI) - 1977. This is classified as a special test. The routine test for impedance
measurement is doen at continuous current, if applicable. In case of reactor without
magnetic shield, this test also verifies the rated impedance (at short-time high
current). Measurement of loss applies only on reactor where continuous current is
specified.
Construction Features
Series reactors are manufactured in various way, some of them are described
below:
(i) Oil Immersed Coreless Reactor
Such a reactor can be manufactured for either indoor or outdoor services and in
general for oil immersed type, the reactor and its external appearance, fittings
and accessories closely follow established power transformer practice. A high
proportion of the magnetic flux due to the current in a reactor winding passes
through the coil itself. This flux would produce local eddy losses particularly at the
coil ends and could possibly cause local hot spots. To obviate the above condition
it is preferable to use thin stranded conductor and frequent transpositionin the
coils. Transposed cables are also sometimes preferred. Due to heavy concentration
of flux in and around the coil, non-magnetic materials are used except main tank
body. to achieve constant ohmic reactance during short-circuit conditions, usually
coreless construction with non-magnetic shielding of winding is provided. The
non-magnetic shield (generally made of aluminium or copper) is in the form of
cylinder and located around the winding. Eddy currents are induced in the shield,
which not only help in reducing the tank losses but also reduced any tendency for
the coil to bulge out during short-circuit.
(ii) Dry type coreless reactor
Dry Type reactor is usually cooled by natural ventilation but can also be designed
with forced air. Free circulation of air must be maintained to provide satisfactory
heat transfer.

64
Steel structures such as I beams, channels, plates and other metallic, members
either exposed or hidden should also be kept quite away from the reactor and also
they should not form closed circuit.
Winding conductor consistes of one or more cables, depending upon the current
capacity, wound in radial layers. Cross-overs between layers are made of minimize
the eddy losses. Aluminium conductor is normally used. Fibre glass insulation,
the density of which plays an important part in the overall rigid construction of
reactor, is adopted normally in the construction.
Porecelain insulators are used for achieving sufficient electrical clearance to ground.
It is desirable that some safety enclosure which protects the personnel and
equpment should be put around the reactor. The 3 phase unit can be made up of
3 single phase coils either stacked or arranged in one and the same plane. It is
non-inflammable and owing to its design, this equipment requires little supervision
during service. Maintenance is limited to clearing only.
2. Shunt Reactor
It extra high voltage networks, capacitive generation often creates problem during
operation at low loads and during switching operations. The severity of such
problems increases with higher system voltage, with extension of network and
with longer line sections. In most of the cases shunt reactors often represent an
economically and technically sound means of compensating part of the capacitive
generation.

Fgure 10 Dry type current limiting reactor

Types
The shunt reactor can be classified as follows:
(a) From the Service Point of View
– Normaly in service
– Switched in, switched off type

65
If reactor is kept normally in service, during peak load time the excitation of generator
can be increased and consequently the stability of the system. Under service fault
conditions the reactor may be switched off as a further measure to improve the
margins of stability. This disconnection momentarily increases the voltage of the
network. the use of shunt reactors in normal services may also result in poor
voltage levels in the underlying systems and increase system losses. Depending
upon loading condition, this may also necessitate installation of static compensator
banks for operation during peak load condition. Switched-in reactor is normally
used when system voltages are required to be controlled. the amount of reactance
to be switched in at a time must be limited to suitable value otherwise it may result
in objectionable voltage fluctuations in the entire system. For switching in and
switching off the shunt reactor, protective gears should be more reliable. The
switched in, switched out type of reactor is sometimes connected to a low voltage
tertiary winding of a large transformer. the tertiary connected low voltage reactor
is obviously cheaper. But, it causes extra losses in the transformer. Its rated voltage
must be carefully selected because of the large voltage drop in the series reactance
of the transformer between high voltage and tertiary winding.
(b) From the Construction Point of View
– Coreless (magnetically shielded)
– Gapped core (Refer Clause Construction)
General Consideration/Characteristics
Following characteristics are required to be considered:
(a) Highest System Voltage and Linearity
Normally the rated voltage for a reactor is defined on the highest system voltage
unless otherwise sated. Most of the specification requrie that the impedance of
the reactor shall be linear to a certain level above rated voltage.
The maganetization curve of the reactor is a relation between crest values of
current and flux. In order to avoid harmonic current generation under system over
voltage conditions or the risk of non-linear ferroresonance of heavy inrush currents,
shunt reactor should have constant impedance up to about 1.3 times rated voltage.
sometimes, constant impedance up to 1.5 times is specified. Furthermore, the
impedance should be accurately balanced between phases of 3 phase reactor.
The acceptable tolerance on the current of any single reactor at rated voltage is,
according to IEC Pub. 289, ±5 per cent of the rated current. Any one phase may
deviate from the mean off all three phases by ± percent.
(b) Losses
The total losses in a shunt reactor from economical reasons should be as low as
possible. Low loss design with natural cooling generally works out to be more
economical. the tan delta figure of large reactors is in the range of 0.30 per cent
down to 0.15 per cent at the highest capitilisation.
66
(c) Zero Phase Sequence Impedance
The requirement of zero phase sequence impedance is dependent upon the system
conditions. If this is 90 to 100% of positive sequence impedance, coreless design
with magnetically shielded or 5 limbed gapped core reactor is most suitable. If this
value is not very much important or a value of about 50 to 60% of positive sequence
impedance is permissible, the 3 limbed gapped core reactor may be used.
(d) Single-phase or Three-phase Units
Large rating reactor sometimes poses problems of testing. To overcome the above
problem, banks of 3 single phase units are most suitable. Further, the banks of
three single phase units have the following advantages:
– Zero phase sequence impedance is equal to positive sequence impedance.
– Spare unit requirement will be only one single phase reactor instead of a 3
phase reactor.
There phase reactors are manufactured for system voltages of 400 kV and below.
It is technically feasible to extend the range up to 500 and 800 kV, but this has not
been done yet. The reactors in 800 kV class are usually banks of single phase
units installed with a spare reactor available in the station.
Construction
(a) Core-less
In a core-less reactor there is no magnetic material inside the coil and the
dimensions of the windign are identical to those of the air gap volume, which
imposes restrictions on the geometrical proportions. the winding must be made
wide and flat, so that the magnetic flux path length is limited. The flux density in
practice is much lower than in the gapped core design and the total volume is
larger for a given reactive power rating. Flux with full intensity penetrates the inner
turns of the winding and gives rise to relatively high eddy current losses. the flux
density then sinks gradually towards the periphery of the coil, where it approaches
zero. The average circumference of the coil is appreciably larger than for the
gapped core reactor and the widing losses tend to be higher.
Core-less designs have a varietyof alternative constructional arrangements.
In USA, there has been frequent use of open, dry type coils (Previously of concrete
type). These are applied at low system voltages for the compensation of cable
systems. The design is practically the same as for a current limiting reactor but it
is larger in dimensions.
Another design consists of a cylindrical coil with vertical axis, placed in a cylindrical
oil tank. The tank is lined with strips of core steel which serve as maganetic shielding
for the returnign flux outside the coil. The whole coil volume is "air gap'.

67
Two cylindrical coils placed side by side between an upper and a lower yoke of
core steel form a single phase reactor where the flux goes upward in one coil and
dowen in the other. the coil volumes are air gap. Three coils side by side in the
same manner make a 3 phase reactor. A compact non-circular pancake stack,
surrounded by a rigid frame of coresteel forms a type of reactor which is often
referred to as "shell form", because of its similarity in shanpe and coil design with
a shell form transformer. The principle of shell type reactors gives the possibility
of arranging each phase in its own magnetic box.
Another type of construction without yokes, is a triangular conformation of coils
with the axis of each coil at the corners of a triangle (Fig. 11). These is no yoke.
The top and bottom of the tank are screened from the coil flux by plates of high
conductivity material. Magnetic shields consisting of core pockets of core steel
laminations, alloaround the tank, restrict the flux linkage with tanbk thus reducing
stray losses and heating of tank.
(b) Gapped Core Reactor
The achieve high impedance of reactor in a core type construction gaps having
suitable size are inserted in the magnetic circuit. The required effective length of
the magnetic field is mainly dependent on the dimension of the distributed gaps in
the iron core and is largely independent of winding axial height. The magnetic
field of gapped core is controlled by means of gaps. Compared with magnetically
shielded coreless reactors, gapped core reactors can be operated at higher flux
density, the selection of which is dependent upon the requirement of linear
characteristic. Core elements are constructed by using CRGO laminations. Various
types of assembly of laminations are possible. Conventional type (transformer
core sectin), involute disc type and radially arranged moulded types are normally
employed to make the core elements. In modern reactors, moulded type radial
core sectiosn moulded in epoxy resin to prevent movement between individual
laminations are commonly used. The radial laminations prevent fringing flux from
entering flat surfaces of core steel, which would result in eddy current overheating
and hot spots.

Fgure 11 Sectional arrangement of coreless shunt reactor

68
Stiff material having very high dimensional stability
under pressure and hihg temperature conditions are
used, to form gaps between core elements. The core
segments are accurately stacked and cemented/glued
together to make a solid core limb column. Top and
bottom yokes are butt or mitre jointed with legs. the
core elements are tightened under high pressure by
tie rods and clamping beams which maintain the
pressure on core elements.

Fgure 12 Conventional type core

Noise and vibration Problem

The magnetic field creates pulsating forces across air gaps which amount to tens
of tons. the reactor cores should, therefore, be very stiff to eliminate objectionalble
vibrations. the spacers supporting the air gaps should be of still material (usually
ceramic blocks or stone spacers) with a high modulus of elasticity so that their
dimensional stability is maintained and the core does not become loose. Besides
the gapped legs, care is also taken in the design of core frame. The fundamental
mechanical resonance mode of the reactor frame must be designed to fall away
from twice the power frequency.

Fgure 13 Gapped core with radially

laminated core segment

The vibrations of active part are transferred to teh tank through mechanical contact
at the bottom and also through the oil. sometimes, antivibration pads are used
between active part and tank bottom. The tank walls set up a complex pattern of
vibrations, and there are possibilities forresonance of individual panels between
stiffener beams.
A large vibration amplitude in the middle of a large panel of thin sheet may be less
objectionable thant a small amplitude on thicker material. The resulting dynamic
stress in tank and cover should be limited to less than 20 N/mm2. Maximum vibration
(double amplitude) on tank wall at rated voltage should not exceed 0.2mm.

69
Customer specifications also frequently specify sound levels and the values are
selected in analogy with those specified for transformers with same MVA ratign
and BIL. NEMA TR-1 recommended levels for transformers are generally
applicable.
In the early days of shunt reactor design the noise and vibration problems caused
great concern to the users and manufacturers. Sound level proved to be intolerable,
and tanks developed oil leaks or even cracked open due to vibration fatigue along
weld seams. In modern designs, both gapped core and coreless with magnetic
shields, these problems have been well sorted out. High degree of dimensional
accuracy is required while manufacturing the core to obtain reactance and phase
currents within permissible limits.
Calculation Data
A reactor absorbs magnetic field energy. the energy per unit volume, or energy
density in the field is

B.H B2
=
2 2µµ0
The energy desnity shall be low, in core steel with high permeability. The energy
storage is concentrated in volumes with µ=1, i.e. in air gaps. In a gapped core
reactor, this storage volume consists of gaps which are introduced in the magnetic
circuit and in a coreless or "shell form" reactor, the whole volume inside the magnetic
sheild represents the energy storage.
Assume for simplicity, homogeneous field in the total volume. The peak value of
energy storage in the reactor is then,

B2
W= (Gap volume)
2µ0
Where B = peak value of flux density at current maximum. In terms of circuit
elements
2
W = LI = LI2
2
Where I = rms value of current
Rated reactive power

B2
Q = ωLI2 = ωW =ω . [gap volume]
2µ0
The gapped core design is based on high flux density in a relatively small gap
volume.

70
Also, Field energy per unit volume

B2
P=
2µ0 = Magnetic pulling force

3. Neutral Earthing Reactor

Modern systems normally operate with their neutral points grounded. Neutral
earthing reactor is one of the means to ground the neutral. there is no idea in
purposely increasing the grounding reactance of the system beyond that required
to keep currents within non-destructive range, except of course for the special
case of ground fault neutralizers used in resonant grounding.
In the transmission systems which require single pole opening and reclosing of
the EHV lines from the consideration of transient stability, successful single pole
reclosing requires that extinction of secondary arc and the deionization of arc
path in faulty phase shoud occur before reclosing is effected. In this case it may
be necessary to reduce secondary arc current and thus may call for compensation
of phase to phase and phase to ground capacitance of the line. In EHV reactor
and the earth. Studies carried out have indicated that for 400 kV lines, basic
insulation level of 550 kVp may be adequate for the line terminal of neutral reactor.
The neutral earthing reactor is classified under the category of current. For this
reactor, no rated continuous current is applicable, unless otherwise specified. The
reactor should withstand without undue heating or excessive mechanical stresses
when short time current is carried for a specified duration which is usually 10 sec.
Measurement of loss applies only when a continuous current is specified. Induced
over voltage withstand test purported to be routine test is to be carried out at twice
the voltage occurring across the winding at rated short time current. In lieu of this
test, lightning impulse test is conducted and the impulse is applied to the terminal
which is to be connected to transformer or shunt reactor neutral, whereas the
other terminal is earthed. The duration of the front time in such a case is permitted
up to 13 microseconds.
4. Tuning for Filter Reactors
Tuning reactors have been defined as those reactors in a.c. systems which are
connected with capacitors to tuned filter circuits with resonance in the audio
frequency range for reducing, blocking or filtering harmonics or communication
frequencies. These reactors can be connected either in parallel configuration in
the system or in series configuration and can be oil immersed or dry type. Usually
these reactors are designed with means for adjusting the inductance value within
a limited range by means of tappings or by movement of core and/or coils. Tuning
reactors have rated quantities viz. continuous current, voltage, inductance, Q factor
at tuning frequencies.

71
5. Arc Suppression Reactors
Arc suppression reactors are single phase reactors used to compensate for the
capacitive current occurring in the case of line-to-earth faults in a system with an
insulated neutral. they are connected between the neutral of a power transformer
or an earthing transformer and earth in a three-phase system. Sometimes a low
voltage secondary winding is provided for connection of a loading resistor or for
measuring purpose. Arc suppression reactors are usually specified with their
inductance variable either in steps or continuously over a specified range to permit
tuning with the network capacitance. Adjustment of reactance can be accomplished
in one of the following ways:
(a) by adding additional sections of winding in finite steps with an off-load or
on-load tapchanger.
(b) by adjusting the air gap of the magnetic circuit by mechanical means.
Compared to a neutral grounding reactor, arc suppression coils have closer
tolerances of rated current and currents at other adjustments. Further a higher
duration of rated current is envisaged and temperature these limits are specified
for continuous, 2 h and 30 minutes durations.
6. Earthing Transformers (Neutral Couplers)
Earthing transformers are three phase transformers or reactors and are used to
provide an artificial neutral for earthing of a system.
Earthing transformers ar eusually connected in zigzag. Sometimes, a secondary
(low voltage) winding having a continuous rated power for station auxiliary supply
is provided.
7. Standards on Reactors
Indian Standard 5553 'Reactors' is the governing standard on reactors. This is in
line with IEC 60289 (1988) reactors. It comprise of 8 parts instead of 3 parts of
1970 as follows:
Part I : 1989 - General
Part II : 1990 - Shunt reactors
Part III : 1990 - Current limiting reactors and Neutral earthing reactors
Part IV : 1989 - Damping reactors
Part V : 1989 - Tuning or Filter reactors
Part VI : 1990 - Earthing transformers (Neutral Couplers)
Part VII : 1990 - Arc suppression reactors
Part VIII : 1990 - Smoothing reactors.

72
Almost entrie range of important reactors are now covered. Special purpose
reactors like high frequency line taps or reactors mounted on rolling stock are,
however, not covered.
First revision of IS : 2026 (Part I to IV) is a necessary adjunct to IS : 5553.
References have been made to this standard at several places specially for
temperature rises and ambient conditions, dielectric requirements and testing
methods.
Transformer Standards
All transformer standards wherever applicable are also applied to reactors. A few
to mention are:
(i) IS : 335 - 1993 : Specification for New Insulating Oil (Fourth Revision)
(ii) IS : 1866 -2000 : Code of Practice for Electrical Maintenance and
Supervision of Mineral Insulating Oil in Equipment (Third Revision)
(iii) IS : 2099-1986 : Specification for Bushings for Alternating voltages above
1000 volts: (Second Revision)
CEA Report
The CEA report of "The committee for standardization of the parameters and
specifications of major items of 400 kV substation equipment and transmission
line materials" has standardized the specifications of 420 kV shunt reactors.
Presently, requiremetn of 50, 63 and 80 MVAR reactors in Indian systems have
been envisaged and, therefore, only these ratings have been standardized. 1300
kVp lighting and 1050 kVp switching impulse withstand levels have been specified
for these reactors. The neutral terminal of these star connected reactors is earthed
directly when 3 pole opening and reclosing of 400 kV transmission line is practised.
In case of single pole opening and autoreclosing of lines, a neutral reactor is used
for earthing the neutral terminal. In such a case a BIL of 550 kVp is considered
necessary for the neutral terminal of shunt reactor.
The CEA report specifies 1.5 linearity for the V/I characteristic. X0/X1 ratio has
been specified to be between 0.9 to 1.0. A maximum value of vibrations has been
fixed as 200 microns anywhere on the tank surface and the resulting permissible
stress is 2 kg/mm2.

73
 Chapter -15
Testing of Transformers and
Reactors

Testing is an important activity in the manufacture of any equipment. While

certain preliminary tests carried out at different stages of manufacture provide an
effective tool which assures quality and conformation to design calculations, the
final tests on fully assembled equipment guarantee the suitability of the equipment
for satisfactory performance in service. The basic testing requirements and testing
codes are set out in the national and international standards. This chapter, however,
is intended to cover the purpose and the methodology of performing the tests.
With a view to cover detailed information about impulse and partial discharge
tests, which are of great importance, separate sections have been devoted to
these tests. A separate section has been specifically devoted for short-circuit testing
of transformers which is a special test having significance in the transformer’s
reliable service. Also, the specific requirements of reactor testing have been dealt
with in a separate section. All other tests and temperature-rise test on power
transformer are described in the first section. Thus, the chapter has been divided
into following five sections:
1 Testing of power Transformers
Preliminary tests are carried out on the transformer before it is put into the
tank. Final tests are carried out on completely assembled transformer.
1.1 Preliminary Tests
Following tests are carried out in the works at different stages, before the
core and coil assembly of the transformer is placed in its tank. These checks help
in detecting any fault at an early stage.
(a) Core Insulation
After the core is assembled, 2 kV test is done to ensure that the insulation
between clamp plates, core bolts and core is adequate.

74
(b) Core loss Test
This is conducted in the core assembly to ensure its soundness. Some
turns are wound over the core and it is energized at normal flux density. Coreloss
and magnetizing current are noted and compared with design value.
(c) Check of Ratio, Polarity, Vector Relationship and Winding Resistance
of Transformer Assembly
Ratio test is conducted to ensure the correctness of voltage ratio between
different windings on each tapping. The tolerance allowed for ratio is + 0.5% of
the declared ratio or + 10% of the percentage impedance voltage, whichever is
smaller. The latter tolerance limit is not applicable for auto-transformers and booster
transformers, where impedance value is small. In order to get accurate ratio, a
ratiometer is employed. It also indicates the polarity of transformer windings.
For a three-phase transformer, it is more usual to carry out a vector
relationship test, in which one of the high-voltage and low-voltage line terminals
are jointed together as shown in Fig. 1. Three-phase 400 V supply is connected
across high voltage line terminals.

Figure-1. Vector relationship test for star-delta (YN, d11) connected

step-down transformer.

Voltages between terminals 2U–1N, 2V–1N, 1U–1N, 2V–1V, 2W–1W and

2V–1W are measured.
For YN, d11 vector relationship
2U–1N>2V–1N>1U–1N
2V–1W>2V–1V or 2W–1W
The vector relationship for any other group can be checked in a similar
manner.
The dc resistance of each winding is measured by Kelvin’s double bridge
to check that there is no faulty joint.

75
(d) Preliminary Load Loss and Impedance Voltage Measurement
Preliminary load loss and impedance measurements at reduced current
are carried out to ensure that these are within guaranteed limits.
1.2 Final Tests
The completely assembled transformer is tested in accordance with the
International Standards. The tests comrise the following:
(a) Routine tests
(i) Measurement of winding resistance
(ii) Measurement of voltage ratio and check of voltage vector relationship
(iii) Measurement of impedance voltage (principal tapping) short circuit
impedance and load loss
(iv) Measurement of no load loss and current
(v) Measurement of insulation resistance
(vi) Dielectric tests
(vii) Tests on-load tapchangers (where appropriate)
(b) Type tests
All the tests listed as above and the temperature rise test and Dielectric type tests.
(c) Special tests
(i) Dielectric special tests.
(ii) Measurement of zero-sequence impedance of three-phase
transformers
(iii) Short-circuit test
(iv) Measurement of acoustic noise level
(v) Measurement of harmonics of the no load current
(vi) Measurement of power taken by the fans and oil pumps
(vii) Measurement of capacitances between windings to earth and between
windings.
(viii)Measurement of transferred surge voltage on low voltage windings.
(ix) Measurement of insulation resistance to earth of the windings, or
measurement of dissipation factor (tan delta) of the insulation system
capacitances.

76
 Chapter -16
Capacitor
1. General:

Capacitor is an important element of power system. It is used in power network to

improve the quality of power supply by improving the power factor/ voltage.

There are many advantages of installing capacitor. Some of these are:

(1) It is 50 times cheaper than generation of equal power.
(2) Improvement in power factor and reduction in penalty due to lagging power
factor.
(3) Saving of power.

2. Product Range:
Product Rating
H.T. Capacitors for Power Factor 3.3 kV to 11 kV, delta connected
Correction (Motor Capacitors) capacitor banks.
H.T. Capacitors for Shunt, Series & SVC 3.3 kV to 500 kV, Single phase / three
(Static Var compensation), Harmonic phase Capacitor Banks
filter and HVDC Application.
CVT for metering, protection and Power 33 kV to 400 kV, 4400 pF to 13200 pF.
Line Carrier communication (PLCC). Developed 800 kV, 8800 pF CVT.&
1200 kV, 2000 pF
Coupling Capacitor for Power Line 33 kV to 400 kV
Carrier Communication (PLCC) 4400 pF to 13200 pF
Surge Capacitor for protection of 11 kV to 40 kV
Generator and Transformers 0.125 to 0.25 µF

77
3. Technological Developments since 1961
Year Collaboration Technology Losses Weight
from (Watts/kVAr) Kg/kVAr
1961-69 BICC, UK Paper+Mineral oil 3.5 3.00
1969-74 BICC, UK Paper+PCB 1.2 1.05
1973-83 GE, USA Mixed Dielectric + PCB 0.7 0.70
1983-87 GE, USA Mixed Dielectric + Non 0.45 0.50
PCB
1987-88 GE, USA All PP Film + Non PCB 0.2 < 0.40
1988- ABB, Sweden All PP Film + Non PCB < 0.15 < 0.35
onwards Internal fuse design

4. Classification Of Capacitors.

A) Based On Application:-
i) Shunt Capacitors For Power Factor Improvement
ii) Series Capacitors For Reactive Compensation and Voltage Regulation
iii) Filter Capacitors For Harmonic Filtering
iv) Capacitor Voltage For PLCC, Metering & Protection
Transformer
v) Surge Capacitors For protection of Generator and Transformer
Winding

B) Based On Protection:-

i) Internal Fuse
ii) External Fuse

C) Based On Configuration:-

i) Star connected
ii) Double Star connected
iii) Delta connected
iv) Single phase Bridge connected

A) Based On Application:-
The detail description of each type are given below.

78
i) SHUNT CAPACITORS

Inductive loads having magnetic fields for their functioning require lagging
magnetizing kVAr. The current drawn by the inductive load will lag the ap-
plied voltage by an angle called the power factor angle. If the power factor
is low, the demand for reactive kVAr will be more Active Power will be sup-
plied by Generators and Reactive Power by proper control of excitation of
synchronous generators, transmission lines due to its capacitance effect
and by local injection with capacitors. For improving the power factor, kVAr
can be supplied either by synchronous condenser, being over excited syn-
chronous motor or by static capacitor. Synchronous Generators, when un-
der excited will absorb kVAr and work as a reactor.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

SHUNT CAPACITORS

Advantages of Providing Capacitors in Shunt with Load

1. Reduces lagging component of circuit current.

2. Increases voltage level at load and improves voltage regulation.
3. Reduces I R and I X power losses because of reduction in current.
4. Increases power factor of source generators.
5. Decreases loading on source generators and circuits to relieve and over-
loaded condition or release capacity for additional load growth.
6. Reduces demand kVAr where power is purchased (HT services) and re-
duces investment in system facilities per KW of load supplied.
7. Smooth running of motors.

79
ii) SERIES CAPACITOR

When the capacitors are connected in series with the system it is called
Series Capacitor.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

SERIES CAPACITORS

ADVANTAGES:-

1. It offers the most economical solution with respect to both the steady state
and the transient stability.
2. Better reactive power balance.
3. It is effective with added voltage regulationwhen the pf is low.
4. It reduces the voltage drop by compensating line reactance and reduces
sending end kVAr demand by compensating I2 XL component of the line.
5. It provides better flexibility. Losses are dependent on line areas and cur-
rent distribution. The proper R/X ratio giving the minimum transmission
losses during the development stages of a power system can be easily
achieved by means of adjusting series capacitors.

iii) FILTER CAPACITOR

The capacitors are connected in combination of reactors and resistors to

form filter capacitor. It is used for filtering harmonics present in the system.
It is generally used in HVDC application where large amount of harmonics
are generated by Thyristor.

80
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
FILTER CAPACITORS

iv) CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER

Capacitor voltage transformer is used for PLCC and metering and protec-
tion of the line. Capacitor divider is a part of CVT. Coupling capacitor is
used only for PLCC application.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

(CVD)

81
v) SURGE CAPACITOR

Surge capacitor is used for protection of winding of generators and trans-

formers by reducing rate of rise of surges.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
S U R G E C A P A C ITO R S

B) Based On Protection:-
i) INTERNAL FUSE
In this type of capacitors, each element of the capacitor unit is connected to the
individual fuse in series.

Bushing

DISCHARGE
RESISTOR
CAPACITOR
ELEMENT

82
i) EXTERNAL FUSE
In this type of capacitor, the fuse is connected externally to the unit.
M8X16 SCRU HEX.
PUNCH WASHER & SPRING.WASHER

003

007
008

004

Fuse Strip
005

006
UNIT BUSHING
FIXING DETAILS OF
EXPULSION FUSE ASSY.

The comparison between internal fuse and external fuse is given below:-

S.N INTERNAL FUSES EXTERNAL FUSES

1 In case of internal fuse capacitor, If In case of external fuse capacitor
One element fails, internal fuse units, the fuse operates even if
operates and Isolates the faulty one element develops fault. The
element and the bank continues to series section of that branch will
operate at reduced kVAr rating get short circuited & it will lead to
(Approx. 98%) complete failure (0 %).
2 Internal fusing is inherently Here fuse protects the complete
superior from Reliability point of unit and hence it is less reliable.
view as the internal fuse protects
many sub section (elements)
3 The disconnecting fuse in the unit 1 or 2 fuse operation disturbs the
does not affect the total output of performance of entire bank
the capacitor bank appreciably.
4 The service & maintenance can be Non schedule maintenance is
scheduled in advance after alarm required.
indication.
5 Bank is compact & occupies less Bank is not compact & occupies
space. more space.
6 Design of capacitor unit with Unit size limited as the fuse for
internal fuse can be carried to higher kVAr rating not available
practically any unit size. There is beyond 100 Amps.
no theoretical upper limit of unit
size.
7 Most suitable for HVDC / Filter Not suitable for HVDC / Filter
applications. application as the element failure
will completely fail the unit de
tuning will have to be carried out

83
5. Design Aspects of Capacitors
Capacitors are designed based on the following factors:

i) Application.
ii) Rated System Voltage.
iii) Capacitance / kVAr rating.
iv) Type of Capacitor Bank protection.
v) Type of Fuse.

i) Application:
Capacitor Bank is designed based on the application of capacitor. For Power
Factor improvement, Shunt capacitor is used which is connected in parallel with
the line. Similarly for Series Capacitors which is used for Voltage improvement of
long transmission line, the capacitor is connected in Series.

ii) Rated System Voltage:

The Design of Capacitor Bank depends on Rated System Voltage. The voltage of
Capacitor units is low due to design limits (less than 20 kV). These units are
connected in series to get the required capacitor bank voltage. For very high sys-
tem voltage i.e. more than 220 kV, special arrangement for Corona Protection is
required.

iii) Capacitance / kVAr rating:

Capacitance / kVAr rating is required for designing the capacitor Bank. Capacitor
units are connected in parallel to get the required bank Capacitance.

iv) Type of Capacitor Bank protection

The design of Capacitor depends on the type of Bank protection. Generally fol-
lowing types of Bank protections are used.

a) Single star connection

The capacitor banks are connected in single star configuration. Residual voltage
transformer (RVT) is connected for capacitor bank protection.

b) Double star connection.

The capacitor banks are connected in split star / Double star configuration. Neu-
tral current transformer (NCT) is connected to neutrals of the 2 star. Any unbal-
ance in capacitance due to failure of capacitor unit is detected by NCT and Ca-
pacitor bank is automatically switched OFF.

c) Bridge (H) Connection.

This connection is used for protection of single phase Capacitor bank. This con-
figuration is generally used for Series Capacitor / Filter Capacitor.

84
6. Manufacturing Flow Chart of Capacitor Bank

PP Film Al. Foil

Element Winding

Element Testing

Internal Fuse Assy.

Pack Testing

DR Connection with Pack DR Assy

Insulation Wrapping
Box Fabrication Steel

Boxing

Lid Welding
PXE Processing PXE
Impregnation

Routine Testing

Painting
Steel Racks
Bank / Rack Assy.

Bank / Rack Testing

Dispatch

85
7. List of Major materials for manufacturing of Capacitor

i) Dielectric Material:

- Polypropylene Film of 9 µM to 15 µM thickness.

- Tissue paper of 12 µM thickness for CVT application.

ii) Electrode:

High purity Aluminium Foil of 5 µM thickness

iii) Dielectric Fluid:

Phenyl Xylyl Ethane (PXE)

iv) Discharge Resistors :

Discharge Resistors are used to discharge the capacitor unit to

50 volts within 10 min for the safety of the personnel as well as for
the protection of Capacitors.

v) Capacitor Box :

Cold Rolled / Stainless Steel having thickness of 1.6 mm / 1.5 mm re-

spectively

v) Bushings :

The Capacitor terminations are taken out by weldable Capacitor bushings

having voltage rating in accordance with the unit rating.

vi) Capacitor Mounting Arrangement:

Capacitor units are mounted on the Galvanised or painted racks. The

Galvanising and painting thickness is more than 85 microns.

vii) Flexible Conductor :

The unit to unit connection is done by flexible copper conductor of different

sizes 50 Sq. mm, 120 Sq. mm or as per the Capacitor bank current require-
ment.

86
i. Bottom & Inter rack Insulators :

The bottom and inter rack insulators are used to provide insulation be-
tween phases of the bank and phase to earth clearance.

8. List of Capacitor Products & their National & International

Standards
Sl. No. Product IS IEC
1. Shunt Capacitor 13925 60871
2. Series Capacitor 9835 60143
3. Coupling Capacitor & CVD 9348 358
4. Surge Capacitor 11548 -

9. ROUTINE & TYPE TEST ON CAPACITORS AS PER IS

13925(1998)
A) ROUTINE TEST:
Sl. No. Test Procedure
1. Measurement of Capacitance is measured at rated voltage.
Capacitance
2. Capacitor Loss tangent Capacitance is measured at rated voltage.
(Tan d) measurement at
rated voltage.
3. Voltage test between 4.3 times the rated voltage in DC is applied
terminals between the terminal for 10 sec.
4. AC test between An AC Voltage depending on the BIL level of the
terminals and container. unit is applied between shorted terminals and
container for 10 Sec. This test is applicable only
for units having all terminals insulated.

5. Test of discharge device. Discharge resistance shall be measured. The DR

shall be suitable to discharge to less than 50
volts from an initial peak voltage of 2 times the
rated voltage after disconnecting from supply.
The maximum discharge time shall be 10 min
6. Sealing test. A sealing test shall be carried out to demonstrate
that the Impregnant does not leak from the
capacitor. The test shall be carried out at 80 ± 5
° C for a period of 4 hours after attaining the
container temperature of 80 ± 5 °C.

87
a. TYPE TEST:
Sl. No. Test Procedure
1. Thermal Stability Test a) Capacitor Units are placed inside the
oven having 55 ± 2°C.
b) An A.C. voltage equal to 1.2 Un is
applied for 48 hours.
c) The value of tan delta measured during
last 10 hours shall not increase by
1 x 10-4. Capacitance is measured at
rated voltage.
2. Capacitor loss tangent Capacitor Loss tangent is measured after
(Tan delta) measurement 48 hours of stabilization or at the end of
at elevated temperature Thermal Stability Test.
3. AC voltage test between An AC Voltage depending on the BIL level
terminals and container of the unit is applied between shorted
terminals and container for 1 min. This test
is applicable only for units having all
terminals insulated.
4. Lightning Impulse An Impulse Voltage depending on the BIL
voltage test between level of the unit is applied between shorted
shorted terminals and terminals and container. This test is
container. applicable only for units having all
terminals insulated.
5. Short Circuit Discharge a) 2.5 times the rated voltage in DC is
Test. applied between the terminals and then
discharged through a gap situated as
close as possible to the capacitor. The
unit shall be subjected to give 5 such
discharges within 10 min.
b) Within 5 min after this test , the unit
shall be subjected to 4.3 times the rated
voltage between terminals for 10 sec.

88
10. Do’s & Don’ts:
Sl. No. Do’s Don’t
1. During Operation Periods Do not switch ON the Banks if
Checking once in 3 Month electrical clearance is not meeting.
Check the Banks for any
leakage from the unit once in a
3 month
2. Check for tightness of fuse Do not keep the leaky units in open
connection (in case of external area and in horizontal condition.
fuse only) Motor capacitors
banks are mostly externally
fuse only.
3. Check for electrical clearance.Do not switch ON the Capacitor Bank
if the capacitances of all phases are
not balanced.
4. Replace the leaky unit (if In any case do not run the capacitor
found) by spare units. Leaky bank with leaky unit.
unit should be stored in a
clean dry place under shed
after covering it with
Polythene.
5. Clean the post insulators and
Capacitor bushings.

6. In the unit has failed then

check the fuses. If any of the
fuse found blown then in that
case a particular unit should
be disconnected and checked
for details.

11. Common Troubles, Causes & Remedies

Capacitor once installed and operated as recommended here should give long
and trouble free service. However the following causes and remedies are given
below to take appropriate action:

89
 Symptoms Cause Remedy
Leakage of oil Minor transit damage, Apply Araldite or M seal or Meca
leak in weld / terminal tec compound after thorough
cap. cleaning & abrading by emery
cloth. If leakage does not stop
replace the unit and refer to us.
Abnormal Bulging Capacitor oil almost Disconnect unit and store in a
leaked out. Gas covered area in vertical
formation due to internal condition and refer to us.
arcing causing unit to
bulge or burst.
Cracking Noise Partial internal faults Disconnect the unit and refer to
BHEL Bhopal

400 kV Series Capacitor Bank

500 kV Filter Capacitor for HVDC

90
 Chapter -17
Instrument Transformers

1 INTRODUCTION:

The Instrument Transformers are an important part of the Power transmission/

distribution network. These are used in large numbers for protection of Power
lines, busbars, transformers etc. & for range extension of measuring instruments
such as Voltage, Current, and Power etc. The reliability of Instrument transformer
warrants that it should require least maintenance. Therefore, Instrument trans-
formers in H.V and U.H.V systems are generally oil filled and hermetically sealed
units.

The application of instrument transformers is mainly for:

● To transform currents or voltages from a high value to a conveniently lower

value for feeding to meters & relays.
● To insulate the secondary low voltage circuit from the primary high voltage
system.
● To provide for standardizing the instruments and relays to a few rated cur-
rents and voltages.

Instrument transformers are special types of transformers intended to measure

currents and voltages. The theory for transformers is applicable:

2 Types of Instrument Transformers

Instrument Transformers are subdivided as:

● Current Transformers (CTs)
● Voltage Transformers ........(VT)

VTs are again of two types

Magnetic Voltage Transformers (MVT)
Capacitor Voltage Transformers (CVT)

91
BHELs current range of manufacture cover C.Ts and CVTs up to 400 kV and
EMVTs up to 220 kV class.

2.1 Current Transformer

Current Transformers are single phase units used for monitoring the current for
the purpose of metering and protection. A current transformer is, different from
power or voltage transformers. Here, the primary is connected in series with the
network, where the current is to be measured. In general the primary and second-
ary currents are unaffected by the secondary burden.

The equivalent circuit diagram used for power transformers is applicable for CT
analysis except that instead of a voltage source here the driving is by a current
source.

An ideal Current Transformer is one in which the primary ampere-turns are ex-
actly equal in magnitude to the secondary ampere-turns and further, are in pre-
cise phase opposition to them.

Thus, Np Ip = Ns Is
where,
Np = Number of primary turns
Ns = Number of secondary turns

The Current Transformer(CT) introduces errors in transformation that are defined

by relevant standards as:

Current Error (Ratio Error)

The error which a transformer introduces into the measurement of a current and
which arises from the fact that the actual transformation ratio is not equal to the
rated transformation ratio

The current error expressed in percent is given by the formula:

Kn I s − I p
Current Error = × 100
Ip
where,
Kn is the rated transformation ratio;
Ip is the actual primary current;
Is is the actual secondary current when Ip is flowing, under the conditions
of measurement.

92
Phase Displacement
The difference in phase between the primary and secondary current vectors, the
direction of the vectors being so chosen that the angle is zero for a perfect trans-
former. The phase displacement is said to be positive when the secondary current
vector leads the primary current vector. It is usually expressed in minutes or
centiradians.

The following are some of the terms used for CTs

● Rated short-time thermal current (Ith)

The r.m.s. value of the primary current which a transformer will withstand
for one second without suffering harmful effects, the secondary winding being
short-circuited.

● Rated dynamic current (Idyn)

The peak value of the primary current which a transformer will withstand,
without being damaged electrically or mechanically by the resulting electromag-
netic forces, the secondary winding being short-circuited.
The value of the rated dynamic current (Idyn) shall normally be 2.5 times
the rated short-time thermal current (Ith)

● Rated continuous thermal current (Icth)

The value of the current which can be permitted to flow continuously in the
primary winding, the secondary winding being connected to the rated burden,
without the temperature rise exceeding the values specified

● Exciting current
The r.m.s. value of the current taken by the secondary winding of a current
transformer, when a sinusoidal voltage of rated frequency is applied to the sec-
ondary terminals, the primary and any other windings being open-circuited.

Application of Current Transformers

Current Transformers are further classified from application point into:

Measuring or Metering CTs, and

Protective CTs

93
The duty of the Metering CTs requires higher accuracy over the normal operating
current range.
and,
The duty of the Protective CTs requires specified accuracy for correct reproduc-
tion during the passage of the abnormal current through primary due to system
fault conditions.

Metering CTs
Accuracy classes for metering application are:
0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 3 and 5 and
0.2S, 0.5S

For classes 0.1, 0.2, 0.5 and 1.0:

The operating range is from 5% to 120% (Up to Extended Current if de-
fined) of rated primary current

For classes 0.2S and 0.5S

The operating range is from 1% to 120% (Up to Extended Current if de-
fined) of rated primary current

For classes 3 & 5:

This range is from 50% to 120% of rated primary current

Limits of current error and phase displacement for measuring current trans-
formers

For classes 0.1 - 0.2 - 0.5 and 1, the current error and phase displacement
at rated frequency shall not exceed the values given in table 1 when the second-
ary burden is any value from 25 % to 100 % of the rated burden.

For classes 0.2S and 0.5S, the current error and phase displacement at
the rated frequency shall not exceed the values given in table 2 when the second-
ary burden is any value from 25% and 100% of the rated burden.

94
 For class 3 and class 5, the current error at rated frequency shall not ex-
ceed the values given in table 3 when the secondary burden is any value from
50% to 100% of the rated burden.
Table 1 – Limits of current error and phase displacement for
measuring current transformers (classes from 0.1 to 1)
Accuracy ± Percentage current (ratio) ± Phase displacement in
class error at percentage of rated Minutes at percentage of rated
current shown below current shown below
5 20 100 120 5 20 100 120
0.1 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 15 8 5 5
0.2 0.75 0.35 0.2 0.2 30 15 10 10
0.5 1.5 0.75 0.5 0.5 90 45 30 30
1.0 3.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 180 90 60 60

Table 2 – Limits of current error and phase displacement for

measuring current transformers for special application
Accuracy ± Percentage current (ratio) ± Phase displacement in
class error at percentage of rated Minutes at percentage of rated
current shown below current shown below
1 5 20 100 120 1 5 20 100 120
0.2S 0.75 0.35 0.2 0.2 0.2 30 15 10 10 10
0.5S 1.5 0.75 0.5 0.5 0.5 90 45 30 30 30

Table 3 – Limits of current error for measuring current

transformers (classes 3 and 5)
Class ± Percentage current (ratio) error at
percentage of rated current shown below
50 120
3 3 3
5 5 5

95
Limits of phase displacement are not specified for class 3 and class 5.

Extended current ratings

Current transformers of accuracy classes 0.1 to 1 may be marked as having an
extended current rating provided they comply with the following two requirements:
a) The rated continuous thermal current shall be the rated extended primary
current expressed as a percentage of the rated primary current;
b) The limits of current error and phase displacement prescribed for 120 % of
rated primary current in table 1 shall be retained up to the rated extended
primary current.

Protective CTs
Protective current transformer is a current transformer intended to supply protective
relays
Accuracy classes for protective current transformer
Accuracy class designation
For protective current transformers, the accuracy class is designated by the highest
permissible percentage composite error at the rated accuracy limit primary current
prescribed for the accuracy class concerned, followed by the letter “P” (meaning
protection).
Standard accuracy classes
The standard accuracy classes for protective current transformers are:
5P and 10P,
where prefixes 5 or 10 indicate Composite Errors.
These Accuracy Classes are also associated with Accuracy Limit Factor(ALF)
shown as suffix, which may be 5, 10, 15, 20 or 30
for example 5P10, 10P20, 5P5, 5P30
ALF is the ratio of rated Accuracy limit primary current to the rated primary current.
Accuracy limit primary current is that primary current up to which the Composite
error is complied with

Secondary Limiting E.m.f.

The product of the accuracy limit factor, the rated secondary current and
the vectorial sum of the rated burden and the impedance of the secondary
winding.

96
Special purpose Protective CTs : Class PS to present IS:2705(IV) or PX to
IEC:60044-1
Where the characteristics cannot be conveniently expressed in the terms used for
accuracy classes 5P and 10P, then CT characteristics are specified in the following
terms:
1. Knee point voltage
2. Exciting current at the Knee point voltage or at a percentage there of
3. Resistance of the secondary winding
PS or PX Class CTs are used where close balance of currents/turns is needed
such as Differential Protection, Restricted earth fault Protection etc. In general
turns correction is not used for ‘PS’ or ‘PX’ class CTs.
Rated knee point Voltage or e.m.f. (Ek)
That minimum sinusoidal e.m.f. (r.m.s.) at rated power frequency when
applied to the secondary terminals of the transformer, all other terminals
being open-circuited, which when increased by 10 % causes the r.m.s.
exciting current to increase by no more than 50 %.
NOTE: The actual knee point e.m.f. will be greater than the rated knee point e.m.f.
Class PR protective current transformer
A current transformer with limited remanence factor for which, in some
cases, a value of the secondary loop time constant and/or a limiting value
of the winding resistance may also be specified
Saturation flux (Ys)
that peak value of the flux which would exist in a core in the transition from
the non-saturated to the fully saturated condition and deemed to be that
point on the B-H characteristic for the core concerned at which a 10 %
increase in B causes H to be increased by 50 %
Remanent flux (Yr)
That value of flux which would remain in the core 3 min after the interruption
of an exciting current of sufficient magnitude to induce the saturation flux
(Ys) defined above
Remanence factor (Kr)
The ratio Kr = 100 × Y r / Ys, expressed as a percentage (%)
Accuracy classes for class PR protective current transformers

97
Accuracy class designation
The accuracy class is designated by the highest permissible percentage composite
error at the rated accuracy limit primary current prescribed for the accuracy class
concerned, followed by the letters “PR” (indicating protection low remanence).

Standard accuracy classes

The standard accuracy classes for low remanence protective current transformers
are:
5 PR and 10 PR

Limits of error for class PR protective current transformers

Current error, phase displacement and composite error
Limits of error are given in table 4.

Table 4 – Limits of error for class PR protective current transformers

Accuracy Current error at Phase displacement at Composite error at
class rated primary rated primary current rated accuracy limit
current primary current
% Minutes %
5 PR ±1 ±3 5
10 PR ±3 - 10

Remanence factor (Kr)

The remanence factor (Kr) shall not exceed 10 % for above classes
Note: In the figures shown below Bm corresponds to Fs and Br to Fr

Hysteresis or B-H Curve

of Core Material (CRGO)

98
The C.T. can be classified as Bar type and Multi turn primary. It can also be classified
as “Dead Tank” and “Inverted Type”.
The dead tank C.Ts accommodates the secondary cores inside the tank which is
at ground potential. The insulated primary passes through the porcelain and the
tank and terminates into top chamber. The primary used in a dead tank construction
is of “U” type construction with insulation laid on the condenser bushing principle.
The primary can be single turn, multi turn or series parallel construction. The
secondary cores are mounted over earth band of condenser primary. The
secondary leads are terminated inside secondary terminal box. The secondary
cores have ratio burden and accuracies suitable for metering, protection and dual
purpose depending upon customer’s requirement.
The inverted CTs have secondary cores which are insulated to the system voltage
level and housed inside the top chamber which is at line potential. The secondary
leads are brought down to the base through an insulated tube. Before
commissioning of the C.T. the following important points should be checked up.
Earthing of power factor terminal and base. The power factor terminal is the terminal
of the earth foil of primary insulation and it is brought either on transformer tank
separately or inside secondary terminal box. As a quality control measure the
power factor of the primary insulation is monitored constantly during processing
to determine dryness of insulation before impregnation with oil. The power factor
is also measured during final testing at rated voltage to ensure long trouble free
service. The value is generally lower than 0.005 at rated voltage. The power factor
terminal must be positively earthed during service. Otherwise excessive high
voltage can appear at the power factor terminal and lead to heavy spark over. The
tank / base of the C.T must also be properly earthed. It is equally important to
short the secondary terminals of the cores which are not in use. In case these
cores are left open circulated which current is flowing in primary, it will lead to
dangerous over voltage developing across C.T. secondary. Wherever test winding
is provided it is to be left open circuited. Otherwise correct ratio will not be obtained
in C.T. secondary.
In addition the general condition of the C.T and its fitting must be checked. This is
done by ascertaining the oil level, Nitrogen pressure gauge etc. The hermetically
sealed C.Ts do not require any attention during service except for periodic checks
of oil as per IS : 1866.

2.2 Magnetic Voltage Transformer (M.V.T)

Magnetic Voltage Transformers are on the principle of electromagnetic induction
like any other transformer except that their burden is low but accuracy is better.
The V.Ts are either single phase or 3 phase. In three phase V.Ts there are again
3 limb and 5 limb constructions of core 5 limbs being used with broken delta
winding for residual earth fault protection. The three phases V.Ts are manufactured

99
up to 33 kV class. For systems above 33 kV, single phase V.Ts are normally used
between line and earth. In addition for the protection of capacitor banks residual
voltage transformers with broken delta winding are used where primary neutral is
isolated and brought out for connection to capacitor bank neutral.
The V.Ts can be provided with H.V fuses up to 33 kV for protection of system from
a fault inside the V.T. On secondary side of V.Ts, Fuses can be provided which
protect the V.T. from any fault in the circuit connected across V.T secondary.
From constructional point of view the primary or the high voltage winding may
either be disc type or layer type. In addition in case of E.H.V. V.Ts, the primary
can be made in cascade using more than one stage of core and coil. Coupling
winding is provided for a low impedance path for the flow of load current and for
ensuring proper distribution of voltage in various stages. This construction is
adopted by BHEL in 220 kV EMVTs.
The V.Ts may be dry type (for low voltage V.Ts such as auxiliary V.Ts) or oil filled.
The oil filled V.Ts may either be hermetically sealed or breathing through silicate
breather. The voltage transformer for 66 kV and above are essentially hermetically
sealed with inter gas cushion provided in the top chamber to take care of oil
expansion and contraction. This hermetically sealed V.T does not require any
drying and hot oil circulation before commissioning. The V.Ts which are not
hermetically sealed may be sent oil filled or without oil depending upon design
feature / transportation facility. The V.T. sent without oil should be filled with oil
after drying the coils. This should be done immediately on receipt of the V.T at
site. In case of V.Ts sent oil filled, it is not necessary to dry out the windings before
putting it into services providing no breathing has occurred due to damages in
transient etc. However oil sample should be tested in case of V.Ts which are not
hermetically sealed. In any case, a V.T and its fittings must be examined properly
to ensure that no damage has occurred during transit.
Earthing – It should be ensured that transformer tank is properly earthed. If primary
neutral is not insulated to full voltage but brought out, it must be effectively earthed.
An earth link is provided for this purpose. If the neutral is left unearthed, it can lead
to sparking and ultimate damage of the V.T. A hermetically sealed V.T. does not
need maintenance except checking insert gas pressure oil level etc. in oil filled
V.T. provided with breather should be checked at interval for condition of Silica get
and oil. For further instructions V.Ts, related instruction booklet should be referred.
3. Capacitor Voltage Transformer
A CVT consists of the capacitance voltage divider (with High voltage (C1) and
Intermediate voltage (C2) capacitors) and an Electromagnetic Unit. The
electromagnetic unit consists of intermediate voltage transformer, medium voltage
reactor which is nearly in resonance with capacitive reactance of C1+C2. In addition
ferroresonance damping device is also provided to rapidly damp the non linear
ferroresonant oscillations.

100
 A
Lr

a
C1
H. V.
CAPACITOR IVT DAMPING
DEVICE Z0
n
C2
VOLTAGE
INTERMEDIATE
ADJUSTMENT
CAPACITOR WINDINGS

The CVT as shown in above Fig. comprises generally of:

• Capacitor Voltage Divider formed by C1 and C2.
• Intermediate Voltage Transformer (IVT)
• Compensating reactor Lr
• Ferroresonance damping device Z0

Capacitor Voltage Divider

It comprises of capacitor units housed in porcelain weather casing. The bottom

capacitor housing is permanently fixed over the EM unit and tap is taken out from
this capacitor unit at an appropriate point to give an intermediate voltage of about

22/v3 kV corresponding to the nominal voltage. The number of capacitor units

connected in series and mounted one over the other in the CVD depends upon
the voltage rating.

The design used in the capacitor voltage divider is a

mixed dielectric design with extended foil. The dielectric
comprises of Polypropylene(PP) film(Negative
temperature coefficient) and Tissue paper (Positive
temperature coefficient) with the resultant negligible
temperature coefficient

Because of the above refinement, change in CVT

accuracy, both due to steady
as well as the sudden temperature changes is
minimum, which leads to stable
CVT accuracy.

420 kV CVT

101
Electromagnetic (EM) Unit

EM Unit consists of:

● Adjustable medium voltage tuning reactor. The reactance is adjusted at
works to tune with the total capacitance of high voltage and intermediate
voltage capacitors.
● The Intermediate Voltage Transformer (IVT) with voltage correction
tapping windings at earth end of the primary.
● Separate secondary windings according to the customer requirements for
measurement and protection.
● Damping device, connected across one of the secondary windings.
● Terminal box, provided with M6 size secondary terminals, fuses, the earthing
link(s) no. 2 for secondary winding(s) & earthing link no. 3 for LV (high
frequency) terminal M8 size of Capacitor Voltage Divider.
The electromagnetic unit is housed in the steel tank and filled with transformer oil.
The Nitrogen gas cushion is provided to compensate for the variations in oil level
due to change in ambient temperature.

Primary terminal box: The tapping windings leads of Intermediate Voltage Trans-
former are brought to a circular terminal box. This primary terminal box also incor-
porates LV end of primary of IVT for earthing through tapping winding connec-
tions. The winding continuity is maintained through links. Links are set in position
at the time of dispatch from works and are not to be changed as long as the VA
Burden is within the specified range. The connections are selected and made at
works depending upon the manufac-
turing tolerances. The link no. 1 for
joining the LV end of the primary wind-
ing/tapping winding series connec-
tions, to earth is also provided inside
this box. Care is taken while selecting
the tap connections, so that, all the
tapping windings are tied up to a defi-
nite potential, maintain continuity of
the series connected primary circuit
and also at the same time it is ensured
that no tapping coil is getting shorted.

1200 kV CVT prototype under testing at

BHEL UHV Lab

102
Ferroresonance damping device for CVT:
The ferroresonance damping device contains a saturable reactor presenting high
impedance under normal conditions that turns around to a damping resistor un-
der ferroresonant subharmonic oscillations to effect its rapid suppression.
It reverts back to its normal high impedance state when secondary voltage has
normalized. The voltage or subharmonic sensitive switching strategy effectively
suppresses ferroresonance without imposing a heavy permanently connected sta-
bilizing burden on the unit.

Ferroresonance Stability
The Ferroresonance is due to the interaction of non-linear inductance of iron cored
equipment (here transformer) with a source of capacitive reactance (brought into
play by CVD).
It is a very wide term that includes many complex phenomena and in respect to
the CVT comprises mainly of fundamental frequency Ferroresonance and
subharmonic oscillations. Ferro resonance can be induced in a CVT under the
following system conditions:

◆ Sudden energizing of the CVT when connecting in the UHV line or the bus
◆ Single or three pole high speed auto reclosing
◆ Removal of secondary short circuit, and
◆ Sudden changes of primary Voltage

For poor CVT designs Ferro-resonance can lead to:

High permanent over voltages and over currents
Permanent distortions of voltage and current waveforms
Transformer heating
Continuous excessive loud noise in IVT
Undesirable tripping of protection devices

The major advantage of CVTs over electromagnetic V.Ts. is that it is suitable for
carrier coupling also. However burden / accuracies of the CVTs are inferior to
EMVTs and also the errors change with the variation in system frequency. The
interaction of capacitor and non linear inductance having iron cores, introduces
phenomena of Ferro resonance and inferior transient response.

103
According to IS:3156 for transient test, the secondary output voltage of a CVT
following a short circuit on primary terminal shall decay within one cycle of rated
frequency to a value lesser than 10 of peak value before the short circuit.
Similarly to limit the Ferro resonance in a
CVT, IS:3156 stipulates that any ferro-reso-
nant oscillations occurring in a CVT shall
be damped to such an extent that their ef-
fect on secondary voltage is negligible
within 10 cycles of rated frequency. And
this test is done by sudden removal of short
circuit of the secondary terminals while
primary is live. By taking proper care in
design of the CVT, such as operating at
low flux densities providing damping cir-
cuits the desired performance is achieved,
the CVTs can be dismantled and trans-
ported in smaller units. While doing the
assembly at site, it is essential to select
the capacitors with serial Nos. as appear-
ing in the rating and diagram plate of the
CVT. The reason is that individual capaci-
tors have the tolerance on capacitance and
the electromagnetic unit is matched to in-
dividual capacitors.
800 kV CVT prototype under
testing at BHEL UHV Lab

The electromagnetic portion is dispatched filled with oil to the correct level is such
before commissioning correct oil level and a minimum B.D.V of 50 kV should be
ensured.
In the CVT’s low voltage and of intermediate capacitor is brought into the secondary
terminal box. The earth link must be used for earthing this terminal when CVT is
not used for carrier coupling. The primary neutral and secondary neutral, which
are also brought inside the secondary terminal box must be properly earthed before
commissioning. Links are provided for this purpose and shown in the rating and
diagram plate.
Capacitor units in CVTs are sealed units and do not require any commissioning
check / maintenance so long as they do not show any sign of damage.
It is necessary to refer the instruction booklet before commissioning or any
maintenance of the CVTs.

104
3 Type Testing of Instrument Transformer
The testing of CTs and CVTs comprises of Type tests and the routine tests. The
Type tests are carried out to prove the design, while the routine tests are done on
each instrument transformer.

The typical type tests that are performed on EHV CTs are:

S.No. Test
1 Short -time current test
2 Temperature rise test
3 Instrument Security Factor Test
4 Accuracy test(Metering core)
(from Routine tests after all type tests)
5 IP55 test on Secondary terminal box of CT
6 Fast Transient test
7 Thermal stability test
8 Temperature Coefficient Test
9 Dry Lightning Impulse Voltage withstand test
10 Wet Switching Impulse Voltage withstand test
11 Radio interference Voltage measurement
12 Visible corona Extinction test
13 Routine tests after all type tests(Dielectric type tests) including Fast
Transient test
14 Seismic Test
15 Routine tests for 420 kV CT after Type Tests

Similarly the Type Tests on CVTs are:

S.No. Name of Type Test

1 Type test for the Verification of Accuracy
1a Calculations for Change of Errors in CVT at Extreme Values of Tem-
peratures
2 Ferroresonance test on CVT
3 Short-Circuit withstand capability test on complete CVT

105
4 Partial Discharge test on CVT
5 Transient response test
6 Temperature rise test
7 High frequency capacitance & Equivalent series resistance measure-
ment
8 Stray capacitance & Stray conductance measurement of the low volt-
age terminal
9 Determination of Temperature co-efficient of capacitance
10 Dry Lightning Impulse & Chopped impulse Voltage withstand Test
11 Wet Power Frequency Voltage withstand Test
12 Radio Interference Voltage Test
13 Seismic Test
14 Routine tests after Type tests on CVT

106
 Chapter -18
High Voltage Condenser
Bushings
1. Introduction
Bushing is one of the most important components that are fitted to the
electrical equipments like the transformer, the switchgear etc. It is an insulating
structure for carrying the HV conductor through an earthed barrier.
The bushing has to
(a) Carry the full load current.
(b) Provide electrical insulation to the conductor for working voltage and for
various over-voltages that occur during service.
(c) Provide support against various mechanical forces.
2. Classification of Bushings
Bushings are classified according to the following factors:
Application or Utility
(a) Alternator Bushing
AC generators require bushings up to 33 kV, but 22 kV, is more usual. With
modern alternators, current ratings up to 20,000 A are required.
(b) Bushings for Switchgear
In the switchgear, bushings are to carry the conductors through the tank
wall, and support the switch contacts.
(c) Transformer Bushings
Transformers require terminal bushings for both primary and secondary
windings. In some cases, a high voltage cable is directly connected to the
transformer via an oil filled cable box. A bushing then provides the connection
between the cable box and transformer winding.

107
(d) Wall or Roof Bushing
In recent years, many sub-stations for 132 kV and above, in unfavorable
situations have been put inside a building. For such applications wall/roof bushings
are used.
(e) Loco Bushings
These bushings are used in freight loco and AC EMU transformers for the
traction application.
Non-condenser and Condenser Bushings
(a) Non-condenser Bushing
In its simplest form, a
bushing would be a cylinder of
insulating material, porcelain, glass
resin, etc. with the radial clearance
and axial clearance to suit the
electric strengths. The voltage is not
distributed evenly through the
material, or along its length. As the
rated voltage increases, the
dimensions required become so
large that this form of bushing is not
a practical proposition. The
concentration of stress in the
insulation and on its surface may
give rise to partial discharge. This
type of bushing is commonly used
as low-voltage bushings for large
generator transformers.
(b) Condenser Bushing
In this type, the conducting
cylinders are inserted in the
insulation to divide the wall thickness
into a number of capacitors. In this
way, the voltage distribution in the
material and along its surface can
be controlled.
Insulating Material
The insulating material of
bushings is usually paper-based
with the following most common types:
Fgure 1 Condenser and non-condennser bushing

108
(a) Synthetic Resin Bonded Paper (SRBP)
In SRBP bushings, one side of the paper is coated with resin which is
cylindrically wound under heat and pressure inserting conducting layers at
appropriate intervals. However, use of SRBP bushings is limited to low voltages.
There is also the danger of thermal instability of insulation produced by the dielectric
loss of the resins. The SRBP insulation is essentially a laminate of resin and
paper which is prone to cracking. Moreover, paper itself will include air which will
cause partial discharges even at low levels of electrical stress.
(b) Oil Impregnated Paper (OIP)
OIP insulation is widely used in bushing and instrument transformers upto
the highest service voltages. In the manufacturing process, the kraft paper tape or
sheet is wound onto the conductor. Aluminium layers are inserted in predetermined
positions to build up a stress-controlling condenser insulator. The condenser layer
may be closer together, allowing higher radial stress to be used. The bushing is
fully assembled before being vacuum impregnated in order to contain the oil.
(c) Resin Impregnated Paper (RIP)
RIP bushings are wound in a similar manner as OIP. The raw paper insulation
is then kept in a casting tool inside an auto-clave. A strictly controlled process of
heat and vacuum is used to dry the paper prior to impregnation with epoxy resin.
The resin is cured under a heat and pressure cycle. The resulting insulation is dry,
gas tight, and void free.
3. Design of Bushing
In its simplest form, a bushing consists of a central conductor embedded in
a cylindrical insulation material having a radial thickness enough to withstand the
voltage. The design of a bushing depends on the various voltages and over-voltages
that it has to come across during service. In order to study the factors which
influence the design of a bushing, it is convenient to consider a transformer bushing
with one end in the air, and the other in oil. The important factors which effect the
design are:
(a) Air-end Clearance
The air-end clearance has to be sufficient to meet the specified over-voltage
tests. It is also determined by the creepage distance, and the proportion of it that
is protected from the rain. Having determined the air-end length, the air-end
dimension of the internal condenser can be determined. It is not necessary to
grade 100%. Internal grading of 70% or less will give adequate surface grading
for large bushings.

109
(b) Oil-end Clearance
As internal breakdown unlike air flashover, is more severe, specifications,
therefore, demand an internal breakdown with a sufficient margin (about 15%)
above the air withstand value. Both power frequency, and impulse voltage withstand
tests have been used to specify this characteristic.
(c) Number of Condenser Layers
The number of partial condensers is so chosen that the test voltage of
each partial condenser should be between 10 kV to 15 kV. If more foils are
introduced, it will cause too many folds and weaken the bushing. Also, will be air
introduced in the folds, complicating the manufacture of bushing of high voltage
class.
(d) Length of Earth Layer
The length of the earth layer of a bushing is usually determined by the
accommodation required for current-transformers, or by mounting considerations,
though in some cases it may be allowed to assume its optimum dimension in
relation to the radial dimensions. The ratio of Length of first foil (L1) and Length of
nth foil (Ln) may be taken between 3 to 4. This ratio is denoted by α .
(e) Radial Gradients and Diameters
The radial gradient is limited by the necessity for avoiding damage by
discharges at the power-frequency test voltages, whether one minute or
instantaneous.
If the ratio of the earth layer diameter to that of the conductor rn/ro, is denoted
by β, the stresses at the HV end and the earth voltage end will be equal, if the
product of α and β is unity.
However, it is not always possible to achieve this value. Hence α and β can
vary from 0.8 to 1.2
If α ,β =1, then LnDn = L1. D0
(f) Equipotential Layer Position
After determining the dimensions of the inner and outer layers of the
condenser, the position of the other layers can be calculate. The basis of the
design of the condenser bushing is generally equal partial capacitances, which
mean equal voltage on them and equal axial spacing between the end of layers.
4. Constructional Details and Main Parts of Bushing
Core
The core of bushing consists of a hollow or solid metallic tube, over which
high grade electrical kraft paper is wound. For condenser cores, conducting layers
of metallic foil are introduced at predetermined diameters to make uniform

110
distribution of electrical stress. The winding of the condenser core is done in a
dust-free chamber. The core is then processed; this comprises of drying in a high
degree of vacuum (0.005mm), and then impregnating with high quality, filtered
and de-gassed transformer oil.
Porcelain
Bushing for outdoor applications are fitted with hollow porcelain insulators.
The OIP bushings are provide with insulators, both at air and oil ends, thus forming
an insulating envelope, and the intervening space may be filled with an insulating
liquid or another insulating medium.
The function of an insulator is to resist flash over in adverse conditions.
This is determined by.
(a) the profile of the dielectric.

Fgure 2 Main parts of bushing

111
 (b) the mounting arrangement of the insulator, i.e., vertical, horizontal,
or inclined.
(c) the properties of the surface, i.e., hydrophobicity, toughness etc.
For insulators used in the air-end side, a minimum specific creepage distance
is required for different pollution levels, as given in Table.1
Pollution level Creepage distance
I Light (areas without industries, agricultural 16mm/kV
or mountain areas)
II Medium (areas with industries not producing 20 mm/kV
pollution smoke, low density of houses, areas
not exposed to the sea coast)
III Heavy (areas with high density of industries, high 25mm/kV
density of heating plants producing pollution,
areas close to the sea)
IV Very heavy (areas close to the coast and exposed 31 mm/kV
to sea spray, desert areas, areas exposed to strong
winds carrying salt and sand etc.)

Based on the above information, the shapes of porcelain sheds are:

(a) Plain
(b) Anti-fog
(c) Alternate
Top Cap
This is a metallic housing for the spring pack. It serves as an in-built oil
conservator to cater for oil expansion, and has an oil level indicator. In many
cases, it also serves the purpose of a corona shield.
Mounting Flange
This is used for mounting the bushing on an earth barrier, such as a transformer
tank or a wall. It may have the provisions for following:

112
 Fgure 3 Shapes of porcelain sheds.

(a) CT accommodation length

(b) Rating plate giving the rating and identification details of bushing.
(c) Test tap
(d) Oil drain plug for sampling of oil
(e) Air release plug
The design of the flange and top cap is such as to minimize the loss due to
hysteresis and eddy current effects. When heavy currents are being carried, this
loss raises the temperature of the flange and top cap to a noticeable extent. For
heavy currents, ordinary cast iron material cannot be used, hence non-magnetic
materials such as stainless steel or aluminum are used.

113
Test Tap
The test tap is provided for measurement of the power factor and
capacitance of the bushing during testing and service. The test tap is connected
via a tapping lead to the last condenser foil of the core within the bushing. During
normal service, this tapping is electrically connected to the mounting flange through
a self-grounding arrangement.
5. Testing of Bushing
To prove the design and quality of manufacture, bushings are subjected to
type tests and routing tests as given in IS 2099 and IEC 137. Where the type tests
are done to prove design features of bushing, routine tests check the quality of
individual bushing.
Tan Delta and Capacitance Measurement
This test is probably the most universally applied test for all types of
condenser bushings. The bushing is set up as in service connected to one arm of
the Schering bridge. The voltage is applied in increasing steps, up to the rated
voltage. Capacitance and tan delta values are recorded for each voltage. (for
bushings, power factor and tan delta values may be regarded as identical). Tan
delta indicates the degree of processing of the condenser core in OIP bushings
and also the moisture content.
Dry Power Frequency Voltage Withstand Test
This is the most common routine test used for various classes of electrical
equipment. A specified power frequency voltage is applied for one minute. Under
wet conditions, the power frequency test is a type test, and is done only for bushings
having rating 300 kV and below.
Partial Discharge Test
Partial discharges are the localized electrical discharges within the insulation
system, restricted to only one part of the dielectric material, thus only partially
bridging the electrodes. They are caused due to:
(a) voids and cavities present in the solid and liquid dielectrics.
(b) surface discharges that appear at the boundary of different dielectrics.
(c) corona discharges, if strongly non-homogenous fields are present.
The continuous impact of discharges in solid dielectrics form discharge
channels called TREEING. Every discharge event deteriorates the material by the
energy of impact of high electrode ions, causing many types of chemical
transformation.
Impulse Voltage Withstand Test
Lightning impulse is a type test, and is applicable for all types of bushings.
The bushing is subjected to 15 full wave impulses of positive polarity, followed by

114
15 full wave impulses of negative polarity of the standard waveform 1.2/50µs.
For bushings of rated voltage equal to or greater than 300 kV, the switching
impulse voltage test is applicable. The impulse tests simulate more closely than
the power frequency withstand test, the over-voltages likely to be seen by the
bushing in the service.
Thermal Stability Test
The theory of thermal stability states that at an elevated operating
temperature, stable thermal equilibrium is assured only when a maximum value
of the sustained voltage characteristic of a particular bushing is not exceeded.
The magnitude of this voltage serves as a representative measure of the thermal
stability. The magnitude depends solely on the quality of the dielectric, its ambient
temperature, and the manner in which it is internally cooled. The dimension of the
body has no role to play. It has been considered unnecessary to specify thermal
stability tests for OIP bushings owing to low dielectric loss. However, it is necessary
in large bushings (greater than 300 kV) with high current, to pay attention in the
design to the dissipation of the conductor losses which may be several times the
dielectric loss.
6. Factors Affecting the Performance of Bushing
Dielectric Loss in bushing
The principal factors governing the dielectric loss in OIP bushings are the
quality of oil, and the manner in which the bushing is processed. The quality of
dielectric is expressed not so much by the absolute magnitude of the loss as by
their constancy with respect to time. The risk of ageing is considerable in OIP
bushings. The oil molecule itself does not possess very high resistance, and it is
particularly sensitive to high temperature. Low viscosity of oil allows particles of
foreign matter and ageing products to migrate to the points at which the field
concentration is greatest in an irreversible manner.
Internal Corona
Corona discharges attack the dielectric, and thus weaken the bushing
electrically. The corona discharges crack the oil molecule. This produces flammable
gases and unsaturated molecular residues, which accelerates the deterioration
process. Even low discharge intensities can result in a breakdown after only a
short time. Hence, it is essential that corona should not be allowed to persist for a
long time.
Atmospheric Pollution
Failures are also caused due to pollution. When the layer of pollution on an
insulator becomes wet, its resistance falls and a leakage current flows over the
surface of the insulator. The density of leakage current is high in some parts,
usually in the narrowest portions of the insulator. These regions dry more quickly

115
than the rest of the surface, and their resistance increases. This results in the
formation of dry bands around the insulator. The voltage on the insulator is virtually
impressed across the dry bands, which results in a flash over across the insulator
in due course of time.
Temperature Rise of Joints
The current carrying path in a bushing generally has 3-4 joints from the
transformer winding to the top terminal. These Joints are either soldered, brazed,
or bolted. Any looseness will cause a rise in the temperature. If this is not timely
checked, the excess heat will pass to the insulation body, ultimately causing damage
to the bushing.
7. Condition Monitoring at Site
On principle, all solid and liquid insulating materials are exposed to a certain
degree of ageing due to various stresses in service. Continuous monitoring at the
field provides necessary data of insulation behaviour. Safe running of the equipment
can be ensured if corrective action is taken in advance, in case of any abnormality.
The following can be monitored on site on a regular basis to avoid any mishap:
Monitoring of Dissipation Factor and Capacitance
The tan delta or dissipation factor is considered to be the most dependable
parameter in bushing to assess its condition. The increase in value of tan delta as
well as capacitance gives very useful information about any insulation deterioration.
The measurement at site can be done with a precision Schering bridge at 10 kV
by simultaneously balancing the bridge for capacitance and tan delta. The test is
conducted in Ungrounded Specimen Test (UST) mode, which eliminates the losses
going to the grounded portions of the bushing.
The measured values of tan delta and capacitance can be compared with
the factory test results. Though the tan delta value measured at site may not
match with the factory results, however, its limiting value for OIP bushings as per
standards is 0.007. The value of capacitance may vary from manufacturer to
manufacturer, depending upon geometry or construction of the equipment.
Every time the measurements are taken, the value should be compared
with the previous readings. If the bushing is more than 5 years of service, an
increase in tan delta up to 1% can be allowed. Increase in capacitance value by
more than 5% of the original value should always be referred to the manufacturer.
Monitoring of Hot Spots
A thermo-vision camera can be used to monitor the temperature of the bushing,
particularly near the top terminal. Abnormally high temperature indicates the
following:
(a) Improper engagement of top terminal with pull through connector.

116
(b) Looseness of terminal connector.
(c) Improper soldering of cable (lead) with cable adopter.
This may result in overheating or welding of the terminal. In some cases,
melting of soldered joints is observed, resulting even in falling of the lead. It is
therefore recommended that brazing be resorted to in place of soldering.
8. Dos and Do nots for HV Condenser Bushings
Dos
(a) Do check the packing externally for possible transit damage before
unpacking.
(b) Do unpack with care to avoid any direct blow on the bushing or porcelain
insulator.
(c) Do store the bushings in a shed or covered with tarpaulin to protect it from
moisture and rains.
(d) Do handle the bushing with manila rope slings without any undue force on
the porcelain insulator.
(e) Do clean the procelain insulator thoroughly before taking any measurement
or mounting the bushing on the transformer. Check also for any foreign
body adhered to the bottom oil end procelain.
(f) Do check the oil level by making the bushing vertical.
(g) Do check for leakage of oil from any of the joints. Each bushing is tested
with the oil immersed in the oil tank, and so some traces of oil can be
found, which actually is not leakage.
(h) Do check the tan delta and capacitance on mounted bushing with the jumper
connection removed.
(i) Do maintain a log book of records of periodical checks as mentioned the in
the supplier's O and M manual.
Do Nots
(a) Do Not unpack the bushing from the crate unless required to be mounted
on the transformer.
(b) Do Not use metal slings on procelain and avoid undue jerks while handling.
(c) Do Not store the bushing outdoors without any protective covering.
(d) Do Not measure IR value or tan delta value without thoroughly cleaning
the porcelain.
(e) Do Not dismantle or attempt to repair the bushing without prior permission
of the manufacturer.
(f) Do Not fill the oil in the bushing without specific instructions from
manufacturer.
(g) Do Not climb the porcelain to tighten the top terminal. Use an elevator or
separate ladder for this purpose.

117
 Chapter- 19
Erection and Commissioning
The chapter describes some of the main precautions which must be taken during
erection and commissioning of a transformer. Maintenance schedule has also
been discussed so that continuous trouble-free service could be ensured.
1. Despatch
After completing all contractual obligatory tests at works, transformer/reactor is
made ready for despatch.
When transport conditions permit, transformers are despatched
— fully assembled including fittings
— assembled without fittings, with inert gas (preferably dry nitrogen)
— assembled without fittings, with oil filled up to top yoke level
— partially assembled job for site assembly.
In a great majority of the cases accessories like radiators, bushings, explosion
vent/pressure relief valve, dehydrating breather, rollers, Buchholz relay,
conservator, pipe work, marshalling box are despatched separately, In some of
the cases, tapchanger is also despatched separately. Transformer oil (if it is
included in the order) is sent in separate sealed drums/tankers. When transformers
are despatched with inert gas, positive pressure must be maintained throughout
the period till gas is replaced by oil.
2. Inspection upon Arrival at Site
Immediately after transformer is received at site, it should be thoroughly examined
externally for possible damages which may have occurred during transit. Nitrogen
gas pressure (when filled during despatch) should be checked. Positive pressure
if not found indicates that there is a leakage, and there is a possibility of the
moisture entering the tank during transit. This can be ascertained by measuring
the dew point. The dew point measurement indicates the amount of surface
moisture content in transformer insulation. As the insulation temperature and
transformer gas pressure vary, the acceptable dew point will vary.

118
The various packages must also be checked. Internal inspection should be carried
out to the extent possible through inspection covers. Particular attention should
be paid to the connections, bolts, links, coil clamping bolts, tapchangers, current
transformers and the general insulation.
Breakdown strength of oil of transformer tank (when the transformer is despatched
filled with oil) and drums containing transformer oil (which have been despatched
separately) should be examined carefully.
3. Handling
Following means are normally used for lifting operations
— overhead travelling crane or gantry crane
— jib crane
— derricks
— jacks and winches
The overhead travelling crane and jib cranes are obviously the most convenient
and safe means. Precautions mentioned below must be adhered to:
— Transformer (main package) should be lifted only through lifting points
provided for attaching the slings
— Cover must always be bolted in position
Transformer should be jacked up using the jacking pads specially provided for
that purpose. Jacks should never be placed under any valves.
4. Installation
Following precautions should be taken before taking up erection
— Person going inside a transformer must wear clean clothes and clean
synthetic-rubber-soled sandals or boots.
— Never stand directly on any part of the insulation.
— No one should be allowed on top of the transformer, unless he has
emptied his pockets.
— All the tools and spanners used for erection should be securely tied
with taps so that these could be recovered if dropped in, by accident.
— All components should be carefully cleaned outside separately, before
erecting.
— Fibrous material should not be used for cleaning. The presence of
suspended fibrous material will reduce the electrical properties of
transformer oil.

119
 — Interior of the transformer should not be exposed to damp atmosphere
as far as possible, to avoid condensation. In the event of a sudden
change in the weather bringing rain or snow, provision must be made
for closing the tank quickly and pressurizing it with nitrogen so as to
preserve the insulation.
— Naked lights and flame should never be used near oil filled transformer.
Smoking must not be allowed on the transformer cover when the cover
plates are open, nor in the vicinity of oil processing plant.
— Never allow any one to enter the transformer if adequate supply of air
in the tank is not available.
4.1 Location and Site Preparation
No special foundation is necessary for the installation of a transformer except a
level floor strong enough to support the weight and prevent accumulation of water.
Foundation incorporating special oil drainage facilities during fire and emergency
is recommended for large transformers. Transformers should be placed on the
foundation so that easy access is available all around and diagram plates,
thermometers, valves, oil gauges etc. can be easily reached or read. Adequate
electrical clearances are also to be provided from various line points of the
transformer to earthed parts.
Type “ONAN” transformer depends entirely upon the surrounding air for carrying
away the heat generated due to losses. For indoor installation, therefore, the room
must be well ventilated so that the heated air can escape easily and be replaced
by cool air. Air inlets and outlets should be of sufficient size and numbers to pass
adequate air to cool the transformer. The inlets should be as near the floor as
possible and outlets as high as the building allows. Where necessary, exhaust
fans can be installed for the purpose. The transformer should always be separated
from one another and from all walls and partitions to permit free circulation of air.
Where rollers are not fitted, level concrete plinth with bearing plates of sufficient
size and strength can be adopted for outdoor transformers. The formation of rust,
due to the presence of air and water in the space between the plinth and the base
of the transformer should be prevented by use of rust preventive bituminous
compound. Where rollers are fitted, suitable rails or tracks should be used and
the wheels should be locked to prevent accidental movement of the transformer.
Bushing should be lifted properly as shown in Fig. 1 Mounting of stress shield
must be properly checked as per drawing and placed accordingly. Lead should be
pulled slowly so that joints should not give way.
4.2 Special precautions for Installing 245 kV Re-entrant Type Bushing
The special feature of this bushing is the re-entrant control at the oil end which is
brought about by special arrangement of condenser layers. Starting from the earth
foil, the limiting area of foil ends in conformity with regular constructional principle

120
 Fgure 1 Installation of bushing

form a core oriented away from the flange. At about two-third of the voltage between
flange and tube, the foil ends are reversed and follow a course of core reverting
towards the flange and goes as far as the conductor tube. The re-entrant control
has the following advantages:
— The lower end is shorter than the conventional ends.
— Orifice of the lower end has a larger diameter and makes possible
introduction of thick insulated cable.
— Stress shield is avoided.
It is important to ensure the concentricity and axial position of the insulated lead of
transformer winding inside the re-entrant oil end of the bushing. Following
precautions must be followed (Refer to Fig. 2):
— Ensure that the position of the transformer winding lead is correct axially
and radially.

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 Fgure 2 Handling of 245 kV re-entrant type bushing

— Guide the lead while lowering the bushing on transformer tank so that
it is concentric with the bushing orifice and angular gap all around is
uniform.
— Check that lead is well insulated and in its final position the insulation is
extended to the inside of the bushing tube.
— Do not allow the bushing weight to fall on the lead insulation while
lowering the bushing into tank.
4.3 Oil Filling
Before filling with oil, transformer should be fitted with all accessories, such as
valves, plugs, and made oil tight.
The oil which is to be filled in transformer must be tested for dielectric strength
and water content and should be in line with the recommendations. If not, it must
be filtered with stream line filters with built-in heaters and vacuum pumps for
improving the quality of oil. During oil filling operation, it should be ensured that no
air pockets are left in the tank and no dust or moisture enters the oil and it should
be warmer than surrounding air.

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For transformers despatched gas filled, the filling of oil inside the tank should
always be done under vacuum. While evacuating the transformer tank, care should
be taken to ensure that bakelite cylinders, panels, etc., are not subjected to
pressure. The vacuum should be maintained for a short time after the tank is filled
with oil.
The vacuum pulling in the tank will avoid chances of air getting trapped and forming
pockets. Oil filling will protect the windings against exposure to atmosphere at the
time of erection of bushings, etc.
Following precautions should be taken during this operation:
— Oil is easily contaminated. It is very important, when sampling the oil
and filling the tank, to keep the oil free from contamination.
— All equipment used for handling the oil should be cleaned and flushed
with clean transformer oil before use (the oil used for washing must be
discarded). Particular attention should be paid to the cleanliness of
bungs, valves and other parts where dirt or moisture tends to collect.
— For sampling, glass containers with glass stoppers are to be preferred
over the metal type which are susceptible to contamination by dirt, etc.
Cleanliness is essential as even small amount of dirt and water will
affect the accuracy of test results. Wax should not be used for sealing
the oil sample bottles. However, the stopper can be covered by a pack
of silicagel tied in a piece of cloth.
— Flexible steel hose is recommended for handling insulating oil. Some
kind of synthetic rubber or PVC hoses are also suitable, but only those
known to be satisfactory, should be used. Ordinary rubber hose should
not be used for this purpose, as oil dissolves the sulphur from the rubber
and is thereby contaminated. Hose used for handing oil should be clean
and free from loose or scales.
— Transformer must always be disconnected from the electricity supply
system before the oil level in the tank is lowered.
— Oil must not be emptied near naked lights as the vapour released is
inflammable.
4.4 Drying of Transformers
Drying of transformer is necessary in case insulation has absorbed moisture.
The process of drying out a transformer is one requiring care and good judgement.
If the drying out process is improperly performed, great damage may result to the
transformer insulation through overheating, etc. A properly dried out and correctly
installed transformer is one of the most reliable electrical appliances. In no case
should a transformer be left unattednded during any part of the dryout period;
transformer should be carefully watched throughout the dry-out process and all

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observations should be recorded properly.
Drying of Core and Coils Using Oven
Where a suitable oven is available, the core and coils can be effectively dried in it
by raising the temperature to a level not exceeding 80ºC. A large volume of air
should pass through the oven to remove moisture and vapours. Insulation
resistance check will indicate when the coils are dry.
Core and coils can also be dried in its own tank in an oven. Transformer tank
should be suitable for full vacuum (Low vacuum for low voltage class). Full vacuum
is kept in the tank and a temperature of about 75ºC is maintained. Dry nitrogen is
used for breathing the vacuum.
Drying by Short-circuit Method
The transformer can also be dried by heating the coils by shotrcircuting the low
voltage winding and supplying a reduced voltage at high voltage terminals. Current
should not exceed 70% of normal rated current and oil temperature should be of
the order of 75ºC. Winding temperature should in no case exeed 90ºC. The winding
temperature can be monitored by measuring winding resistance. The method is
more effective in drying the insulation at site.
Drying out by Streamline Filter Machine (Ref. Fig. 3)
The most practical method of drying out is by circulation of hot oil through streamline
filter machine incorporating oil heater and vacuum chamber. The vacuum pump
of the filter machine should have the capacity of creating vacuum as high as
possible but not less than 710 mm of mercury. Drying out process can be made
faster by creating vacuum in the transoformer tank by lagging the transformer
tank to prevent loss of heat. The oil temperature in transformer should be of the
order of 75ºC.
It should be seen that the oil temperature at the filter machine in no case exceeds
85ºC.
Drying process can be terminated when transformer oil characteristics are achieved
within permissible limits and insulation resistance of winding shows a constant or
rising trend.
5 Commissioning
Transformer must be healthy in all respects before energizing and, therefore, ig
should be thoroughly checked before commissioining. Following checks should
be carried out.
5.1 Transformer
Measurements
Measurement of ratio, resistance, vector group and magnetizing current should

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 Fgure 3 General diagram for treatment of oil and conditioning of transformer

be of the order of works’ test results. BDV and water content of oil in transformer
tank, tapchanger and cooler bank (the oil results should be within the permissible
limits as mentioned in Appendix A1 of IEC 422) have also to be measured.
Observations
Bushing CT polarity, silicagel breather, earthing, bushing arching horn, valves,
etc. must be checked for their correctness.
5.2 Protection
Buchholz relay, oil temperature, winding temperature, pressure relief device,
magnetic oil level gauge, differential over current, earth fault, etc. Protection scheme
should be checked for proper functioning.
5.3 Tapchanger
Manually, electrical (local and remote), parallel operations, IR value of motor and
control wiring to be checked.
5.4 Marshalling Box
All control wiring should be checked.
When all the above checks have been done, a settling time of approximately 24
hr should be given to oil before charging the transformer. During this interval of
settling, air should be released six hourly wherever possible. Voltage should be
slowly built up to full level in around four to six hours wherever possible.

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6 Maintenance
If a transformer is to give long and trouble-free service, it should receive a
reasonable amount of attention and maintenace. The principal object of
maintenance is to maintain the insulation in good condition. Moisture, dirt and
excessive heat are the main cause of insulation deterioration. Maintenance consists
of regular inspection, testing and reconditioning, wherever necessary.
Load voltage, load current, temperature of winding, oil and ambient should be
recorded daily. Various fittings/accessories like silicagel breather, bushing,
tapchanger, fan pump, oil in tank, tapchanger bushing, Buchholz relay, etc., should
be checked periodically as per recommedndation.
6.1 Reconditioning Procedure of Condenser Bushing (S.R.B.P. Type)
In case moisture is found in the bushing, the oil of the bushing is drained through
drain plug. Two nylon tubes of suitable diameter are connected to an oil filtering
plant, through suitable adaptation. The outlet tube from filter to be connected to
the drain plug and the inlet tube for the filter to be submerged in oil at the top. The
filtered hot oil should be circulated through bushing for three days by injecting it at
the bottom and sucking from the top. This not only improves the oil quality but also
dries out the bushing insulation. During the entrire period of circulation, the bushing
top must be covered so that no foreign matter can enter the bushing. After the
reconditioning, the IR value of the bushing and dielectric strength of oil should be
in line with the recommendations.
6.2 Analysis of Gases as a Means of Monitoring Transformers and
Detecting Incipient Fault
Gsase are produced in a trannsformer when transformer oil is subjected to high
electrical or thermal stressesw or due to breakdown of other insulation materials.
These gases get dissolved in oil and if produced in substantial quantities, it may
get collected in Buchholz relay. Analysis of these gases, together with the rate of
their formation makes it possible to estimate the nature and seriousness of the
fault.
The gases in Buchholz relay will, in general, be due to one of following three main
causes:
(a) Air introduced because of mechanical fault in the oil system or in some
ancillary equipment.
(b) Gas produced by thermal or electrical breakdown of oil without damage
to any solid insulants.
(c) Gas produced by a thermal or electrical breakdown of solid insulants
which invariably in cludes the breakdown of oil.
It should,however, be kept in mind that one of the primary objects of fitting a
Buchholz relay is to detect faults in their incipient stage and care should be

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exercised in interpreting the analysis results together with all other available data,
to ensure that re-energizing the transformer does not cause an incipient fault of
develop into a major fault.
In the event of low energy faults with only slight gas evolution, and in view of the
fact that the oil solubility of the gases of decomposition may be very high, the
detection of such gradual process is delayed, because the Buchholz relay does
not respond until a sufficient volume of gas is collected. Further, because of the
different solubility of the various gas constituent and athe partial exchange with
orher gases dissolved in the oil, e.g. nitrogen or air, the composition of the gas
mixture that is collected in the Buchholz relay differs from that at the point of
origin. It is, therefor, hardly possible to obtain correct diagnosis of the nature of
such an incipient fault by simply analyzing the gas collected in the Buchholz relay.
A complete and reliable explanation of the faults can only be obtained by
supplementing the gas analysis of the Buchholz relay by an analysis of the gases
dissolved in the oil.
An analysis of the gas dissolved in the oil is possible by means of gas
thromatography, which determines the individual constituents of such gas mixtures
with a high degree of accuracy . IEC 599 Interpretation of the analysis of gas in
transformers and other oil filled electrical equipment in service may be referred to
for this analysis. A comparison between the gases accumulated in the Buchholz
relay and those dissolved in the oil can be very usedful in diagnosing the nature
and severity of the particular fault.
7 Dos for Power Transformer
1. Connect gas cylinder with automatic regulator if transformer is to be
stored for long duration, in order to maintain positive pressure.
2. Fill the oil in the transformer at the earliest opportunity at site and follow
storage instructions. It must be commissioned as soon as possible.
3. Open the equalizing valve between tank and OLTC diverter
compartment, whenever provided, at the time of filling the oil in the
tank and close the same during operation.
4. Clean the oil conservator thoroughly before erecting.
5. Check the pointers of all gauges for their free movement before erection.
6. Inspect the painting and if necessary do retouching.
7. If inspection covers are opened or any gasket joint is tightened, tighten
the bolts evenly with the proper sequence to avoid uneven pressure.
8. Clean the Buchholz relay and check the operation of alarm and trip
contacts.
9. Check the oil level in oil cup and ensure that the air passages are free
in the breather. If oil is less, make up the oil level.
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 10. Check the oil in transformer and OLTC for dielectric strength and
moisture content, and take suitable action for restoring the quality of
oil.
11. Attend to leakages on the bushing immediately.
12. Check the diaphragm of the relief vent. If cracked or broken, replace it.
13. Remove the air from vent plug of the diverter switch before energizing
the transformer.
14. Remove the gear box oil level in the tapchanger. If less, top up with
specified oil.
15. Check the OTI and WTI pockets and replenish the oil, if required.
16. Check the oil level in the diverter switch and if found less, top up with
fresh oil.
17. Examine the diverter and selector contacts of tapchanger and if found
burnt or worn out, replace the same.
18. Check and thoroughly investigate the transformer whenever and alarm
or protection is operated.
19. Examine the bushings for dirt deposits and coats and clean them
periodically.
20. Check the protection circuits periodically.
21. Check all bearings and operating mechanism of the tapchanger and
lubricate them as per schedule.
22. Keep the valve connected between conservator of the tap-changer and
its diverter compartment open, during transformer operation.
23. Check the silicagel charge. If it is found pink, regenerate or replace it
with blue silicagel charge.
8 Don’ts for power Transformers
1. Do not use low capacity lifting jacks on transformer for jacking.
2. Do not allow WTI, OTI temperature to exceed 75ºC during dryout of
transformer, and filter machine temperature beyond 85ºC.
3. Do not re-energize the transformer, unless the Buchholz gas is analyzed.
4. Do not re-energize the transformer without conducting all pre-
commissioning checks.
5. Do not energize the transformer, unless the off-circuit tap switch handle
is in locked position.
6. Do not leave off-circuit tap switch handle unlocked.

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 7. Do not leave tertiary terminals unprotected outside the tank. Follow
manufactruer’s recommendations in this regard.
8. Do not leave marshalling box doors open. They must be locked.
9. Do not leave any connection loose.
10. Do not meddle with the protection circuits.
11. Do not leave maximum temperature indicating pointer behind the other
pointer in OTI and WTI.
12. Do not change the settings of WTI and OTI alarm and trip frequently.
The setting should be done as per the site conditions.
13. Do not allow oil level in the bushings to fall; they must immediately be
topped up.
14. Do not allow conservator oil level to fall below one-fourth level.
15. Do not parallel transformers which do not fulfil the required conditions.
16. Do not switch off the heater in marshalling box except in summer.
17. Do not leave secondary terminals on an unloaded CT open.
18. Do not allow water pressure more than oil pressure in differential
pressure gauge in OFWF cooled transformer.
19. Do not switch on water pump unless oil pump is switched on.
20. Do not leave ladder unlocked, when the transformer is energized.
21. Do not allow unauthorized entry near the transformer.
22. Do not overload the transformer other than the specified limits mentioned
in national/international standards.
23. Do not allow inferior oil to continue in transformer.
24. Do not handle the off-circuit tap switch when the transformer is
energized.
9 Dos and Don’ts for HV Condenser Bushings
9.1 Dos
1. Check the packing externally for possible transit damage before
unpacking.
2. Do unpacking with care to avoid any direct blow on bushing or porcelain
insulator.
3. Store the bushing in a shed or covered with tarpaulin to protect it from
moisture and rain. If removed from the crate, keep it indoors with lower
end protectives intact.

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 4. Handle the bushing with manila rope slings without any undue force on
porcelain insulator.
5. Clean the poreclain insulator thoroughly.
6. Remove the wax tape protection on the oil end of the bushing (at the
time of erection) and clean the surface with hot transformer oil.
7. Check the oil level and IR value of the bushing in vertical position only,
taking care that the bushing is cleaned and no rope or sling etc., is
touching the terminal and ground.
8. Check the breakdown value (BDV) of oil taken from drain plug or
siphoning from the bottom-most portion of bushing. This should not be
less than the recommended value.
9. Check the IR value and tan delta value (if possible) with bushing in
position on transformer with jumper connection removed. Record thes
readings for reference and guidance for future measurements.
10. Check BDV of oil and IR valus of each bushing periodically during
maintenance shut down. These values should be comparable with the
values recorded at the time of commissionig.
11. Ensure to allow the air to escaape from central tube to the atmosphere
while filling the transformer tank.
12. Maintain the log book records of periodical checks (i.e. tan & and BDV
of oil) up to date.
9.2 Don’ts
1. Do not unpack the bushing from the carte unless required to be mounted
on the transformer.
2. Do not remove the waxed tape protection/metal protective hood from
the oil end portion unless bushing is required for use.
3. Do not store the bushing outdoors without any protective covering.
4. Do not measure the IR value and tan delta value without thoroughly
cleaning the porcelain and oil end portion.
5. Do not store the bushing without oil in porcelain.
6. Do not keep the top cap cover open for any longer time than required
as it contaminates the oil.
7. Do not tighten the nuts and bolts in excess to stop any leakage, this
could damage the cemented joints on porcelain.

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 Chapter - 20

Computerisation–A Tool to Enhance

Engineering Productivity

Transformers are custom designed products. Practically every order requires a

separate design and a new set of drawings. Though certain assemblies/
components have been standardised, these constitute a small part of the total
design effort. A typical transformer may consist of as many as 3000 components/
sub-assemblies, and the complete Engineering Information may require 500
Drawings/Bill of Material. The effect of this huge design/drawing work is that the
issue of Engineering Information takes as much as 25% of the total delivery cycle
of the transformer.

All the components/sub-assemblies/ assemblies that go into a transformer have

to be so designed that they can be assembled properly, any mismatch identified
at the time of manufacture is difficult to rectify. In addition, all modifications carry
a certain penalty in terms of the cost of the product as well as the time taken to
manufacture. Since a large number of drawing have to be made, they are made
simultaneously, adding to the chances of mismatch.

Any Engineering Drawing has, basically, two sets of dimensions that are the most
important part of the drawing. These are

(a) dimensions which are independent variables, i.e. they are derived from
the specification, rating, customers requirement etc.

(b) dimensions which are dependent, i.e. they are derived from either the
independent dimensions–based on certain formulae, or are derived
from certain standard practices or design rules. Using this logic, it is
possible, if the independent dimensions are available, to work out the
dependent, dimensions, and thus all the dimensions needed to make
the drawing can be worked out.

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If we take a top down view of the drawing process, we will see that an assembly
consists of a number of components. Certain dimensions derived from the assembly
are common to a number of components. When the drawings are being made,
any mistake in the common dimensions, either for the assembly or the component
drawing would create a mismatch. In the ordinary course, all drawings with common
dimensions should be checked at the same time to ensure correctness. The fact
that all such drawing may not be available, as well as the possibility of human
error creates mismatches that have to be rectified later at a cost to the organisation.

A new approach has been taken to minimise such errors. Computer programs
have been developed, which take the dimensions identified as independent
variables as inputs. The logic for calculating the dependent variables is built into
the program, and the dependent variables calculated. Based on these dimensions,
and the relations between them, a 3-D model of the component/assembly is
generated by the program. Finally, the program also generates the 2-D Production
Drawing. Since separate programs would cover different assemblies, all the
common dimensions are available while making the component drawings. The
chances of errors/mismatches are thus reduced. Since all the data required to
make the Bill of Material are available, the program generates the Bill of Material
also. The advantages of such system are:

(a) By giving one set of data for an assembly, a number of drawings and
the Bill of Material would be generated. Thus the time taken to make
the drawings and the Bill of Material is reduced.

(b) Since the common dimensions would be given only once, errors due
to mismatch is reduced.

(c) As a 3-D model would be available, the designers can rotate the model
and visualise it from different angles and thus make improvements.

(d) Fouling between different components/assemblies, excess clearances

would be visible on the computer screen in 3-D, allowing corrections to
be made before the drawings are released, or components procured.

(e) The Bill of Material would be generated by the program, and can be
stored in a database for use by the planning groups.

(f) Since all calculations are built into the program, there would be
commonality of logic. Mistakes due to adopting the wrong formulae by
an individual are therefore eliminated.

(g) Any changes in the design philosophy would entail modifications in the
program and the need to ensure proper changes in the individual designs
would be eliminated. This would ensure better design control.

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Based on the above philosophy a Parametric Drawing Generation System
(SYPAD) has been developed. The system is suitable for the design of transformers
following BHEL’s design methods. The system is very comprehensive and would
generate the drawing and the bill of material for a large variety of transformers
with different ratings.

The system has been designed with menu driven prompts so that an user without
any knowledge of 3-D modelling software or database packages can use the
system. The only need is that the user know how to use Auto CAD, which is a
common CAD software. The basic modelling software used in the system is M/s
Autodesk’s Mechanical Desktop. The menu screen for making the system user
friendly as well as the calculation etc. has been developed in Visual Basic, while
Oracle is the backend database.

As an example of the increase in productivity, let us take the case of model shown
in Fig. 1(f). To make the complete assembly seven drawings of the individual
components would have to be made. All seven drawings and the Bill of Material
can be made through one program by giving 40 independent variables as input.
The program calculates, using various formulae, about 160 different dimensions
relevant to the seven drawings. One model of the assembly, and seven models of
the individual components are generated and the 2-D Production Drawings and
Bill of Material data is also stored in a database for future use. Normally, about
three weeks would have been required to make all the drawings. Using the
Parametric Drawing System, the same seven drawings can be made in two days.

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Fgure 1 Shows some of the assemblies which have been developed through the system

134