1

Limits and Continuity

1.0 Tangent Lines, Velocities, Growth

In section 0.2, we estimated the slope of a line tangent to the graph of

a function at a point. At the end of section 0.3, we constructed a new
function that was the slope of the line tangent to the graph of a function
at each point. In both cases, before we could calculate a slope, we had
to estimate the tangent line from the graph of the function, a method
that required an accurate graph and good estimating. In this section
we will start to look at a more precise method of finding the slope of a
tangent line that does not require a graph or any estimation by us.
We will begin with a non-applied problem and then look at two
applications of the same idea.

The Slope of a Line Tangent to a Function at a Point

Our goal is to find a way of exactly determining the slope of the line
that is tangent to a function (to the graph of the function) at a point in a
way that does not require us to actually have the graph of the function.
Let’s start with the problem of finding the slope of the line L (see
margin figure), which is tangent to f ( x ) = x2 at the point (2, 4). We
could estimate the slope of L from the graph, but we won’t. Instead,
we can see that the line through (2, 4) and (3, 9) on the graph of f is
an approximation of the slope of the tangent line, and we can calculate
that slope exactly:
∆y 9−4
m= = =5
∆x 3−2
But m = 5 is only an estimate of the slope of the tangent line—and
not a very good estimate. It’s too big. We can get a better estimate
by picking a second point on the graph of f closer to (2, 4)—the point
(2, 4) is fixed and it must be one of the two points we use. From the
figure in the margin, we can see that the slope of the line through the
points (2, 4) and (2.5, 6.25) is a better approximation of the slope of the
54 contemporary calculus

tangent line at (2, 4):

∆y 6.25 − 4 2.25
m= = = = 4.5
∆x 2.5 − 2 0.5
This is a better estimate, but still an approximation.
We can continue picking points closer and closer to (2, 4) on the
graph of f , and then calculating the slopes of the lines through each of
these points ( x, y) and the point (2, 4):

points to the left of (2, 4) points to the right of (2, 4)

x y = x2 slope x y = x2 slope
1.5 2.25 3.5 3 9 5
1.9 3.61 3.9 2.5 6.25 4.5
1.99 3.9601 3.99 2.01 4.0401 4.01

The only thing special about the x-values we picked is that they are
numbers close—and very close—to x = 2. Someone else might have
picked other nearby values for x. As the points we pick get closer and
closer to the point (2, 4) on the graph of y = x2 , the slopes of the lines
through the points and (2, 4) are better approximations of the slope of
the tangent line, and these slopes are getting closer and closer to 4.
Practice 1. What is the slope of the line through (2, 4) and ( x, y) for
y = x2 and x = 1.994? For x = 2.0003?
We can bypass much of the calculating by not picking the points one
at a time: let’s look at a general point near (2, 4). Define x = 2 + h so
h is the increment from 2 to x (see margin figure). If h is small, then
x = 2 + h is close to 2 and the point (2 + h, f (2 + h)) = 2 + h, (2 + h)2

is close to (2, 4). The slope m of the line through the points (2, 4) and
2 + h, (2 + h)2 is a good approximation of the slope of the tangent

line at the point (2, 4):

∆y (2 + h )2 − 4 (4 + 4h + h2 ) − 4
m= = =
∆x (2 + h ) − 2 h
4h + h2 h (4 + h )
= = = 4+h
h h
If h is very small, then m = 4 + h is a very good approximation to the
slope of the tangent line, and m = 4 + h also happens to be very close
to the value 4. The value m = 4 + h is called the slope of the secant
line through the two points (2, 4) and 2 + h, (2 + h)2 . The limiting

value 4 of m = 4 + h as h gets smaller and smaller is called the slope of

the tangent line to the graph of f at (2, 4).
Example 1. Find the slope of the line tangent to f ( x ) = x2 at the
point (1, 1) by evaluating the slope of the secant line through (1, 1) and
(1 + h, f (1 + h)) and then determining what happens as h gets very
small (see margin figure).
 limits and continuity 55

Solution. The slope of the secant line through the points (1, 1) and
(1 + h, f (1 + h)) is:
f (1 + h ) − 1 (1 + h )2 − 1 (1 + 2h + h2 ) − 1
m= = =
(1 + h ) − 1 h h
2h + h2 h (2 + h )
= = = 2+h
h h
As h gets very small, the value of m approaches the value 2, the slope
of tangent line at the point (1, 1). J

Practice 2. Find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of y =

f ( x ) = x2 at the point (−1, 1) by finding the slope of the secant line,
msec , through the points (−1, 1) and (−1 + h, f (−1 + h)) and then
determining what happens to msec as h gets very small.

Falling Tomato
Suppose we drop a tomato from the top of a 100-foot building (see
margin figure) and record its position at various times during its fall:

time (sec) height (ft)

0.0 100
0.5 96
1.0 84
1.5 64
2.0 36
2.5 0
Some questions are easy to answer directly from the table:
(a) How long did it take for the tomato to drop 100 feet?
(2.5 seconds)
(b) How far did the tomato fall during the first second?
(100 − 84 = 16 feet)
(c) How far did the tomato fall during the last second?
(64 − 0 = 64 feet)
(d) How far did the tomato fall between t = 0.5 and t = 1?
(96 − 84 = 12 feet)
Other questions require a little calculation:
(e) What was the average velocity of the tomato during its fall?
distance fallen ∆position −100 ft ft
average velocity = = = = −40
total time ∆time 2.5 s sec
(f) What was the average velocity between t = 1 and t = 2 seconds?
∆position 36 ft − 84 ft −48 ft ft
average velocity = = = = −48
∆time 2 s−1 s 1s sec
56 contemporary calculus

Some questions are more difficult.

(g) How fast was the tomato falling 1 second after it was dropped?

This question is significantly different from the previous two questions

about average velocity. Here we want the instantaneous velocity, the
velocity at an instant in time. Unfortunately, the tomato is not equipped
with a speedometer, so we will have to give an approximate answer.
One crude approximation of the instantaneous velocity after 1 second
is simply the average velocity during the entire fall, −40 secft . But the
tomato fell slowly at the beginning and rapidly near the end, so this
estimate may or may not be a good answer.
We can get a better approximation of the instantaneous velocity at
t = 1 by calculating the average velocities over a short time interval
near t = 1. The average velocity between t = 0.5 and t = 1 is:
−12 feet ft
= −24
0.5 sec sec
and the average velocity between t = 1 and t = 1.5 is
−20 feet ft
= −40
0.5 sec sec
so we can be reasonably sure that the instantaneous velocity is between
ft and −40 ft .
−24 sec sec
In general, the shorter the time interval over which we calculate the
average velocity, the better the average velocity will approximate the
instantaneous velocity. The average velocity over a time interval is:
∆position
∆time
which is the slope of the secant line through two points on the graph of
height versus time (see margin figure).

∆position
average velocity =
∆time
= slope of the secant line through two points

The instantaneous velocity at a particular time and height is the

slope of the tangent line to the graph at the point given by that time
and height.

instantaneous velocity = slope of the line tangent to the graph

Practice 3. Estimate the instantaneous velocity of the tomato 2 seconds

after it was dropped.
 limits and continuity 57

Growing Bacteria
Suppose we set up a machine to count the number of bacteria growing
on a Petri plate (see margin figure). At first there are few bacteria, so
the population grows slowly. Then there are more bacteria to divide,
so the population grows more quickly. Later, there are more bacteria
and less room and nutrients available for the expanding population, so
the population grows slowly again. Finally, the bacteria have used up
most of the nutrients and the population declines as bacteria die.
The population graph can be used to answer a number of questions:

(a) What is the bacteria population at time t = 3 days?

(about 500 bacteria)
(b) What is the population increment from t = 3 to t = 10 days?
(about 4, 000 bacteria)
(c) What is the rate of population growth from t = 3 to t = 10 days?

To answer this last question, we compute the average change in popula-

tion during that time:

change in population
average change in population =
change in time
∆population 4000 bacteria bacteria
= = ≈ 570
∆time 7 days day

This is the slope of the secant line through (3, 500) and (10, 4500).

∆population
average population growth rate =
∆time
= slope of the secant line through two points

Now for a more difficult question:

(d) What is the rate of population growth on the third day, at t = 3?

This question asks for the instantaneous rate of population change,

the slope of the line tangent to the population curve at (3, 500). If we
sketch a line approximately tangent to the curve at (3, 500) and pick
two points near the ends of the tangent line segment (see margin figure),
we can estimate that the instantaneous rate of population growth is
approximately 320 bacteria .
day

instantaneous population growth rate =

slope of the line tangent to the graph
58 contemporary calculus

Practice 4. Find approximate values for:

(a) the average change in population between t = 9 and t = 13.

(b) the rate of population growth at t = 9 days.

The tangent line problem, the instantaneous velocity problem and

the instantaneous growth rate problem are all similar. In each problem
we wanted to know how rapidly something was changing at an instant
in time, and each problem turned out to involve finding the slope
of a tangent line. The approach in each problem was also the same:
find an approximate solution and then examine what happens to the
approximate solution over shorter and shorter intervals. We will often
use this approach of finding a limiting value, but before we can use
it effectively we need to describe the concept of a limit with more
precision.

1.0 Problems

1. (a) What is the slope of the line through (3, 9) 4. (a) What is the slope of the line through (−1, 2)
and ( x, y) for y = x2 when: and ( x, y) for y = x2 + x − 2 when:
i. x = 2.97? i. x = −0.98?
ii. x = 3.001? ii. x = −1.03?
iii. x = 3 + h? iii. x = −1 + h?
(b) What happens to this last slope when h is very (b) What happens to this last slope when h is very
small (close to 0)? small (close to 0)?
(c) Sketch the graph of y = x2 for x near 3. (c) Sketch the graph of y = x2 + x − 2 for x
2. (a) What is the slope of the line through (−2, 4) near −1.
and ( x, y) for y = x2 when: 5. The figure below shows the temperature during
i. x = −1.98? a day in Ames.
ii. x = −2.03? (a) What was the average change in temperature
iii. x = −2 + h? from 9 a.m. to 1 p.m.?
(b) What happens to this last slope when h is very (b) Estimate how fast the temperature was rising
small (close to 0)? at 10 a.m. and at 7 p.m.
(c) Sketch the graph of y = x2 for x near −2.
3. (a) What is the slope of the line through (2, 4)
and ( x, y) for y = x2 + x − 2 when:
i. x = 1.99?
ii. x = 2.004?
iii. x = 2 + h?
(b) What happens to this last slope when h is very
small (close to 0)?
(c) Sketch the graph of y = x2 + x − 2 for x near 2.
 limits and continuity 59

6. The figure below shows the distance of a car from 8. The figure below shows the composite develop-
a measuring position located on the edge of a mental skill level of chessmasters at different ages
straight road. as determined by their performance against other
(a) What was the average velocity of the car from chessmasters. (From “Rating Systems for Human
t = 0 to t = 30 seconds? Abilities,” by W.H. Batchelder and R.S. Simpson,
(b) What was the average velocity from t = 10 to 1988. UMAP Module 698.)
t = 30 seconds? (a) At what age is the “typical” chessmaster play-
(c) About how fast was the car traveling at t = 10 ing the best chess?
seconds? At t = 20? At t = 30? (b) At approximately what age is the chessmas-
(d) What does the horizontal part of the graph ter’s skill level increasing most rapidly?
between t = 15 and t = 20 seconds tell you? (c) Describe the development of the “typical”
(e) What does the negative velocity at t = 25 rep- chessmaster’s skill in words.
resent? (d) Sketch graphs that you think would reason-
ably describe the performance levels versus
age for an athlete, a classical pianist, a rock
singer, a mathematician and a professional in
your major field.

7. The figure below shows the distance of a car from

a measuring position located on the edge of a
straight road.
(a) What was the average velocity of the car from
9. Define A( x ) to be the area bounded by the t- (hor-
t = 0 to t = 20 seconds?
izontal) and y-axes, the horizontal line y = 3, and
(b) What was the average velocity from t = 10 to the vertical line at x (see figure below). For exam-
t = 30 seconds? ple, A(4) = 12 is the area of the 4 × 3 rectangle.
(c) About how fast was the car traveling at t = 10
(a) Evaluate A(0), A(1), A(2), A(2.5) and A(3).
seconds? At t = 20? At t = 30?
(b) What area would A(4) − A(1) represent?
(c) Graph y = A( x ) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 4.
 60 contemporary calculus

10. Define A( x ) to be the area bounded by the t-

(horizontal) and y-axes, the line y = t + 1, and
the vertical line at x (see figure). For example,
A(4) = 12.

(a) Evaluate A(0), A(1), A(2), A(2.5) and A(3).

(b) What area would A(3) − A(1) represent in the
figure?
(c) Graph y = A( x ) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 4.
 limits and continuity 61

1.0 Practice Answers

1. If x = 1.994, then y = 3.976036, so the slope between (2, 4) and ( x, y)
is:
4−y 4 − 3.976036 0.023964
= = ≈ 3.994
2−x 2 − 1.994 0.006
If x = 2.0003, then y ≈ 4.0012, so the slope between (2, 4) and ( x, y)
is:
4−y 4 − 4.0012 −0.0012
= = ≈ 4.0003
2−x 2 − 2.0003 −0.0003
2. Computing msec :

f (−1 + h) − (1) (−1 + h)2 − 1 1 − 2h + h2 − 1 h(−2 + h)

= = = = −2 + h
(−1 + h) − (−1) h h h

As h → 0, msec = −2 + h → −2.

3. The average velocity between t = 1.5 and t = 2.0 is:

36 − 64 feet feet
= −56
2.0 − 1.5 sec sec
The average velocity between t = 2.0 and t = 2.5 is:

0 − 36 feet feet
= −72
2.5 − 2.0 sec sec

The velocity at t = 2.0 is somewhere between −56 feet feet

sec and −72 sec ,
probably around the middle of this interval:

(−56) + (−72) feet

= −64
2 sec

4. (a) When t = 9 days, the population is approximately P = 4, 200

bacteria. When t = 13, P ≈ 5, 000. The average change in
population is approximately:

5000 − 4200 bacteria 800 bacteria bacteria

= = 200
13 − 9 days 4 days day

(b) To find the rate of population growth at t = 9 days, sketch

the line tangent to the population curve at the point (9, 4200)
and then use (9, 4200) and another point on the tangent line to
calculate the slope of the line. Using the approximate values
(5, 2800) and (9, 4200), the slope of the tangent line at the point
(9, 4200) is approximately:

4200 − 2800 bacteria 1400 bacteria bacteria

= ≈ 350
9 − 5 days 4 days day