QUESTION 01

COUNTING

An efficient way of counting is necessary to handle large masses of statistical data (e.g. the level of
inventory at the end of a given month, or the number of production runs on a given machine in a 24-
hour period, etc.), and for an understanding of probability.

In this section, we shall develop a few counting techniques. Such techniques will enable us to count the
following, without having to list all of the items:

 the number of ways,

 the number of samples, or

 the number of outcomes.

Addition Rule
Let E1 and E2 be mutually exclusive events (i.e. there are no common
outcomes).

Let event E describe the situation where either event E1 or event E2 will occur.

The number of times event E will occur can be given by the expression:

n(E) = n(E1) + n(E2)

where

n(E) = Number of outcomes of event E

n(E1) = Number of outcomes of event E1

n(E2) = Number of outcomes of event E2

[We see more on mutually exclusive events later in this chapter.]

Example 1
Consider a set of
numbers S={−4,−2,1,3,5,6,7,8,9,10}S={−4,−2,1,3,5,6,7,8,9,10}
Let the events E1, E2 and E3 be defined as:

E = choosing a negative or an odd number from S;

E1= choosing a negative number from S;

E2 = choosing an odd number from S.

Find n(E).

Answer

E1 and E2 are mutually exclusive events (i.e. no common outcomes).

n(E) = n(E1) + n(E2)

=2+5

=7

The Multiplication Rule

If A and B are two events defined on a sample space, then:

P(A AND B)=P(B)×P(A|B)

OR

P(A AND B)=P(A)×P(B|A)

This rule may also be written as:

P(A|B)=P(A AND B)÷P(B)

OR

P(B|A)=P(A AND B) P(A)

(The probability of AA given BB equals the probability of AA and BB divided by the probability of BB.)

If AA and BB are independent, then

P(A|B)=P(A) AND

P(B|A)=P(B).

and Equation Becomes

P(A AND B)=P(A)P(B).

EXAMPLE

Klaus is trying to choose where to go on vacation. His two choices are: A=New Zealand A=New
Zealand and B=Alaska B=Alaska.

 Klaus can only afford one vacation. The probability that he chooses AA is P(A)=0.6P(A)=0.6 and
the probability that he chooses BB is P(B)=0.35P(B)=0.35.

 P(A AND B)=0P(A AND B)=0 because Klaus can only afford to take one vacation

 Therefore, the probability that he chooses either New Zealand or Alaska is P(A OR B)=P(A)
+P(B)=0.6+0.35=0.95P(A OR B)=P(A)+P(B)=0.6+0.35=0.95. Note that the probability that he does
not choose to go anywhere on vacation must be 0.05.

EXAMPLE 2

Carlos plays college soccer. He makes a goal 65% of the time he shoots. Carlos is going to attempt two
goals in a row in the next game. A=A= the event Carlos is successful on his first
attempt. P(A)=0.65P(A)=0.65. B=B= the event Carlos is successful on his second
attempt. P(B)=0.65P(B)=0.65. Carlos tends to shoot in streaks. The probability that he makes the second
goal GIVEN that he made the first goal is 0.90.

a. What is the probability that he makes both goals?

b. What is the probability that Carlos makes either the first goal or the second goal?

c. Are AA and BB independent?

d. Are AA and BB mutually exclusive?

Solutions

a. The problem is asking you to find

P(A AND B)=P(B AND A)P(A AND B)=P(B AND A).

Since P(B|A)=0.90:
P(B AND A)=P(B|A)×P(A)
= (0.90)(0.65)=0.585

Carlos makes the first and second goals with probability 0.585.
 b. The problem is asking you to find P(A OR B)P(A OR B).

P(A OR B)=P(A)+P(B)−P(A AND B)

=0.65+0.65−0.585=0.715

Carlos makes either the first goal or the second goal with probability 0.715

c. No, they are not, because P(B AND A)=0.585P(B AND A)=0.585.

So P(A AND B)≠P(A)

d. No, they are not because P(A and B)=0.585P(A and B)=0.585.

To be mutually exclusive, P(A AND B)P(A AND B) must equal zero.

he Set Decomposition Counting Principle is a strategy in combinatorics

used to count the number of elements in a union of sets when those sets can
be broken down or decomposed into smaller, non-overlapping sets. This
principle is particularly useful when applying the Inclusion-Exclusion
Principle or when sets can be broken down into simpler components.

Basic Idea:

The Set Decomposition Counting Principle states that if a set AAA can be
decomposed into disjoint subsets A1,A2,…,AkA_1, A_2, \dots, A_kA1,A2,…,Ak,
then the number of elements in AAA can be computed as the sum of the
number of elements in each of these disjoint subsets:

∣A∣=∣A1∣+∣A2∣+⋯+∣Ak∣|A| = |A_1| + |A_2| + \dots + |A_k|∣A∣=∣A1∣+∣A2∣+⋯+∣Ak∣

This is valid only if the sets A1,A2,…,AkA_1, A_2, \dots, A_kA1,A2,…,Ak are
disjoint, meaning they do not overlap (i.e., Ai∩Aj=∅A_i \cap A_j = \
emptysetAi∩Aj=∅ for i≠ji \neq ji=j).

Applications:

1. Counting the Total in Disjoint Categories: If you're counting the

number of elements in a set that can be broken down into several
disjoint subsets, you can use this principle to add the sizes of the
subsets directly.
Example: Suppose you have a set of 100 students, and they are categorized
into 3 disjoint groups based on their major:

o 40 students are in Computer Science,

o 30 students are in Mathematics,
o 30 students are in Physics.

Using the Set Decomposition Counting Principle, the total number of

students in the union of these three groups is:

40+30+30=10040 + 30 + 30 = 10040+30+30=100

2. Inclusion-Exclusion Principle: In cases where sets might overlap, we

use the Inclusion-Exclusion Principle, which involves decomposing
sets into smaller, disjoint parts and then applying inclusion-exclusion to
account for overlap.

If you have two sets AAA and BBB, then:

∣A∪B∣=∣A∣+∣B∣−∣A∩B∣|A \cup B| = |A| + |B| - |A \cap B|∣A∪B∣=∣A∣+∣B∣−∣A∩B∣

This formula ensures that any overlap between AAA and BBB is only counted
once.

Example:

Consider two sets of numbers:

 A={1,2,3,4}
 B={3,4,5,6}

The number of elements in the union A∪BA \cup BA∪B using

decomposition:

1. Break A∪B into disjoint sets:

o A1={1,2} (elements in A but not in B)
o A2={3,4} (elements in both A and B)
o A3={5,6} (elements in B but not in A)
2. The total number of distinct elements in A∪B is

∣A∪B∣=∣A1∣+∣A2∣+∣A3∣

=2+2+2=6

This matches the number of elements in A∪B={1,2,3,4,5,6}

COMPLEMENT RULE

The complement of an event AA is the set of all outcomes in the sample

space that are not in AA. The complement of AA is denoted by ACAC and is
read “not AA.”

EXAMPLE 01

Suppose you roll a fair six-sided die with the numbers 1,2,3,4,5,6 on the
faces. Previously, we found the sample space for this experiment:

S={1,2,3,4,5,6}

1. What is the complement of the event “rolling a 4”?

2. What is the complement of the event “rolling a number greater than or
equal to 5”?
3. What is the complement of the event “rolling a even number”?
4. What is the complement of the event “rolling a number less than 4”?

ANSWERS

1. The complement is {1,2,3,5,6}

2. The complement is {1,2,3,4}
3. The complement is {1,3,5}
4. The complement is {1,2,3,4}

The Probability of the Complement

In any experiment, an event AA or its complement AC must occur. This
means that P(A)+P(AC)=1P(A)+P(AC)=1. Rearranging this equation gives us
a formula for finding the probability of the complement from the original
event:

P(AC)=1−P(A)÷P(AC)

=1−P(A)

EXAMPLE 02

At a local college, a statistics professor has a class of 80 students. After

polling the students in the class, the professor finds out that 15 of the
students play on one of the school’s sports team and 60 of the students have
part-time jobs.

1. What is the probability that a student in the class does not play
on one of the school’s sports teams?
2. What is the probability that a student in the class does not have
a part-time job?

ANSWERS

1. P(no sports team)=1−P(sports team)=1−(15÷80)=0.8125

2. P(no part-time job)=1−P(part-time job)=1−(60÷80)=0.25

Concept Review

The complement, ACAC, of an event AA consists of all of the outcomes in the

sample space that are NOT in event AA. The probability of the complement
can be found from the original event using the
formula: P(AC)=1−P(A)÷P(AC)=1−P(A).

PIGEON –HOLE PRINCIPLE

The Pigeonhole Principle can be formally stated as follows:

“If n items are distributed among m containers and n > m, then at least one
container must contain more than one item.”

The pigeonhole principle is useful in counting methods. In order to apply the

principle, one has to decide which objects will play the role of pigeon and
which objects will play the role of pigeonholes.
Pigeonhole Principle Example

Suppose that a flock of 20 pigeons flies into a set of 19 pigeonholes to roost.

Because there are 20 pigeons but only 19 pigeonholes, at least one of these
19 pigeonholes must have at least two pigeons in it. To see why this is true,
note that if each pigeonhole had at most one pigeon, at most 19 pigeons,
one per hole, could be accommodated. This illustrates a general principle
called the pigeonhole principle, which states that if there are more pigeons
than pigeonholes, there must be at least one pigeonhole with at least two
pigeons.

Pigeonhole Principle Theorem

Theorem -I) If “A” is the average number of pigeons per hole, where A is
not an integer then

 At least one pigeon hole contains ceil[A] (smallest integer greater

than or equal to A) pigeons.

 The remaining pigeon holes contain at most floor[A] (largest integer

less than or equal to A) pigeons.

Or II) We can say that, if n + 1 objects are put into n boxes, then at least one
box contains two or more objects. The abstract formulation of the principle:
Let X and Y be finite sets and let f: A→B be a function.

 If X has more elements than Y, then f is not one-to-one.

 If X and Y have the same number of elements and f is onto, then f is

one-to-one.

 If X and Y have the same number of elements and f is one-to-one, then

f is onto.

The pigeonhole principle is one of the simplest but most useful ideas in
mathematics. We will see more applications that proof of this theorem.

QUESTION 02

COMBINATION AND PERMUTATION

A permutation is an arrangement with an order and the order is relevant. The
permutation ABC is different to the permutation ACB.

A combination is a collection of things without an order or where the order is

not relevant. The combination ABC is the same as the combination ACB.

PERMUTATIONS WITH REPETITION

Most examples can be approached in two different ways, by filling in boxes,

or by using formulas.

If the ordering is relevant, repetitions are allowed and there are 𝑛𝑛 objects to
choose from, then there are nr different arrangements of 𝑟 objects possible.
Example

Choose a 4 digit PIN from the digits 0 to 9. Repetition is allowed.

Use the formula= 𝑛r

=104

=10000

PERMUTATIONS WITHOUT REPETITION

Most examples can be approached in two different ways, by

filling in boxes, or by using formulas.

If the ordering is relevant, repetitions are not allowed and there

are 𝑛𝑛 objects to choose from, then there are

nPr= (n−r )!
n!

different arrangements of 𝑟 objects possible.

From a group of 10 people in the club choose 3 different people to be

president, secretary and treasurer.
 n!
From the formula= nPr=
(n−r )!

10!
=
7!

=720

COMBINATION WITHOUT REPETITION

If the ordering is not relevant, repetitions are not allowed and there are 𝑛𝑛
objects to choose from, then there are

n!
Cr = r ! (n−r )!
n

Then;
(n+ r−1)!
Cr= r !(n−r )!
n+r-1

Example 01

how many ways 3 fruits can be chosen from a selection of 5 different

fruits (A, B, C, D, E).

This is a combination problem because the order in which the fruits are
chosen does not matter.

The formula for combinations is:

n!
Cr = r ! (n−r )!
n

Where:

 n is the total number of items (5 fruits),

 r is the number of items to choose (3 fruits).

Plug the values in the formula,

 Thus; C(5,3) = 10

So, there are 10 ways to choose 3 fruits from 5.

Example 02;

A fruit vendor has 8 different types of fruits. If a customer wants to buy

a backet containing 5 different fruits, how many different fruit
combinations can the customer choose?

Solution

Given n=8 ; r=5

From
n!
nCr = r ! (n−r )!

Plug the values, thus C(8,5) = 56

Hence there are 56 ways the customer can choose the fruits.

QUESTION 3

Applications of counting principles and related concepts in mechatronics and marine

engineering.
There are several types of design that engineers and designers use in various fields to create
products, systems, and structures. Each type of design serves a specific purpose and requires
different approaches and methodologies. Here are some of the most common types of design:

1. Architectural Design: This type of design focuses on the aesthetics, functionality, and spatial
layout of buildings and structures. Architects use architectural design to create blueprints, floor
plans, and 3D models of buildings.

2. Industrial Design: Industrial designers focus on the form, function, and usability of products
and consumer goods. They consider factors such as ergonomics, materials, manufacturing
processes, and user experience in their designs.

3. Graphic Design: Graphic designers create visual content for print, digital media, advertising,
and branding purposes. They use typography, imagery, color theory, and layout principles to
communicate messages effectively.

4. Interior Design: Interior designers plan and design the layout, furniture, colors, and decor of
interior spaces such as homes, offices, restaurants, and retail stores. They consider aesthetics,
functionality, and user experience in their designs.

5. Mechanical Design: Mechanical engineers use mechanical design to develop components,

machinery, and systems that involve moving parts. They consider factors such as strength,
durability, materials, and mechanical properties in their designs.

6. Electrical Design: Electrical engineers design electrical systems, circuits, and components for
various applications such as power distribution, control systems, electronics, and
telecommunications. They consider factors such as voltage, current, resistance, and safety in
their designs.

7. Software Design: Software engineers use software design to create algorithms, data structures,
user interfaces, and architecture for computer programs and applications. They consider factors
such as scalability, performance, security, and user experience in their designs.

8. Product Design: Product designers focus on creating innovative and marketable products that
meet user needs and preferences. They consider factors such as aesthetics, functionality,
manufacturability, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability in their designs.

9. User Experience (UX) Design: UX designers focus on enhancing the usability, accessibility,
and satisfaction of digital products and interfaces for end users. They consider factors such as
user research, information architecture, interaction design, and usability testing in their designs.
10. Systems Design: Systems engineers use systems design to analyze and optimize complex
systems with multiple interconnected components. They consider factors such as requirements
analysis, system architecture, integration, and performance in their designs.

These are just a few examples of the many types of design disciplines that exist in engineering
and related fields. Each type of design requires specialized knowledge, skills, and tools to create
successful solutions that meet the needs of users, clients, and stakeholders.