1.

The Poems of Hesiod: Theogony and Works and Days (Greek)

Hesiod was an ancient Greek poet known for two major works: Theogony and Works
and Days.
●​ Theogony is a mythological epic that explains the origins of the gods, the
creation of the universe, and the rise of Zeus as the supreme deity.
●​ Works and Days is a didactic poem offering practical advice on hard work,
justice, and morality, emphasizing the value of honest labor and the role of divine
justice. It also includes the myth of Pandora and the origins of human suffering.

In simple terms, the myth of Pandora's Box tells the story of Pandora, the first woman
made by the gods. She is given a box by Zeus and is told not to open it. But, curiosity
gets the best of her, and when she opens it, all the bad things in the world—like
sickness, pain, and death—escape and spread across the Earth. However, at the
bottom of the box, there is one thing left inside: Hope. Even though people will face
suffering, Hope stays with them, helping them cope in hard times.
The story explains why bad things happen in the world, but also reminds us that hope
can always be found, even when things seem tough.

2. The Iliad and The Odyssey (Greek)

Main Characters in The Iliad

1.​ Achilles

●​ Role: The greatest Greek warrior in the Trojan War.

●​ Attributes: Achilles is a demi-god, the son of the mortal Peleus and the
sea goddess Thetis. He is nearly invincible, with only one weakness—the
heel (which leads to the expression "Achilles' heel"). In The Iliad, Achilles'
central trait is his rage (often referred to as "the wrath of Achilles"),
particularly after he feels dishonored by Agamemnon when the latter takes
his prize, Briseis.
●​ Character Arc: Achilles withdraws from battle in a furious tantrum, which
leads to significant losses for the Greeks. His rage is only subdued after
 the death of his close friend Patroclus, which propels him back into the
war for revenge against Hector, the Trojan prince who killed Patroclus.
●​ Themes: Achilles embodies the Greek heroic ideal—strength, courage,
and honor—but also the flaws of pride, anger, and a thirst for revenge that
brings tragedy to both himself and others.
2.​ Hector
●​ Role: The greatest warrior of the Trojans and the brother of Paris.
●​ Attributes: Hector is a prince of Troy and the son of King Priam and Queen
Hecuba. He is a noble and honorable figure, known for his bravery and
leadership on the battlefield. Unlike Achilles, Hector's actions are
motivated by a sense of duty to protect his city and family rather than
personal glory.
●​ Character Arc: Hector is the main rival of Achilles, and his death at the
hands of Achilles is one of the most significant events in the epic. Before
his death, Hector is shown to be a loving husband to Andromache and a
devoted father to his son Astyanax.
●​ Themes: Hector represents the tragic hero, whose courage and sense of
responsibility ultimately lead to his death. He contrasts with Achilles in that
his honor is tied to duty to others, especially his family and city, rather than
to personal glory.
3.​ Agamemnon
●​ Role: The leader of the Greek forces in the Trojan War.
●​ Attributes: Agamemnon is the brother of Menelaus, whose wife Helen's
abduction by Paris triggers the war. He is a powerful and authoritative
figure, but his pride and desire for honor cause conflicts, particularly with
Achilles. His decision to take Briseis, Achilles' prize, sparks the rift
between them.
 ●​ Character Arc: Agamemnon struggles with his leadership, sometimes
appearing as a capable and heroic king, but his inability to reconcile with
Achilles weakens his authority.
●​ Themes: Agamemnon's actions explore themes of leadership, honor, and
the costs of pride. His quarrel with Achilles is a central catalyst for the
events of the war.
4.​ Helen
●​ Role: The cause of the Trojan War, wife of Menelaus and lover of Paris.
●​ Attributes: Helen is often depicted as the most beautiful woman in the
world, and her abduction by Paris from her husband Menelaus sparks the
Trojan War. In The Iliad, she feels guilty and conflicted over the war and
the destruction it has caused. Her beauty and role in the conflict have
made her both a victim and a symbol of destructive desire.
●​ Character Arc: Helen's internal conflict is evident as she mourns the
deaths caused by the war. She interacts with the Trojan leaders,
particularly Paris and Hector, showing her divided loyalties.
●​ Themes: Helen represents the destructive power of beauty, the
complexities of loyalty, and the human cost of vanity and pride.
5.​ Priam
●​ Role: The king of Troy and father of Hector and Paris.
●​ Attributes: Priam is a wise and compassionate ruler, deeply devoted to his
family and his city. He is a tragic father who loses his sons and sees his
kingdom fall. Priam's character is most prominent when he goes to
Achilles' camp to ransom Hector's body.
●​ Character Arc: Priam's journey to plead for Hector's body is one of the
most emotional moments in The Iliad. He appeals to Achilles as a father,
reminding him of his own father and showing humility despite the ongoing
war.
 ●​ Themes: Priam embodies paternal love, humility, and the humanizing
power of compassion, even in the face of immense loss.

The Odyssey (about Odysseus' journey home):

1.​ Odysseus
●​ Role: King of Ithaca, the hero of The Odyssey.
●​ Description: Odysseus is the clever and resourceful king of Ithaca, known
for his intelligence and trickery. After the Trojan War, he embarks on a long
and perilous journey to return home. His adventures take him to mythical
creatures and divine beings, but his ultimate goal is to reunite with his
wife, Penelope, and son, Telemachus.
2.​ Penelope
●​ Role: Wife of Odysseus.
●​ Description: Penelope is known for her loyalty and cleverness. While
Odysseus is away for 20 years, she fends off suitors who want to marry
her, believing Odysseus to be dead. She uses her wit to delay remarrying,
most famously by promising to choose a suitor once she finishes weaving
a funeral shroud for Odysseus, only to secretly unravel part of it each
night.
3.​ Telemachus
●​ Role: Son of Odysseus and Penelope.
●​ Description: Telemachus starts as a young man uncertain of his place in
the world but grows into a capable leader. He embarks on a journey to find
his father, who has been missing for many years, and plays a crucial role
in Odysseus' return.
4.​ Athena
●​ Role: Goddess of wisdom and war, protector of Odysseus.
●​ Description: Athena is one of the most important deities in The Odyssey.
She favors Odysseus and helps him throughout his journey, using her
divine powers to protect him and guide him. She often appears in disguise
and acts as a mentor to both Odysseus and Telemachus.
5.​ Poseidon
●​ Role: God of the sea, antagonist to Odysseus.
●​ Description: Poseidon is angry with Odysseus because the hero blinded
his son, the Cyclops Polyphemus. As a result, Poseidon hinders
Odysseus' journey home, creating storms and other obstacles.
6.​ Circe
●​ Role: Sorceress.
 ●​ Description: Circe is a powerful enchantress who initially turns Odysseus'
men into swine. However, after Odysseus resists her magic, she becomes
an ally and helps him by providing guidance on how to survive the
dangers ahead, including a visit to the Underworld.
7.​ Calypso
●​ Role: Nymph who lives on the island of Ogygia.
●​ Description: Calypso is a beautiful nymph who falls in love with Odysseus
and keeps him on her island for several years, offering him immortality if
he stays with her. Eventually, the gods order her to let Odysseus go, and
she reluctantly does so.
8.​ The Suitors
●​ Role: A group of men vying for Penelope’s hand.
●​ Description: While Odysseus is away, a group of suitors invades his
palace, eating his food and behaving arrogantly, believing Odysseus is
dead. They represent disorder and corruption, and Odysseus returns to
reclaim his kingdom by defeating them.

3. Voluspa, Codex Regius (Grimmismal and Vafthrudmismal) a.k.a. Elder or Poetic

Edda, Younger Edda (Norse)

Elder Edda (Poetic Edda): A collection of Norse poems (10th-13th century), focusing
on gods (Odin, Thor, Loki) and heroes. It includes key myths like creation, Ragnarok,
and the wisdom of Odin. Notable poems: Voluspa (prophecy of the end of the world),
Vafthrudnismal (Odin’s riddle contest), and Grímnismál (Odin’s teachings).

Younger Edda (Prose Edda): Written by Snorri Sturluson (13th century), it explains
and organizes the myths found in the Poetic Edda. It consists of Gylfaginning (the
creation and fate of the gods), Skáldskaparmál (poetic metaphors), and Háttatal (poetic
meters).

Importance: These texts preserve Norse mythology, explaining the lives and fate of
gods, creation myths, and cosmic ideas like Ragnarok. They are central to
understanding Viking beliefs and culture

4. Pyramid Texts, Coffin Texts, The Book of the Dead (Egyptian)

The Pyramid Texts, Coffin Texts, and The Book of the Dead are ancient Egyptian
writings meant to help people in the afterlife.
1. Pyramid Texts (Old Kingdom, around 2500 BCE):
These are the oldest funerary texts, written for pharaohs (kings) and carved into the
walls of royal pyramids. They contain spells, prayers, and hymns to help the king reach
the afterlife and live forever.

2. Coffin Texts (Middle Kingdom, around 2000 BCE):

These texts were similar to the Pyramid Texts but were written for ordinary people, not
just kings. They were inscribed on coffins and tombs. Like the Pyramid Texts, they
helped guide the dead through the afterlife.

3. The Book of the Dead (New Kingdom, around 1500 BCE):

This is a more personal version of the funerary texts. It was written on papyrus
(paper-like material) and could include up to 200 chapters. The Book of the Dead was
placed in the tomb of the deceased, with prayers and spells to help them safely travel
through the afterlife. It was for anyone, not just the wealthy or royal.

5. Stone Tablets (Mesopotamian/Sumerian)

The Epic of Gilgamesh is the oldest known piece of literature, written on stone tablets
in cuneiform around 2150–1400 BCE in ancient Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq). The
author is unknown, and the story was passed down through various versions.
Summary:
First Half: Gilgamesh is the king of a city called Uruk, but he's a bad ruler—he's cruel
and selfish. The gods create Enkidu, a wild man, to challenge him and teach him a
lesson. Enkidu and Gilgamesh become best friends, and they go on exciting adventures
together.
Second Half: When Enkidu dies, Gilgamesh is heartbroken. He can't accept losing his
friend and the idea of death, so he goes on a dangerous journey to find a way to live
forever and escape death.
The story is about friendship, loss, and the search for immortality.
6. Kojiki and Nihon Shoki. (Japanese)
Kojiki (Record of Ancient Matters)
●​ Date: Completed in 712 CE.
●​ Author: Written by Ō no Yasumaro on the request of Empress Gemmei.
●​ Content: The oldest surviving record of Japan's myths, legends, and history. It
includes the creation myths of Japan and the origins of the Japanese imperial
family.
●​ Structure: Written in a mix of poetry and songs, using Man’yōgana, an early
writing system.
●​ Focus:
●​ Myths about the Kami (gods) and the divine origins of Japan’s imperial
family.
●​ Amaterasu, the sun goddess, is central to the myth of imperial descent.
●​ Shinto beliefs and the divine creation of Japan.

Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan)

●​ Date: Completed in 720 CE.

●​ Author: Compiled by Prince Toneri and other court officials.
●​ Content: A more detailed historical chronicle of Japan, covering the same period
as the Kojiki, but with a focus on historical events, political history, and foreign
relations.
●​ Structure: Written in classical Chinese, with a more formal style compared to the
Kojiki.
●​ Focus:
●​ The history of Japan's emperors and important events.
●​ Incorporates Buddhist influences and Confucian ideas, blending them with
Shinto beliefs.
●​ Emphasizes the legitimacy of the imperial family and divine ancestry.

Key Differences:

●​ Kojiki: Focuses more on mythology, Shinto, and the divine origins of Japan.
●​ Nihon Shoki: A more historical text, emphasizing historical records, political
events, and foreign diplomacy with Buddhist influences.
Sources of Folklore
The Panchatantra is a famous collection of Indian fables and animal stories,
traditionally attributed to the ancient Indian scholar Vishnu Sharma (sometimes referred
to as Bidpai or Bidpai). The stories are written in Sanskrit and are grouped into five
books. Each of these books contains a series of tales designed to teach moral lessons
or principles of living wisely and justly.
Here’s a simple breakdown of the five chapters of the Panchatantra:
1.​ Mitra-Bheda (The Separation of Friends):
●​ This book contains stories about how friendships can be broken and
the consequences of disunity. It teaches the importance of loyalty, trust,
and wise decision-making in relationships.
2.​ Mitra-Labh (The Gaining of Friends):
●​ The focus here is on the value of making and maintaining good
friendships. The stories show how strong alliances can lead to success
and the importance of being kind and helpful to others.
3.​ Kākolūkīyam (The War of Crows and Owls):
●​ This section discusses the dynamics of conflicts and competition, using
animals like crows and owls as metaphors for human struggles. It
emphasizes the need for strategy, patience, and understanding during
conflicts.
4.​ Labdhapraṇāśam (Loss of Gains):
●​ This book highlights how easily success can be lost due to greed,
arrogance, or bad judgment. The stories emphasize the importance of
keeping one's gains with careful planning and wisdom.
5.​ Aparīkṣitakāriṇam (The Foolishness of Acting Without Thinking):
●​ The final book teaches the dangers of acting impulsively or without proper
thinking. It warns against hasty decisions and stresses the importance of
being cautious and thoughtful in all actions.

2. The Thousand and One Nights or Arabian Nights

The Thousand and One Nights, also known as Arabian Nights, is a famous collection of
Middle Eastern folktales. It is best known for being a frame story, which means it
contains a main narrative in which multiple smaller stories are told. This collection was
compiled in Arabic during the Islamic Golden Age (roughly between the 8th and 14th
centuries), though many of the stories originated from earlier Persian, Indian, and Arab
traditions.
 1.​ Aladdin and the Magic Lamp
●​ Story: Aladdin, a poor boy, is given a magical lamp that houses a powerful
genie. With the help of the genie, Aladdin gains wealth and marries the
princess, but he must outwit an evil sorcerer who wants to steal the lamp.
●​ Themes: Cleverness, fate, desire for wealth, and overcoming evil.
2.​ Sinbad the Sailor
●​ Story: Sinbad is a sailor who embarks on incredible voyages full of
adventures, facing giant monsters, mythical islands, and supernatural
events. Despite the dangers, Sinbad's wit and bravery allow him to survive
and grow rich.
●​ Themes: Courage, adventure, survival, and the unpredictability of fate.
3.​ Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves
●​ Story: Ali Baba, a poor woodcutter, discovers the secret cave of a group of
forty thieves, which can only be opened by saying the words “Open
Sesame.” Using this knowledge, Ali Baba becomes rich, but the thieves
seek revenge.
●​ Themes: Cunning, greed, resourcefulness, and the consequences of
discovering hidden truths.
4.​ The Three Apples
●​ Story: A murder mystery unfolds when a nobleman finds that his wife has
been killed. The search for the killer leads to a series of twists and turns
involving love, betrayal, and fate.
●​ Themes: Justice, mystery, and the power of truth.
5.​ The Fisherman and the Genie
●​ Story: A poor fisherman releases a trapped genie from a bottle, and the
genie offers him three wishes. The fisherman must outsmart the genie,
who has a plan to take revenge on those who imprisoned him.
●​ Themes: Cleverness, justice, and the power of mercy.

3. Grimm’s Fairy Tales

Grimm's Fairy Tales is a collection of traditional German folktales that were gathered
and published by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, two German brothers, in the early 19th
century. These stories became some of the most famous and influential fairy tales in the
world.

Key Features of Grimm's Fairy Tales:

 1.​ Collection of Folktales:
●​ The Grimms didn't create these stories; they collected and preserved them
from oral traditions that had been passed down through generations. The
tales were often told by common people and then transcribed by the
brothers.
●​ Their first major collection, titled "Grimm's Children's and Household
Tales" (Grimm's Märchen), was published in 1812. Over time, the
collection grew and became one of the most widely read books in Europe.

Examples of Grimm's Most Famous Fairy Tales:

1.​ Cinderella (Aschenputtel)

●​ A girl mistreated by her stepfamily is helped by a fairy godmother and wins
the love of a prince. A classic tale of kindness overcoming cruelty and
reward for goodness.
2.​ The Twelve Brothers
●​ A king's twelve sons are turned into swans by their wicked stepmother.
The story is about family loyalty, love, and the triumph of good over evil.
3.​ The Fisherman and His Wife
●​ A fisherman catches a magical fish that grants wishes. His wife’s greed
leads to her downfall. This tale teaches lessons about greed and the
importance of being satisfied with what one has.
4.​ The Golden Goose
●​ A simple man finds a golden goose that makes people stick to each other
when they touch it. This story is about generosity, luck, and unexpected
rewards.

5. Hansel and Gretel: A brother and sister are abandoned in the woods by their wicked
stepmother and find a house made of candy, owned by a wicked witch. The story
highlights themes of resourcefulness and bravery.

6. Rapunzel: A young girl is locked in a tower by a witch but is eventually rescued by a

prince. This tale explores freedom, love, and the power of resilience.

7. Little Red Riding Hood: A young girl, on her way to visit her grandmother, is deceived
and eaten by a wolf, only to be rescued in the end. This story teaches lessons about
caution and trust.

Grimm's Fairy Tales are beloved around the world because of their timeless themes,
their vivid characters, and their rich blend of magic and morality. They continue to be
read by children and adults alike, and their lessons about right and wrong, courage, and
kindness remain relevant today.

4. Aesop’s Fables (Aesopica)

Aesop's Fables (also known as Aesopica) is a collection of short stories attributed to

Aesop, a slave and storyteller believed to have lived in ancient Greece around 620 to
564 BCE. These fables have been passed down through generations, often told orally,
and have become some of the most famous morality tales in the world.

Key Features of Aesop's Fables:

1.​ Moral Lessons:

●​ Each fable ends with a moral lesson or teaching. The lessons typically
emphasize virtues like honesty, hard work, kindness, and wisdom, or warn
against negative traits like greed, pride, and dishonesty.
●​ The fables are known for their simplicity and clarity, making them easy to
understand and remember, especially for children.
2.​ Animal Characters:
●​ A distinctive feature of Aesop’s Fables is the use of animals as characters.
These animals often represent human qualities or behaviors, making the
stories relatable. For example, the fox might symbolize cleverness or
cunning, while the lion could represent strength or nobility.
●​ The animals in the fables speak and act like humans, which allows them
to teach lessons about human nature.
3.​ A Total of 725 Fables:
●​ Aesop's original collection is said to consist of around 725 fables, though
the number can vary depending on the version. Over time, the fables have
been adapted, retold, and expanded, with new stories being added while
others were refined.
●​ These fables were originally shared orally and were often used for
entertainment and instruction.