LESSON-11

BIODIVERSITY AND IT’S THREAT

INTRODUCTION
The word Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms(flora and fauna). Biodiversity or Biological diversity is
defined as the variability among all living Organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine, and other
aquatic
Ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are part. E.O. Wilson in 1988 defined ‘Biological diversity’ or
‘biodiversity’ as that part of nature that Includes the differences in genes among the individuals of a species, the
variety And richness of all the plant and animal species at different scales in space i.e.Local, regional, country wise
and global, and various types of ecosystems – both Terrestrial and aquatic – within a defined area.

TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY
Biological diversity deals with the degree of nature’s variety in the biosphere. This variety can be observed at three
levels i.e., genetic, species, and ecosystem.

Genetic Diversity :Genetic diversity refers to the variation at the level of individual genes. A Tremendous amount of
genetic diversity exists within individual species. This Genetic variability is responsible for the different characters in
species. Genetic
Diversity is the raw material from which new species arise through evolution. Today, Genetic diversity is used to
breed new crop varieties and disease-resistant crops.

Species Diversity: The number of species of plants and animals that are present in a region constitutes it’s species
diversity. This diversity is seen both in natural ecosystem and in Agricultural ecosystem. Some areas are richer in
species than others. For example, Natural undisturbed tropical forests have much greater species richness than
Mono-culture plantations developed by the forest department for timber products. A natural forest ecosystem
provides a large number of non-timber forest products that local people depend on such as fruits, fuel, wood,
fodder, fiber, gum, resin, And medicines. Timber plantations do not provide the large variety of goods that are
essential for local consumption. Modern intensive agro ecosystems have a Relatively lower density of crops than
traditional agro-pastoral farming systems, Where multiple crops are planted.
Unit V: Global Environmental Issues and Policies
Unit VII: Human Communities and the Environment
• Causes of Climate change, Global warming, Ozone layer • Human population growth: Impacts on environment,
depletion, and Acid rain; Impacts on human communities, human Health, and welfare; Carbon foot-print
biodiversity, global economy, and agriculture • Resettlement and rehabilitation of developmental project
• International agreements and programmes: Earth Summit, Affected persons and communities; relevant case studies•
UNFCCC, Montreal and Kyoto protocols, Convention on Environmental movements: Chipko movement, Appiko
Biological Diversity (CBD), Ramsar convention, The Chemical Movement, Silent valley movement, Bishnois of Rajasthan,
Weapons Convention (CWC), UNEP, CITES, etc. Narmada Bachao Andolan, etc
• Sustainable Development Goals: India’s National Action • Environmental justice: National Green Tribunal and its
Plan on Climate Change and its major missions Importance
• Environment legislation in India: Wildlife Protection Act, • Environmental philosophy: Environmental ethics; Role of
1972; Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; Various religions and cultural practices in environmental
Forest (Conservation) Act 1980; Air (Prevention & Control of Conservation
Pollution) Act, 1981; Environment Protection Act, 1986; • Environmental communication and public awareness: case
Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional Forest Dwellers Studies (e.g., CNG vehicles in Delhi, Swachh Bharat Abhiyan,
(Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006. National Environment Awareness Campaign (NEAC), National
Green Corps (NGC) “Eco-club” programme, etc)
Unit VI: Biodiversity and Conservation
• Definition of Biodiversity; Levels of biological diversity:
genetic, species and ecosystem diversity
• India as a mega-biodiversity nation; Biogeographic zones of
India; Biodiversity hotspots; Endemic and endangered
species of India; IUCN Red list criteria and categories
• Value of biodiversity: Ecological, economic, social, ethical,
aesthetic, and informational values of biodiversity with
examples; sacred groves And their importance with
examples
• Threats to biodiversity: Habitat loss, degradation, and
fragmentation;
Poaching of wildlife; Man-wildlife conflicts; Biological
invasion with Emphasis on Indian biodiversity; Current mass
extinction crisis
• Biodiversity conservation strategies: in-situ and ex-situ
methods of Conservation; National Parks, Wildlife
Sanctuaries, and Biosphere Reserves; Keystone, Flagship,
Umbrella, and Indicator species; Species
Reintroduction and translocation
• Case studies: Contemporary Indian wildlife and biodiversity
issues, Movements, and projects (e.g., Project Tiger, Project,
Vulture Breeding program, Project Great Indian Bustard,
Crocodile conservation Project, Silent Valley movement,
Save Western Ghats movement, etc)
Areas that are rich in species diversity are called ‘hotspots’ of diversity and the countries with the
highest species richness or have a relatively large proportion of these hot spots of diversity are referred
to as ‘mega diversity nations’. India Is among the world’s 15 nations that are exceptionally rich in species
diversity.
The earth’s biodiversity is distributed in specific ecological regions. There are over a thousand major eco-
regions in the world. Of these, 200 are said to be the Richest, rarest, and most distinctive natural areas.
These areas are referred to as the ‘Global 200’. It has been estimated that 50,000 endemic plants which
comprise 20% of the global plant life, probably occur in only 25 ‘hot spots’ in the world. These hotspots
harbour many rare and endangered species. Two criteria help in defining hotspots namely rich
endemism and the degree of threat. To qualify as aHotspot, an area must contain at least 0.5 percent or
1500 of the world’s 3,00,000 Plant species as endemics (Myers et al., 2000).

Ecosystem Diversity
There are a large variety of different ecosystems on earth, each having its own Complement of distinctive
interlinked species based on differencesin the habitat.Ecosystem diversity can be described for a specific
geographical region or aPolitical entity such as a country, a state, or a taluk. Distinctive ecosystems
include
Landscapes like forests, grasslands, deserts, mountains, etc. As well as aquatic Ecosystemslike rivers,
lakes, and seas. Each region also has man-modified areas Such as farmland or grazing pastures. It refers
to the variation in the structure And functions of the ecosystem. It describes the number of niches,
trophic levels, And various ecological processes that sustain energy flow, flood webs, and theRecycling of
nutrients. It has focus on various biotic interactions and the role and Functions of keystone species
(species determining the ability of a large number Of other species to persist in the community), eg. Fig,
peepal etc.

METHODS OF MEASURING BIODIVERSITY : There are three perspectives of measuring biodiversity at

the level of community. These are (i) Alpha diversity, (ii) beta diversity, and (iii) gamma diversity.

(i) Alpha diversity indicates diversity within the community. It refers to The diversity of
organisms sharing the same community or habitat. A Combination of species richness and
equitability/evenness is used to Represent diversity within a community or habitat.
(ii) Beta diversity indicates diversity between communities. Species frequently Change when
habitat or community changes. There are differences in Species composition of communities
along with environmental gradients, e.g. altitudinal gradient, moisture gradient, etc. The
higher heterogeneity in the habitats of a region or greater dissimilarity between
communities exhibit higher beta diversity.
(iii) Gamma diversity refers to the diversity of the habitats over the total land Scope or
geographical area. The sum of alpha and beta diversities of the Ecosystems is an expression
of the biodiversity of the landscape, which is Considered as Gamma Diversity.

Community diversity refers to the variations in the biological communities In which species live. Higher
diversity at the community level provides stability And higher productivity. In temperate grasslands, it
has been observed that Diverse communities are functionally more productive and stable, even under
Environmental stresses such as prolonged dry conditions.

BIOGEOGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA

Our country can be divided into ten major regions based on the geography, Climate, and pattern of
vegetation seen and the communities of mammals, birds, Reptiles, amphibians, insects, and other
invertebrates that live in them. Each of These regions contains a variety of ecosystems such as forests,
grasslands, lakes, Rivers, mountains, and hills which have specific plant and animal species.

VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY
The value of biodiversity (in terms of its commercial utility, ecological services, Social, and aesthetic
values) is enormous. There are several waysthat biodiversity And its various forms are valuable to
humans. The biodiversity value may be Classified as follows:

1. Consumptive value: Biodiversity is an essential requirement for the maintenance of global food
supply. The main sources of human food include animals, fish, and plant products. A Large
number of plants are consumed by human beings as food. A few animal Species are consumed
by people which comes from cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, Buffaloes, chickens, ducks, geese, and
turkey species.
Example: Fish – Many freshwater fish can be grown in ponds. Israel and China already get About half of
their fish from aquaculture.
Drugs and medicines- About 75% of the world’s population depends upon Plants or plant extracts for
medicines. The drug Penicillin is used as an antibiotic Which is derived from a fungus called Penicillium.
Likewise, Tetracycline, an Antibiotic, obtained from bacteria is used to treat wide variety of infections,
Quinine, which is used to cure malaria is obtained from the bark of cinchona tree.
Fuel – The fossil fuels like coal, petroleum products, and natural gas are the products of biodiversity.

2. Productive value: Some of the organisms are commercially usable where the product is
marketed And sold. The animal products like tusks of elephants, musk from deer, silk from The
silkworms, wool from sheep or goats, fur of many animals, etc. All are traded In the market.

Example: Calabar bean was traditionally used as a poison in West Africa.Daisy plants were first used as a
lice remedy in the Middle East and this Led to the discovery of Pyrethrum. Mosquito coils made from
Pyrethrum are Sold in the market. The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis produces toxic proteins that kill
Certain insects.

3. Social value: These are the values associated with the social life, religion, and spiritual aspects Of
the people. Many of the plants are considered to be sacred in our country Like Tulasi, Mango
leaves, Banana leaves, etc. The leaves, fruits, and flowers of Some of the plants are used in
worship. Many animals like cows, snakes, bulls, And peacocks also have a significant place in
spirituality and thus hold special Importance. Thus, biodiversity has distinct social values
attached to different Societies.
 4. Ethical value: The ethical value means that human beings may or may not use a certain species
But knowing the very fact that this species exists in nature gives pleasure.
Example: A peculiar species of Pigeon, a grey/white bird with short legs is no more on
This earth. Similarly, the Dodo species is also no more. Human beings do not derive anything directly
from kangaroos or giraffes But strongly feel that these species should exist in nature.

5. Aesthetic value: Every one of us would like to visit vast stretches of land to enjoy the visible life.
People from farther areas spend a lot of time and money to visit wildlife areas Where they can
enjoy the aesthetic value of biodiversity and this type of tourism Is known as eco-tourism.
Eco-tourism is estimated to generate 12 billion dollars of revenue annually Which roughly gives the
aesthetic value of biodiversity. A study of the impact Of environment on the psyche was undertaken by
Kaplan and Kaplan (1989) in Which they found that being near nature relieved working stresses while
people Who worked in a closed environment or human-made structures experienced Much more job
stress and illnesses.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Habitat loss is mainly due to human population growth, industrialisation and Changes in land use
patterns, poaching of wildlife, and man-wildlife conflicts.Man has begun to overuse or misuse most of
these natural ecosystems. Due to Unsustainable resource use, once productive forests and grasslands
have been Turned into deserts and wastelands have increased all over the world. Scientists Have
estimated that human activities are likely to eliminate approximately 10 Million species by the year 2050.
1. Human population growth, industrialisation, and changes in the land Use patterns
Around 1.8 million species of plants and animals are known to science. The actual number of species
that have been existing is more than 18 Million. Though new species have been continually identified,
the rate of Extinction is very high (10-20,000 species per year i.e., 1000 to 10,000 Times faster rate).
Human actions are expected to exterminate 25% of the World’s species in the next 20-30 years. The
mega extinction of species is Related to human population growth, industrialisation, and changes in the
Land use patterns in India. The reasons are:
· Forests and grasslands are changed to agricultural land. Encroachments Are being repeatedly
legalised.
· Natural wetlands are drained to establish crop lands leading to loss of Aquatic species.
· Mangroves have been cleared for fuel wood and prawn farming, which Has led to a decrease in
the habitat essential for the breeding of marine Fish.
· Grasslands are changed to other forms, degraded by overgrazing leading Loss of cattle, goat,
and sheep.
· Natural forests are being deforested for timber and replanted for teak, Sal, etc. Such
monoculture does not support biodiversity in forests which Has closed canopy and rich
undergrowth. Excess collection of firewoodBy lopping off branches of trees’ canopy is opened up
altering the local Biodiversity.
· Foraging cattle retard the regeneration of forest as young seedlings are Trampled.
· Ever increasing population gradually decreased the buffer zones and
Forested areas. A prime example is Gir national park, the last bastion Of Asiatic lion with a meter gauge
railway line, state expressway, and 3 temples.
 · Repeated fires by local grazers to increase growth of grass ultimately Reduce regeneration of
grasses.
· Introductions of exotic weeds like Lantana bushes, Eupatorium Shrubs, and ‘congress’ grass are
invading at the expense of indigenous Undergrowth species. Following traditional farming
techniques like Slash and burn in Himalayas, and rab, lopping of tree branches for Making wood
ash fertilizer in Western Ghats are now leading to loss Of biodiversity. Over harvesting of fish by
large trawling boats is leading to depletion Of fish stocks. Marine turtles caught in the net are
massacred of the Coast of Odisha. The rare whale shark, a highly endangered species, is Being
killed off the coast of Gujarat.

2. Poaching: Specific threats to certain animals are related to large economic benefits. The skin and
bones from tigers, ivory from elephants, horns from rhinos, And perfume from the musk deer
are extensively used abroad. Bears are Killed for their gall bladders. Corals and shells are also
collected for export Or sold on the beaches of Chennai, Kanyakumari, and the Andaman and
Nicobar islands. Tortoises, exotic birds, and other small animals are packed Into tiny containers
and smuggled abroad for the pet trade. A variety of Wild plants with real or sometimes, dubious
medicinal values are being Over harvested. The commonly collected plants include Rauwolfia,
nux Vomica, Datura, etc. The garden plants collected for illegal trade include Orchids, ferns, and
mosses.

3. Man wild life conflicts: Conflicting situations with wild life starts causing immense damage and
Danger to man. Example: In Sambhalpur, Odisha, 195 humans are killed In last 5 years by
elephants and in retaliation villagers killed 98 elephants And badly injured more than 30
elephants. Similarly incidents with tigers, Leopards, etc. Are in news. Shrinking forest cover,
human encroachment, Ill and weak animals, lack of food (one adult elephant needs 200 kg green
Fodder and 150 kg of clean water) for animals, protecting villagers by Putting electric fence, etc.
Are the main reasons for such happenings. As The compensation by government is not enough,
conflicts occur betweenForest department and villagers.

ENDANGERED & ENDEMIC SPECIES IN INDIA

The species of plants and animals whose existence is in danger by human activities Are called
endangered species. These endangered species have been categorized Into four viz,
i. Vulnerable
ii. Rare
iii. Intermediate
iv. Threatened.
Endangered species which are on verge of extinction are called threatened Species. Today most of the
endangered species are found only in protected Areas (Pas). Some examples of the species being tiger,
rhino, elephant; bird Species include siberian crane, great Indian bustard, florican, vultures; reptiles And
amphibians. Habitat loss caused by human activity is causing threat to Plants species like orchids. Over
harvesting of medicinally important plants As ingredients in medical products or cosmetics is also
threatening species. To Protect endangered species India has created a wildlife protection act. Under
This plants and animals are characterized according to the threat to their survival.
The species which are unique to a locality/region are called endemic Species. Some species are found
only in India and are thus endemic (restricted To our country). Some have very localized distribution and
are considered highly Endemic. Some species of this category being Indian wild ass, angular Kashmiri
Stag, golden langur, pigmy hog, etc.

11.9 SUMMARY

1. Biodiversity is threatened by the sum of all human activities. It is useful To group threats into the
categories of habitat destruction, invasion by non-Native species, overhunting, pollution, and
climate change.
2. Habitat loss presents the single greatest threat to world biodiversity, and The magnitude of this
threat can be approximated from species-area curves And rates of habitat loss. The spread of
non-native species threatens many Local species with extinction, and pushes the world’s biota
towards a moreHomogeneous and widely distributed subset of survivors.
3. Climate change threatens to force species and ecosystems to migrate Towards higher latitudes
with no guarantee of suitable habitat or access Routes.
4. Many species have gone extinct, some naturally and others because of Human activities i.e.
deforestation, desertification, and destruction of Wetlands and coral reefs.
5. Habitats that are vulnerable to greater species extinction are referred to as Fragile habitats. Coral
reefs, oceanic islands, mountain tops, and habitat Islands are considered as fragile habitats.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What are the demerits of domestication of selective animals? How can it Destroy biodiversity?

2. Discuss with an example, how is poaching responsible for extinction of Big animals

3. Discuss the harmful effects of invasive species with example.

 LESSON 12

BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION

IN-SITU AND EX-SITU CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

In-situ conservation: It is the method of conserving all the living species, Especially the wild and
endangered species in their natural habitats and Environment. In-situ conservation of biodiversity
includes biosphere reserves, National parks, wildlife sanctuaries, etc. Habitat is protected with all the
other Species that is in nature. Biodiversity at all levels can be best preserved in-situ by Setting aside
wildness as protected areas in national parks and wildlife sanctuaries With distinctive ecosystem
included in the network.India has 589 Pas (Protected Areas) of which 89 are national parks and 500 Are
wildlife sanctuaries. Over 100 Pas are created in Andaman and Nicobar to Preserve the special island
ecosystem. The great Himalayan national park is the Largest sanctuary in the ecosystem and is the home
of snow leopard. Dachigam Sanctuary for hangul or kashmiri stag; Kaziranga national park for animals
like Elephant, guar, wild boar and swamp deer, and birds like ducks geese, pelicans And storks; Manas
sanctuary for Golden langur, pigmy hog, and wild boar are
Some of the examples worth mentioning under in-situ conservation.

Ex-situ conservation: Conserving the species outside the natural habitat in a Carefully controlled
situation, such as botanical garden for plants or zoological Parks for animals, expertise exists to multiply
species under artificially managed Condition. Germplasm is preserved in a gene bank for future needs,
this is taken up For expensive endangered/extinct species. Care is taken to avoid inbreeding such That
weak offspring would not develop. Breeding programmes in zoos provide Animal needs including
enclosures that simulate their wild habitat. Modern zoo’s Function is to breed endangered species as a
conservation. Successful examples
Are:
1. Madras crocodile trust bank has successfully bred the 3 crocodiles. Here Crocodiles lay two
clutches of eggs in one year instead of one in wild.
2. Guchali zoo has bred pigmy hog.
3. Delhi zoo has bred the rare Manipur brow antlered deer.
The successful breeding programme also aims at reintroduction of thevSpecies into wild habitat with
simultaneous removal of problems like poaching Disturbances and man-made influences.

CONSERVATION OF CULTIVATORS AND lLIVESTOCK BREEDS

Fifty years ago nearly 30,000 rice varieties were grown in India. Now only a few Of these are cultivated.
The new varieties being developed use the germplasm of These original types. But if all these traditional
types vanish, it would be difficult To develop new disease resistant varieties for future. Use of varieties
from gene Banks have been expensive and risky. Farmers need to be encouraged to grow Traditional
varieties. Traditional breeds/varieties have to be encouraged for genetic Variability. In contrast men
interested in cash returns in short time wouldn’t appreciate the benefits of growing indigenous varieties.
 BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ACT 2002
Biological diversity is a national asset of a country, hence the conservation of biodiversity assumes
greater significance. The first attempt to bring the biodiversity into the legal frame work was made by
the Biodiversity bill 2000 which was passed by the Lok sabha on 2nd December 2002 and by the Rajya
Sabha on December 2002
. Objectives:
1. To conserve the Biological Diversity.
2. Sustainable use of the components of biodiversity.
3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of the Biological Diversity.
A national biodiversity authority has been established by the Biodiversity Act 2002 to regulate act
implementing rules 2004 has been operationalised since
Coming in to force. Regulating access as well as pushing the officially sponsored Documentation of
biological resources and traditional practices through people’s Diversity registers at the local and
databases at the national levels, respectively. It further probes the extent to which the principles of
conservation have been Realised.

Provisions of Act:
1. Prohibition on transfer of Indian genetic material outside the country Without specific approval
of the Indian Government.
2. Prohibition of anyone claiming an (IPR) such as a patent over biodiversity Or related knowledge
without permission of Indian Government.
3. Regulation of collection and use of biodiversity by Indian national while Exempting local
communities from such restrictions.
4. Measures from sharing of benefits from use of biodiversity including Transfer of technology,
monitory returns, joint research and development, Joint IPR ownership, etc.
5. Measuring to conserve sustainable use of biological resources including Habitat and species
protection (EIP) of projects, integration of biodiversity Into the plans, and policies of various
departments and sectors.
6. Provisions for local communities to have a say in the use of their resources And knowledge and
to charge fees for this.
7. Protection of indigenous or tradition laws such as registration of such Knowledge.
8. Regulation of the use of the genetically modified organisms.
9. Setting up of National, state, and local Biodiversity funds to be used toSupport conservation and
benefit sharing.
10. Setting up of Biodiversity Management Committees (BMC) at local village Levels, State
Biodiversity Boards at state level, and National Biodiversity Authority.
Functions of Authority:
1. Advise the central Government on any matter concerning conservation Of biodiversity.
Sustainable use of its components and fair as well as Equitable sharing of benefits arising out of
the use of biological resources And knowledge.
2. Coordinate the activities of state biodiversity.
3. Provide the technical assistance and guidance to the state biodiversity Boards.
4. Sponsor investigation and research.
5. Engage consultants for a specific period and not exceeding 3 years for
Providing technical assistance to the authority in the effective discharges Of its functions.
6. Collect, compile, and publish technical and statistical data, manuals, codes Or guides relating to
conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its Components and fair as well as equitable
sharing of benefits arising out of The use of biological resource and knowledges.
7. Organise through mass media, a comprehensive programme regarding Conservation of
biodiversity, sustainable use of components, and fair and Equitable sharing of benefits arising
out of the use of biological resources And knowledge.
8. Plan and organize training of personal engagement or likely to be engaged Programmes for the
conservation of biodiversity and sustainable use of its Components.
9. Prepare the annual budget of the authority including its own receipts as The devaluation from
the central government provided that the allocation By the central government shall be
operated in accordance with budget Provisions approved by the central government.
10. Recommend creation of posts to the central government for effective Discharge of the functions
by the authority.
11. Approve the method of recruitment to the officers and servants of the
Authority.
12. Take steps to build up data base and to create information and documentation System for
biological resources and associated traditional knowledge Through biodiversity. Register
electronic databases to ensure effective Management, promotion, and sustainable uses.
13. Give directions to the State Biodiversity Boards and the Biodiversity Management Committees in
writing for effective implementation of the act.
14. Report to the central government about the functioning of the authority And implementation of
the act.
15. Sanction grants to the State Biodiversity Board and Biodiversity Management Committees for
specific purposes.
16. Take necessary measures including appointment of legal experts to oppose
The grant of intellectual property right in any country outside India on
Any biological outside India on any biological resource and associated
Knowledge obtained from India in an illegal manner.
17. Do other functions that may be assigned by the central government to Direct from time to time.
18. Regulates the commercial utilasation or biosurvey and bio-utilasation of Any biological resource
by Indians. Note: International day for Biological Diversity – 22nd May

NEED OF CONSERVING BIODIVERSITY

Why is biodiversity so important? Why should we care about it? What is the value Of biodiversity?
Maybe people don’t understand the various roles biodiversity
Plays in our life, but certainly they know the importance of it. There are many Factors that underlie the
need to conserve biodiversity, such as:
1. Present and potential uses of the components of biological diversity Especially as we
have no way of knowing or predicting what will be of Use in the future.
2. Biodiversity is essential to maintain the earth’s life support systems that Enable the
biosphere to support human life.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
Conservation needs different strategies, they can be species based or habitat Based or ecosystem based.
Some species are given importance at national level While some needs treatment at international level.
Most of the conservation is Done at in-situ and ex-situ conditions. In this lesson, we will discuss what
these Conditions mean, what is the difference between them, and what are the methods And
techniques used. We have also described some important projects such as Project tiger and how this
project has helped in increasing tiger populations. Some techniques such as seed bank and tissue culture
are also proving very Helpful in conservation of plants which fulfill several of our needs.
In-situ conservation means “on-site conservation”. It is the process of protecting An endangered
plant or animal species in its natural habitat, either by protecting Or cleaning up the habitat itself or by
defending the species from predators. The Benefit of in-situ conservation is that it maintains the
recovering populations in The surroundings where they have developed their distinctive properties.
Wildlife conservation is mostly based on in-situ conservation. This Involves the protection of wildlife
habitats. Also, sufficiently large reserves are Maintained to enable the target species to exist in large
numbers. The population Size must be sufficient to enable the necessary genetic diversity to survive
within The population.
Ex-situ conservation means, literally “off-site conservation”. It is the process Of protecting
population of an endangered species of plant or animal by removing It from an unsafe or threatened
habitat and placing it or a part of it, under the Care of humans. While ex-situ conservation is comprised
of some of the oldest And best known conservation methods known to human, it also involves newer,
Sometimes controversial laboratory methods. It is to be used as a last resortor As a supplement to in-situ
conservation because it cannot recreate the habitat as A whole: the entire genetic variation of a species,
its symbiotic counterparts, or Those elements which over time might help a species to adapt to its
changing Surroundings. Furthermore, ex-situ conservation techniques are often costly. Plants and
animals living in ex-situ breeding grounds have no natural defence To the diseases and pests that are
new to the species.
Case study: Project Tiger

Project tiger was launched on 1 April, 1973 as a centrally sponsored scheme of Government of India to
maintain viable population of the tigers and its natural Habitat. The main objective of this scheme is to
ensure that a viable population Of tigers in India are preserved for scientific, economic, aesthetic,
cultural, and Ecological values and to also preserve the areas of biological importance as natural Heritage
for the benefit, education, and enjoyment of the people. Main objectives Under the scheme include
wildlife management and protection.Initially, the project started with nine tiger reserves, covering an
area Of 16,339 sq.km with a population of 268 tigers. At present there are 27 tiger Reserves covering an
area of 37,761 sq.km. with a population of 2967 tigers. This amounts to almost 1.14% of the total
geographical area of the country. The Selection of reserves was guided by the representation of Eco
typical wilderness Areas across the biogeographic range of tiger distribution in the country. Project Tiger
is undisputedly a custodian of major gene pool in the country. It is also A repository of some of the most
valuable ecosystem and habitats for wildlife.The Tiger Reserves are constituted on a ‘core-buffer
strategy’. The core Area is kept free of biotic disturbances and forestry operations, collection of Minor
forest produce, grazing, and human disturbances are not allowed within. However, the buffer zone is
managed as a ‘multiple use area’ with twin objectives Of providing habitat supplement to spill over the
population of wild animals From the core conservation unit and to provide site specific eco-
developmental Inputs to surrounding villages for relieving the impact on the core. No relocation Is
visualised in the buffer area and forestry operations. Non-Timber Forest Produce (NTFP) collection and
other rights and concessions to the indigenous Communities are permitted in a regulated manner to
complement the initiatives In the core unit. The effective protection and intensive conservation
measures Inside the reserves have brought about considerable indescribable achievements. The project
has been instrumental in mustering local support for conservation Programme in general.

Botanical Gardens
Together, the world’s 1500 botanic gardens (Fig. 8.4), arboreta, and national plant Collections maintain
the largest array of plant diversity outside of nature, and they Have major, if often overlooked, potential
as resource centres for conservation, Education, and development. If the infrastructure and technical
facilities of most Of these institutions can be strengthened, they can conserve ex situ stocks of most Of
the world’s endangered plant species. Already, individuals of an estimated 12,000 to 15,000 threatened
species are being cultivated in botanic gardens and Arboreta.

Zoological Parks
The basic philosophy behind the creation of zoological parks in modern times Is to create an
understanding of the environment and ecological balance of life, Meaning strengthening the bond
between people and the living earth. These Zoological parks are no mere picnic spots. They are now
centres for ex-situ wildLife conservation and environmental education.The history of modern zoos
started around 200 years ago with the creation Of the first public zoo. Since then every part of world has
developed their own Zoological parks with great diversity such as aquaria, bird-parks, private zoos and
Safari parks. The World Zoo Conservation Strategy concludes that the evolutionOf zoo should continue to
help the conservation of wildlife. There are several Species of wildlife which would have been extinct
today except for efforts by Zoos and animal reserves.
Ex-Situ conservation of wild animals in zoo Some important techniques used in ex-situ conservation are
dealt here.

1. Captive breeding: It is one of the important strategies used by both Government and non-
government organisations. Captive-breeding Programmes of endangered and threatened species
have become familiar Programmes that strive to preserve biodiversity and species survival plans
Such as cheetah.
2. Embryo Storage and transfer technology: Techniques for embryo transfer And artificial
insemination, which have been developed for laboratory Animals and farm animals, are
potentially very useful for improving the Reproductive potential of captive populations of
endangered species. These Kinds of techniques have been worked out mainly for mammals.
3. Artificial insemination: It is another useful technology. Sperm can be Frozen and used later, or
transferred to another breeding facility to increase Genetic diversity. Sometimes, the sperm can
be added to the eggs in a dish And fertilisation will occur. In other cases (for example, horses)
the sperm Has to be injected into the egg. Few years ago, the black-footed ferret was Down to
six individuals, but artificial insemination has now been used to Produce 16 kittens. Elephants
and cheetahs have conceived, and a cheetah Cub has been born following artificial insemination.
Elephants have not Bred naturally in captivity, so this method may be useful simply to make
Captive breeding possible.
4. Somatic cell cloning: It holds some promise for propagating from one Or a few survivors of an
almost extinct species. This was first done with Domestic sheep at the Roslyn Institute in
Edinburgh (from University of Virginia) but since then it has been done with other mammals. It
has already Been used to rescue a rare breed of cattle that had been reduced to a single Old
female (“Lady”) and some frozen sperm. Granulosa cells (somatic Cells in the ovary) from Lady
were fused with enucleated eggs (lackingDNA) from a different breed, and the resulting eggs
were implanted into An Angus cow (a common breed). The first calf born from these cells is
Genetically identical to the Lady, as expected, although her markings were Slightly different.

5. Fostering: Many egg-laying animals (i.e. birds and reptiles) are capable of Producing many more
eggs than they can rear. This raises the possibility of Collecting the extra eggs and hatching and
rearing the animals in captivity With a foster parent, then using them to supplement wild
populations. It has Worked extremely well with some birds, particularly the peregrine falcon,
Which is now doing so well that the fostering programme is being phased Out. Rearing of
whooping cranes has also been successful, and the species Recovered from a population of 21
birds in 1941 to over 300 in 1996

6. Translocations: Sometimes conservation of faunal species involves Or necessitates translocation

of animals. This means the movement Of individuals from its natural habitat or captivity to
another habitat. Translocations are carried out in connection with introductions or
Reintroductions, and should be handled with extreme caution.
7. Introduction: This involves the translocation of a species (from its natural Habitat or from
captivity) into an area outside its historical distribution. Such species would then become an
“exotic” to the area. This should be Handled with extreme care and needs. Extensive study of the
 habitat and The behaviour and social organization of the species to be introduced has To be
done to ensure that the species has a good chance of adapting to the Habitat.
8. Reintroduction: This involves the translocation of a species (from Its natural habitat or from
captivity) into an area within its historical Distribution, either to boost existing populations or to
establish new Populations when the original population has died out. This too should be
Handled with extreme care and needs extensive study of the habitat and the Behaviour and
social organization of the species to be reintroduced.

9. Seed Bank: The preservation of plant germplasm in seedbanks, (or gene Banks), is one of the
techniques of ex-situ conservation of plant species.Seeds have a natural dormancy feature,
which allows for their suspended Preservation for long periods of time with little damage,
provided the Conditions are favourable. Banking dormant seeds enables to keep Genetically
representative samples of rare and endangered plant species As a kind of “genetic insurance”.

10. Seeds Storing: Storing germplasm in seedbanks is both inexpensive and Space efficient. It allows
preservation of large populations with little genetic Erosion. Seedbanks also offer good sources
of plant material for biological Research, and avoid disturbance or damage of natural
populations.

NATURAL RESERVES
The nature reserves are the important area for the conservation of biodiversity. The growing destruction
of biodiversity re-emphasis the valuable contribution
Of natural reserves. These areas are resourceful and useful means to deal with Biodiversity losses and
help in buffering society from climatic effects and Maintains the critical ecosystem services of the
society. Biosphere Reserves are internationally recognised areas established to promote And
demonstrate a balanced relationship between humans and the biosphere. They highlight the value of
nature conservation within a particular natural region And reconcile the conservation of biological
diversity with sustainable use. Consequently they are ideally suited to meet today’s conservation needs
when Human populations are increasing and the practicality of leaving aside large areas To protect
pristine natural wild lands is decreasing, despite the fact that more People than ever before are
dependent on wild species and natural ecosystems For their well-being. The programme of Biosphere
Reserve was initiated under the Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme by UNESCO in 1971. Biosphere
Reserves Programme is intended to conserve representative ecosystems as opposed to only Species or
habitat conservation. It provides in-situ conservation under natural Conditions, long-term conservation
of plants, animals, and microorganisms.

WETLANDS
India’s wetlands are distributed in different geographical regions ranging from The cold arid zone of
Ladakh to the wet humid climate of Imphal; the warm arid Zone of Rajasthan to the tropical monsoonal
Central India, and the wet humid Zone of the Southern peninsula.

All over the world, a wetland is considered to be an important part as it:

1. Is particularly a good representative example of a natural or near natural Wetland, characteristic
of the appropriate biogeographic region.
 2. Plays a substantial hydrological, biological, or ecological role in the natural Functioning of a
major river basin or coastal system.
3. Is a specific type of wetland, rare or unusual.
4. Supports an appreciable assemblage of rare, vulnerable or endangered
Species, or subspecies of plants or animals. Importantly, wetlands are habitats for a wide variety of plant
and animal Life. Most important of these is the waterfowl as wetlands are shallow water. Apart from
harbouring birds, wetlands are also a nursery ground for several Species of fish and shell fish and a wide
variety of aquatic organisms. For example, Chilka in Odisha has dolphins that move around in the area
where the lake Meets the sea. Coastal wetlands especially being an ecotone between the sea and
Freshwater, and/or freshwater and terrestrial habitats have high species diversity. Ecologically, too,
wetlands perform important functions. They regulate the water Regime, acts as natural filters, and
display a marvelous nutrient dynamics. As An ecosystem, wetlands are useful for nutrient recovery and
cycling, releasing Excess nitrogen, deactivating phosphates, removing toxins, chemicals and heavy Metals
through absorption by plants and also in the treatment of waste water.Furthermore, coastal wetlands
with their unique mangroves are a natural Bulwark against erosion by the sea. The possible threat of rise
in sea level is Universally dreaded. One immediate prevention for this possible threat, as has Been
suggested by experts, would be the plan of a network of mangroves. In fact, Mangrove wetlands of India
and Bangladesh act as buffers against the devastating Storms of the Bay of Bengal. Wetlands thus help in
mitigating floods, recharging Aquifers, and reducing surface run-off as well as the consequent erosion.In
the context of the environment too, wetlands play a very important Role. They protect and improve the
quality of water and keep the local weather Moderate. Using wetlands for water quality improvement
has been tried in cold Climates. Wetlands in urban periphery are natural receptacles for waste water And
can harness effectively the nutrients available in the waste through fisheries And agriculture. Natural
Wetlands of IndiaMost of the natural wetlands of India are connected with the river systems of the
North and South. On the other hand, the various multi-purpose projects launched To harness river
systems have provided a number of wetlands. E.g., Harike Barrage at the confluence of the Beas and
Sutlej in Punjab, Bhakra Nangal Dam In Punjab, and the Kosi Barrage on the Bihar-Nepal border. Besides
these, we Also have a network of lakes – natural as well as manmade, for example, Kabar Lake, Chilka
lake, Pichola Complex and Sukhna lake, etc. In addition of these, There are 6,740 square kilometres of
mangroves. The major concentrations of Mangroves in the country are the Sunderbans and the
Andaman and Nicobar

Islands, which holds 80% of the mangroves in India. Rest of them are in Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujrat, and Goa. The Two wetlands from India which found place in first
International Convention on Wetlands held at Ramsar in Iran in February 1971 were Chilka and
Bharatpur. Currently there are 26 Ramsar sites in India, covering most of the important Wetlands.

HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
It has been observed that enormous number of species that exists on Earth is Concentrated in specific
regions. Two-third of the species are found in geographical Regions within tropical areas (area between
Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn). This indicates that the species are not evenly distributed on
this planet. Tropical region is known to possess high species richness (number of species Living in a
specific location). Biodiversity conservation requires identification of Such regions that are habitat of vast
number of species. Geographical regions that Support number of species and threatened by destruction
are known as hotspots. Hotspots of biodiversity are those places on earth which have high Biodiversity
and are threatened by human habitation. The term ‘Hotspot of Biodiversity’ was given by the British
biologist Norman Myers in 1988. Meyer Defined hotspot as “a biogeographic region characterised by
exceptional levels Of endemism and by serious level of habitat loss”. Hotspots of biodiversity are
identified based on following two criterias:
1. Area must support at least 1,500 vascular plants (> 0.5% of the world’s

Total) as endemics. This indicates that the area must have a high percentage Of plant life found nowhere
else on the planet. A hotspot is considered as Irreplaceable.
2. Area must include 30% or less of its original natural vegetation which Indicates that it must be
threatened.
At present, 36 hotspots have been Identified in the world. Though these 36 hotspots together
represent only 2.4% of the Earth’s land surface but they are crucial in supporting more Than half of
the world’s plant species as endemics and nearly 43% of bird, Mammal, reptile, and amphibian
species as endemics. Further, these 36 Hotspots provide ecosystem services and livelihood to more
than 2 billion People on Earth. Out of these 36 hotspots, 4 hotspots are found in India. These four
hotspots are:
· Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and that falling In Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal,
Bhutan, China, and Myanmar).
· Indo-Burma: Includes entire north-eastern India, except Assam and Andaman group of Islands
(as well as Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and southern China).
· Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of Islands (as well as Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore,
Brunei, and Philippines).
· Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes entire Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka).

IUCN RED LIST

IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) Is an international
organization which is responsible for assessment of species all Across the world. IUCN conducts field
survey to monitor species in every country. Based on the survey, IUCN classify plants and animals in
different categories. This information about current status of species is published by IUCN in ‘Red Data
List’ publication.

LESSON 13
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT & SUSTAINABILITY

INTRODUCTION
Sustainable Development is defined as development that meets the needs of the Present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their Own needs. It also looks at the equity
between countries and continents, races And classes, gender and ages. It includes social development
and economic Opportunity on one hand and the requirements of environment on the other. It is Based
on improving the quality of life for all, especially the poor and deprived Within the carrying capacity of
the supporting ecosystems. It is a process which Leads to a better quality of life while reducing the
impact on the environment. Its strength is that it acknowledges the interdependence of human needs
and Environmental requirements. To ensure sustainable development, “any activity that is expected to
bring About economic growth must also consider its environmental impacts so that it is More consistent
with long term growth and development.” Many ‘development Projects’, such as dams, mines, roads,
industries, and tourism development have Severe environmental consequences that must be studied
before they are even Begun. Thus for every project, in a strategy that looks at sustainable development,
There must be a scientifically and honestly done EIA, without which the project Must not be cleared.
Large dams, major highways, mining, industry, etc. Can seriously damage Ecosystems that support the
ecological health of a region. Forests are essential For maintaining renewable re- sources, reducing
carbon dioxide levels, and Maintaining oxygen levels in the earth’s atmosphere. Their loss impairs future
Human development. Loss of forests depletes biodiversity which has to be Preserved to maintain life on
earth. Major heavy industries if not planned carefully Lead to environmental degradation due to air and
water pollution and generate Enormous quantities of waste that lead to long term environmental
hazards. Toxic and Nuclear wastes can become serious economic problems as getting Rid of them is
extremely costly. Thus the economic benefits of a project must be Weighed against the possible
environmental costs before a project is permitted. We as citizens of our nation, and increasingly as
citizens of one common Future at the global level, must constantly monitor the pattern of development.
If we See that a development project or an industry is leading to serious environmental Problems, it is
our duty to bring this to the attention of authorities such as the Local administration, the Forest
Department, or the Pollution Control Board to Look into the issue. Further, if new development projects
are being planned in and Around the place where we live it is our duty to see that this is brought about
in Accordance with environmental safeguards. While we all need to think globally, We need to act locally.
We have to see to it that we change development from its Present mandate of rapid economic growth
without a thought for future ecological Integrity, to a more sustainable ecologically appropriate strategy.

TYPES OF SUSTAINABILITY

Environmental Sustainability
Environmental sustainability focuses on the conservation of biodiversity without Foregoing economic
and social progress. The foundations of environmental Sustainability are safeguarding water, saving
energy, reducing waste, using Recyclable packaging, limiting or eliminating the use of plastics, using
sustainable Transport, reusing paper, and protecting flora and fauna.A great example of environmental
sustainability is the Swedish city Of Stockholm, which is noted for investing in sustainable infrastructure,
its Low emissions, and for having excellent air quality with pollution levels below Average. The city has
thus achieved a balance between economic development And environmental protection.Economic
Sustainability When a company is set up, a structure is created that involves expenses and Revenues.
Once a balance is struck between both factors, the company earns Profit. Economic sustainability refers
to the organisation’s ability to manage its Resources and responsibly generate profits in the long term.An
example of this type of sustainability is the company Unilever, which In the year 2010 rolled out a
strategy to achieve a balance between sustainability And the company’s economic performance. To do
so, it implemented several Measures, such as increasing package recycling, promoting the use of
recycled Materials, and responsible consumption awareness campaigns.Likewise, we can also look to the
case of the Suez company, which in Its Sustainable Development Report 2020 reveals that it has reduced
its emissions Related to electricity consumption by 95%, by purchasing and generating Renewable
energy; that it has implemented energy efficiency measures and that, Additionally, in terms of the
conservation of natural habitats, some 81.5% of its Facilities are free from pesticides and crop protection
chemicals. Social Sustainability In any community in which economic activities are carried out in a
specific Environment, we find three interconnected forms of sustainability: environmental, Economic,
and social. However, social sustainability in particular has the goal Of strengthening the cohesion and
stability of specific social groups.The company CEMEX, for example, is working to contribute to the social
Development of communities. Thus, the company offers decent housing through Self-building
programmes and loans with favourable access conditions to those Who are most in need.The Gigante
Group is another example, since, via the Gigante Foundation, It contributes funds and resources to a
range of social causes, such as school Materials for collaborators, and grants to improve visual health.

SUMMARY
Creativity, technology, and financial resources from all of the society is necessary
To achieve the sustainable development and it is clear from the lesson that Sustainable development is a
broad term to describe policies, projects, and Investments that provide benefits today without sacrificing
environmental, social, And personal health in the future. So sustainable development is an organising
Principle that aims to meet human development goals while also enabling natural Systems to provide
necessary natural resources and ecosystem services to humans. The desired result is a society where the
living conditions and resources meet Human needs without undermining the planetary integrity and
stability of the Natural system. Sustainable development tries to find a balance between economic
Development, environmental protection, and social well-being. The Brundtland
Report in 1987 defines sustainable development as “development that meets The needs of the present
generation without compromising the ability of future Generations to meet their own needs”. The
concept of sustainable development Nowadays has a focus on economic development, social
development, and Environmental protection for future generations

LESSON 14
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

INTRODUCTION
Human population size has grown enormously over the last hundred years. This Means there will be
increase in demand for food, water, home, electricity, roads, Automobiles, and numerous other
commodities. These increased demands are Exerting tremendous pressure on our natural resources, and
are also contributing To the pollution of air, water, and soil. The need of the hour is to check the
Degradation and depletion of our precious natural resources and pollution without Halting the process
of development.

CLIMATE CHANGE
The average temperature in many regions has been increasing in recent decades. The global average
surface temperature has increased by 0.6° + 0.2° C over the last Century. Globally, 1998 was the warmest
year and the 1990s the warmest decade On record. Many countries have experienced increase in rainfall,
particularly in The countries situated in the mid to high latitudes. In some regions, such as parts of Asia
and Africa, the frequency and intensity Of droughts have been observed to increase in recent decades.
Episodes of El Niño, which creates great storms, have been more frequent, persistent, and in-Tense since
mid 1970s compared to the previous 100 years. All these are signs That the earth is sick. Its climate is
changing, making it more difficult for man-Kind to survive. The earth is continuously losing its ability to
balance itself due To the imbalances created by human activities.
Projections of future climate change are derived from a series of Experiments made by computer
based global climate models. These are worked Out on estimates of aspects such as future population
growth and energy use. Climatologists of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) have
Reviewed the results of several experiments in order to estimate changes in climate In the course of this
century. These studies have shown that in the near future, The global mean surface temperature will rise
by 1.4° to 5.8°C. Warming will Be greatest over land areas, and at high latitudes. The projected rate of
warming Is greater than has occurred in the last 10,000 years. The frequency of weather Extremes is
likely to increase leading to floods or drought. There will be fewer Cold spells but more heat waves. The
frequency and intensity of El Niño is likely To increase. Global mean sea level is projected to rise by 9 to
88 cm by the year 2100. More than half of the world’s population now lives within 200km of the
Coastline. They are likely to be seriously impacted by an ingress of salt water And by the rising sea. Some
of the most vulnerable regions are the Nile delta in Egypt, the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta in Bangladesh,
and many small islands Including the Marshall Islands and the Maldives (WHO, 2001).
Human societies will be seriously affected by extremes of climate such As droughts and floods. A
changing climate would bring about changes in the Frequency and/or intensity of these extremes. This is
a major concern for human Health. To a large extent, public health depends on safe drinking water,
sufficient Food, secure shelter, and good social conditions. All these factors are affected By climate
change. Fresh water supplies may be seriously affected, reducing the Availability of clean water for
drinking and washing during drought as well as Floods. Water can be contaminated and sewage systems
may be damaged. The Risk of spread of infectious diseases such as diarrhoeal diseases will increase.
Food production will be seriously reduced in vulnerable regions directly and Also indirectly through an
increase in pests and plant or animal diseases. The Local reduction in food production would lead to
starvation and malnutrition With long-term health consequences, especially for children. Food and water
Shortages may lead to conflicts in vulnerable regions with serious implications For public health.
Climate change related impacts on human health could lead To displacement of a large number of
people, creating environmental refugees And leading to further health issues. Changes in climate may
affect the distribution of vector species (e.g. Mosquitoes) which in turn will increase the spread of
disease, such as malaria And filariasis, to new areas which lack a strong public health infrastructure. The
Seasonal transmission and distribution of many diseases that are transmitted By mosquitoes (dengue,
yellow fever) and by ticks (Lyme disease, tick-borne Encephalitis) may spread due to climate change.
GLOBAL WARMING

The term Environment is derived from the French word ‘Environ’ which literally Means ‘surrounding’.
Anything and everything which surrounds us i.e. all living Beings or biotic components (microbes, plants,
and animals) and non-living Or abiotic components (air, water, sunlight, etc.) present in nature forms the
Environment. The Environmental Protection Act of 1986 defines the Environment As “environment
includes water, air, and land and the inter-relationship which Exists among and between water, air and
land, and human beings, other living Creatures, plants, micro-organism, and property”. Interactions
between the Biotic and abiotic components lead to a functional ecosystem and sustainable Life on the
planet earth. We get all the basic goods and services (clean air and Water, food, fodder,medicines, raw
materials for industries, tourism, etc.) From the environment. It is a well-known fact that anthropogenic
activities And unsustainable consumption of natural resources by the human race have Significantly
damaged the environment and mother earth and the degradation Is still going on at a fast pace.
Therefore, it is our responsibility to protect the Environment from getting degraded and polluted.
Environmental education is Indispensable for creating environmental awareness which ultimately will
lead To environmental conservation. About 75% of the solar energy reaching the Earth is absorbed on
the earth’s Surface which increases its temperature. The rest of the heat radiates back to the
Atmosphere. Some of the heat is trapped by greenhouse gases, mostly carbon Dioxide. As carbon
dioxide is released by various human activities, it is rapidly Increasing. This is causing global warming.
The average surface temperature is about 15°C. This is about 33°C higher Than it would be in the
absence of the greenhouse effect. Without such gases most Of the Earth’s surface would be frozen with
a mean air temperature of -18°C. Human activities during the last few decades of industrialisation and
Population growth have polluted the atmosphere to the extent that it has begun To seriously affect the
climate. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased By 31% since pre-industrial times, causing more
heat to be trapped in the lower Atmosphere. There is evidence to show that carbon dioxide levels are
still Increasing. Many countries have signed a convention to reduce greenhouse gases Under the United
Nations Convention on climate change. Current international Agreements are however not still effective
to prevent the significant changes in Climate and a rise in sea levels.

ACID RAIN

When fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas are burned, chemicals like Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides are produced. These chemicals react with water And other chemicals in the air to form sulfuric
acid, nitric acid, and other harmful Pollutants like sulphates and nitrates. These acid pollutants spread
upwards into The atmosphere and are carried by air currents to finally return to the ground in The form
of acid rain, fog, or snow. The corrosive nature of acid rain causes many Forms of environmental
damage. Acid pollutants also occur as dry particles and Gases, which when washed from the ground by
rain, add to the acids in the rain To form a more corrosive solution. This is called acid deposition. Damage
from acid rain is widespread in North America, Europe, Japan, China, and Southeast Asia. In the US, coal
burning power plants conribute to about 70% of sulfur dioxide. In Canada, oil refining, metal smelting,
and other industrial activities account for 61% of sulfur dioxide pollution. Motor vehicle exhaust fumes
are the main source of nitrogen oxides. The acids in acid rain chemically react with any object they come
in contact with. Acids react with other chemicals by giving up hydrogen atoms.
Effects:
Acid rain is known to cause following widespread environmental damage:

1. Acid rain dissolves and washes away nutrients in the soil which are needed by plants. It can also
dissolve naturally occurring toxic substances like aluminium and mercury, freeing them to pollute water
or poison plants.
2. Acid rain indirectly affects plants by removing nutrients from the soil in which they grow. It affects
trees more directly by creating holes in the waxy coating of leaves, causing brown dead spots which
affect the plant’s photosynthesis. Such trees are also more vulnerable to insect infestations, drought, and
cold. Spruce and fir forests at higher elevations seems to be most at risk. Farm crops are less affected by
acid rain than forests.
3. Acid rain that falls or flows as ground water to reach rivers, lakes, and wetlands causes the water in
them to become acidic. This affects plant and animal life in aquatic ecosystems.
4. Acid rain also has far reaching effects on wildlife. By adversely affecting one species, the entire food
chain is disrupted, ultimately endangering the entire ecosystem. Different aquatic species can tolerate
different levels of acidity. For instance clams and mayflies have a high mortality when water has a pH of
6.0, while frogs can tolerate more acidic water, although with the decline in supply of mayflies, frog
populations may also decline. Land animals that are dependent on aquatic organisms are also affected.
5. Acid rain and dry acid deposition damages buildings, automobiles, and other structures made of stone
or metal. The acid corrodes the materials causing extensive damage and ruins historic buildings. For
instance the Parthenon in Greece and the Taj Mahal in India have been affected by acid rain.
6. Although surface water polluted by acid rain does not directly harm peo-
ple, the toxic substances leached from soil can pollute water supply. Fish caught in these waters may be
harmful for human consumption. Acid along with other chemicals in the air produces urban smog, which
causes respiratory problems.
Solutions:
The best way to stop the formation of acid rain is to reduce the emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides into the atmosphere. This can be achieved by using less energy from fossil fuels in power plants,
vehicles, and industry. Switching to cleaner burning fuels is also a way out. For instance, using natural gas
which is cleaner than coal, using coal with lower sulfur content, and developing more efficient vehicles. If
the pollutants have already been formed by burning fossil fuels, they can be prevented from entering the
atmosphere by using scrubbers in smokestacks in industry. These spray a mixture of water and limestone
into the polluting gases, recapturing the sulfur. In catalytic converters, the gases are passed over metal
coated beads that convert harmful chemicals into less harmful ones. These are used in cars to reduce the
effects of exhaust fumes in the atmosphere. Once acid rain has affected soil, powdered limestone can be
added to the soil by a process known as liming to neutralize the acidity of the soil.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Ozone is formed by the action of sunlight on oxygen. It forms a layer 20 to 50kms above the surface
of earth. This action takes place naturally in the atmosphere, but is very slow. Ozone is a highly
poisonous gas with a strong odour. It is a form of oxygen that has three atoms in each molecule. It is
considered as a pollutant at ground level and constitutes health hazard by causing respiratory ailments
like asthma and bronchitisIt also causes harm to vegetation and leads to a deterioration of certain
materials like plastic and rubber. Ozone in the upper atmosphere however, is vital to all life as it p
kyukirotects the earth from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiations. The ozone layer in the upper
atmosphere absorb the sun’s ultraviolet radiations, preventing it from reaching the earth’s surface. This
layer in the atmosphere protects life on earth from the dangerous UV radiations from the sun. In the
1970s, scientists discovered that chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs, which were used as
refrigerants and aerosol spray propellants, posed a threat to the ozone layer. The CFC molecules are
virtually indestructible until they reach the stratosphere, where UV radiation breaks them down to
release chlorine atoms. The chlorine atoms react with ozone molecules which break down into oxygen
molecules, which do not absorb UV radiations. Since the early 1980s, scientists detected a thinning of
the ozone layer in the atmosphere above Antarctica. This phenomenon is now being detected in other
places as well including Australia. Although the use of CFCs has been reduced and now banned in most
countries but other chemicals and industrial compounds such as bromine, halocarbons, and nitrous
oxides from fertilizers may also attack the ozone layer. The destruction of the ozone layer is seen to cause
increased cases of skin cancer and cataracts. It also causes damage to certain crops and to plankton, thus
affecting nature’s food chains and food webs. This in turn causes an increase in carbon dioxide due to the
decrease in vegetation.With the signing of the Montreal Protocol in 1987, a treaty for the protection
of the ozone layer, the use of CFCs was to be banned by the year 2000. After 2000, the ozone layer is
expected to recover slowly over a period of about 50 years.

NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND NUCLEAR HOLOCAUST

Nuclear energy was researched and discovered by man as a source of alternate energy which would be
clean and cheap compared to fossil fuels, and although this did happen, along with the benefits of
nuclear energy came its down-falls. In the short history of nuclear energy there have been accidents that
have surpassed any natural calamity or other energy source extraction in their impacts. A single nuclear
accident can cause loss of life, long-term illness, and destruction of property on a large scale for a long
period of time. Radioactivity and radioactive fall-out leads to cancer, genetic disorders, and death in the
affected area for decades after, thus affecting all forms of life for the generations to come
Nuclear holocaust:
The use of nuclear energy in war has had devastating effects on man and earth. The Hiroshima and
Nagasaki incident during World War II, the only use of nuclear power in war is one of the worst disasters
in the history. In 1945, the United States dropped atomic bombs in Japan over the towns of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki. These two atomic bombs killed thousands of people, left many thousands injured and
devastated everything for miles around. The effects of the radiation from these nuclear bombs can still
be seen today in the form of cancer and genetic mutations in the affected children and survivors of the
incident.
SUMMARY
Environmental problem emerges out of the complex human environment interaction. Most of the
environmental problems are trans-boundary in nature. Major causative factors responsible for today’s
environmental problems are industrialisation, urbanisation, explosive population growth, intensification
of agriculture, rising use of fossil fuel based energy, and transportation to name a few. Global warming
refers to the rise of atmospheric temperature and consequent changes in the radiation balance mainly
due to human action. Ozone layer depletion is happening due to certain recent human activities which
have injected certain chemicals in the stratosphere which consume ozone and reduce its concentration.
Depletion is mainly caused by chlorofluorocarbons, halons, methyl chloroform, and carbon tetra
chlorides. Climate change in today’s context is mainly due to human activities. There are certain
parameters that provide indication of warming of climate.
Some of these indicators are
(i) increasing temperatures over land and ocean surfaces;
(ii) melting glacial ice and sea ice
(iii) rising sea level
(iv) Increasing humidity.
 LESSON 15
ENVIRONMENTAL LAW & ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATIONS IN INDIA

INTRODUCTION
In India, environmental protection and improvement has been in practice since ancient times. In ancient
India, simple but quite effective laws were in place to
protect and conserve environment. The long history of environmentalism in India

is signified with the passage and codification of several acts, e.g. The Indian
Motor Vehicle Act, The Factories Act, The Indian Forest Act, The Mines and
Minerals (Regulation and Development) Act, The Industries (Development and
Regulation) Act, The Forest (Conservation) Act, The Merchant Shipping Act,
etc. The present day constitution of India allows the state to protect and improve
the environment in order to safeguard public health, forests, and wildlife.
15.3 THE INDIAN WILDLIFE (PROTECTION) ACT,
1972
The Wildlife Act provides the State Wildlife Advisory Boards provisions to
regulate hunting and trade of wild animals, birds, and their products. The State
Wildlife Advisory Boards can also establish sanctuaries and national parks and
judicially impose penalties for violating the Act. This Act was amended in 1982
to introduce provisions for the capture and transportation of wild animals to
scientific institutions and bodies for management of animal populations. In 1991,
the parent Act was comprehensively amended to insert special chapters dealing
with the protection of specified plants and the regulation of zoos.
The major activities and provisions in the Act can be summed up as follows:
1. It defines the wildlife related terminology.
2. Appointment of Wildlife Advisory Board, wildlife warden, definition of
their powers and duties, etc.
3. Listing of endangered wildlife species and provisions to prohibit their
hunting.
4. Protection to some endangered plants like Bed dome cycad, Blue Vanda,
Ladies slipper orchid, pitcher plant, etc.
5. Constitution of Central Zoo Authority.
6. Trade and commerce in some wildlife species with license for sale,
possession, transfer, etc.
7. Ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.
It provides for legal powers to officers and punishment to offenders. Several
conservation projects for individual endangered species like lion (1972), tiger
(1973), crocodile (1974), and brown antlered deer (1981) were started under this
act. This Act is adopted by all Indian states.
The term Environment is derived from the French word ‘Environ’ which
literally means ‘surrounding’. Anything and everything which surrounds us
i.e. all living beings or biotic components (microbes, plants, and animals) and
non-living or abiotic components (air, water, sunlight, etc.) present in nature
forms the environment. The Environmental Protection Act of 1986 defines
the Environment as “environment includes water, air, and land and the inter-
relationship which exists among and between water, air, and land, and human
beings, other living creatures, plants, micro-organism, and property”. Interactions
between the biotic and abiotic components lead to a functional ecosystem and
sustainable life on the planet earth. We get all the basic goods and services (clean
air and water, food, fodder, medicines, raw materials for industries, tourism,
etc.) from the environment. It is a well-known fact that anthropogenic activities
and unsustainable consumption of natural resources by the human race have
significantly damaged the environment and mother earth and the degradation
is still going on at a fast pace. Therefore, it is our responsibility to protect the
environment from getting degraded and polluted. Environmental education is
indispensable for creating environmental awareness which ultimately will lead
to environmental conservation.
THE WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF
POLLUTION) ACT, 1974
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, defines water
pollution as ‘the direct or indirect discharge of sewage, industrial effluents, or any
liquid, gaseous, or solid substance into water which alters the physical, chemical,
or biological properties of water to make it harmful or injurious to public health
and the health of animals or of aquatic organisms’.
This Act lead to the creation of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and
State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs). CPCB primarily promotes cleanliness
of streams and wells in the different states of India.
The other functions of the board are:
1. To lay down the standards for a stream or well, and in consultation with
the State Government concerned to modify or annul those standards.
2. To plan and cause the executed a nationwide programme for the prevention,
control, and abatement of water pollution.
3. To prepare manuals, codes, or guides related to the treatment and disposal
of sewage and trade effluents. Also, collection, compilation, publication of
technical and statistical data related to water pollution, and the measures
devised for its effective prevention and control.
4. To advise the central government on any matter concerning the prevention
and control of water pollution.
5. To provide technical assistance and guidance to the SPCBs and coordinate
their activities.
6. To control the abatement of water pollution through investigation and
research related to problems related to water pollution.
7. The functions of State Pollution Control Boards are similar to those of
Central Pollution Control Board but they are to be executed at state level,
and these are governed by the directions of CPCB.
8. The board advises the state government the location of any industry that
might pollute a stream or a well.
9. The board is authorized to take samples from industrial streams, well or
trade effluent or sewage, and it lays down the standards for effluents.
10. The board is licensed to take legal samples of trade effluents in accordance
with the prescriptions in the act. In the presence of the occupier or his
agent, the collected sample is divided into two parts, sealed and signed
by both parties. Further, it is sent to some recognized lab for analysis. If
the samples cross maximum permissible limits, then consent is refused to
the unit.
11. Industries have to apply for consent from the board in a prescribed format,
providing all technical details along with a prescribed fee. After application
analysis of the effluent is carried out, then consent is provided for a fixed
duration.
12. The board suggests efficient methods for utilasation, treatment, and disposal
of trade effluents.
FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT, 1980
This Act was passed to prevent deforestation, which results in ecological imbalance
and environmental deterioration. It prevents even the State Governments and
any other authority dereserve a forest which is already reserved. It prohibits
forestland to be used for non-forest purposes, except with the prior approval of
the Central Government. The Salient features of Forest Act are:
1. The state government can use the forests only for forestry purposes. For
non-forest purposes like mining or for monoculture of the economically
important trees the state government has to take prior approval of central
government.
2. Provisions for conservation of all types of forests and for this purpose there
is an advisory committee which recommends funding for it to the central
government.
3. Immediate halt to any illegal forest activity within a forest area.
1992 Amendment in the Forest Act
In 1992, a few amendments were made in the Act which made arrangements for
permitting some non-forest exercises in forests, without cutting trees or restricted
cutting with advance endorsement of central government. These activities
involve setting of transmission lines, seismic reviews, investigation, drilling, and
hydroelectric tasks. The last action includes large-scale destruction of forests,
for which earlier endorsement by the central government is necessary.
1. Under this Act, investigation or review in wildlife sanctuaries, national
parks, etc. is absolutely prohibited without prior endorsement by central
government, even if no tree-felling is included.
2. Cultivation of cash crops like tea, coffee, spices, rubber, and plants are
included as non-forestry activity and not permitted in reserve forests.
3. The central government has to endorse even the cultivation of fruit-bearing
trees, oil-yielding plants, or plants of medicinal value in the forest area.

This is on the grounds that recently presented species in the forest area
may cause an imbalance in the forest ecology. In case the species to be
planted is a local species, then no pior clearance is required.
4. Tusser cultivation (a kind of silk-yielding insect) in forest areas by tribals
is a method for their livelihood. It is treated as a forestry activity as long
as the host trees are not some specific trees like Asan or Arjun. This is
done so as to dishearten monoculture rehearses in the woodland which
are otherwise wealthy in biodiversity.
5. Plantation of mulberry for rearing silkworm is viewed as a non-forest
exercise. The explanation is same as described previously.
6. Mining is a non-forestry activity and prior endorsement of central
government is required. For a case involving T.N. Godavarman
Thirumulkpad vs. Association of India (1997), the Supreme Court guided
all on-going mining exercises to be stopped quickly in any forest area of
India if it had not been endorsed in advance by the central government.
7. Removal of stones, bajri, rock, and so on from riverbeds situated inside
the forest zone falls under non-forest activity.
8. Any proposition sent to the central government for non-forest action must
have a cost benefit analysis and Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) of
the proposed exercise regarding its ecological and socio-economic effects.
Consequently, the Forests (Conservation) Act has made abundant
arrangements for the preservation and security of forests and prevention of
deforestation.
15.6 THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF
POLLUTION) ACT, 1981
The Central Government used Article 253 to enact this law and made it applicable
throughout India. This Act defines air pollutant as ‘any solid, liquid, or gaseous
substance (including noise) present in the atmosphere in such concentration
as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living creatures or
plants or property or environment’. The CPCB and the SPCBs created under the
Water Act 1974 are entrusted with the implementation of the provisions of the
Act. The CPCB may:
1. Counsel the central government on any matter related to the improvement
of air quality and prevention, control, or abatement of air pollution.
2. Plan and cause to execute a nation-wide programme for the prevention,
control, or abatement of air pollution.
3. Provide technical assistance and guidance to the SPCBs and coordinate
their activities.
4. Prepare manuals, codes or guides related to the prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution and collect, compile, and publish technical as
well as statistical data related to air pollution and the measures devised
for its effective prevention, control, or abatement.
5. Lay down standards for the quality of air. The functions of the SPCBs
also include inspection of any control equipment, industrial plant or
manufacturing process, and to take steps for the prevention, control, or
abatement of air pollution. The units identified as polluting industries
should obtain approval before their establishment or/and continuing
their operations. The SPCBs, in consultation with the state governments,
wherever necessary, can exercise the following powers.
6. Declare certain areas within the state as air pollution control area and
prohibit the use of certain fuels or appliances in that control area.
7. Set standards for the emission from automobiles and disallow discharge
of the emission of any air pollutant beyond the permissible limit.
8. Approach court for restraining persons from causing air pollution and
restrict certain industrial plants
9. Form authority to enter and inspect the premises of the polluters to take
samples of air.
THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT 1986
This act defines environment as ‘water, air and land and the interrelationship
which exists among and between water, air and land, and human beings, other
living creatures, plants, micro- organism and property’. It defines hazardous
substance as ‘any substance or preparation which, by reasons of its chemical or
physiochemical properties or handling, is liable to cause harm to human beings,
other living creatures, plants, micro-organism, property or the environment.
Fig 3
This Act empowers the Central Government to:
1. Coordinate actions of the state governments, officers, and other authorities
under the Act or any other law which is relatable to the objects of the Act.
2. Plan and execute a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control,
and abatement of environmental pollution.
3. Lay down standards for the emission or discharge of environmental
pollutants from various sources and setting maximum permissible limits.
4. Identify areas in which any industry, operations or processes, or class of
industries, operations, or processes shall not be carried out.
5. Prevent accidents mediateding environmental pollution by laying down
safeguards and setting procedures for remedial measures after such
6. Identify materials, substances, and manufacturing processes, which can
cause environmental pollution.
7. Carry out and sponsoring investigations and researches related to the
problems of environmental pollution.
8. Inspect for any premises, plant, equipment, machinery, manufacturing
or other processes, materials or substances as a source of pollution, and
giving order to authorities to take steps for the prevention, control, and
abatement of environmental pollution.
9. Establish or recognise environmental laboratories and institutions.
10. Prepare manuals, codes, or guides relating to the prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution, and publication of information
related to environmental pollution. The Central Government may organise
an authority or authorities to make rules covering the following matters.
11. The permissible standards of air, water or soil quality for various areas
and purposes.
12. The permissible limits of various environmental pollutants (including
noise) for different areas.
13. The procedures, safety methods, prohibitions, and restrictions for the
handling of hazardous substances in different areas
15.8 SUMMARY
The Constitution of India clearly states that it is the obligation of the state to
‘protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife
of the country’. It’s an obligation of every citizen ‘to ensure and improve the
natural environment including forests, lakes, streams, and wildlife’. Directive
Principles of State Policy as well as the Fundamental Rights has also referred to
the environment. The established arrangements are upheld by various laws – acts,
rules, and notices. The EPA (Environment Protection Act), 1986 came into power
soon after the Bhopal Gas Tragedy and is viewed as an umbrella enactment as it
fills numerous holes in the current laws. Hereon, an enormous number of laws
appeared as the issues started emerging. For instance, handling and management
of hazardous waste rules in 1989.
The following environmental legislations have come into effect:
· 1972: The Wildlife Protection Act, protects the birds and animals for all
issues that are associated with them whether it be their habitat or the forests
that provide for them.
· 1974: The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act builds up an
institutional structure for prevention and decrease in water contamination.
It sets up the standards for water quality and effluents. Industries must look
for permission to release waste into the water bodies.
· 1980: The Forest (Conservation) Act and Rules, 1981, accommodates the
conservation and protection of the forests.
· 1981: The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act accommodates the
control and reduction of air contamination. It provides CPCB the authority
for successful implementation of this act.
· 1986: The Environment (Protection) Act enables the central government to
secure and improve ecological quality, control and diminish contamination
from all sources, and forbid or limit the setting and/or activity of industries
on environmental grounds. The CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board)
was comprised under this demonstration.
· 2006: The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers
(Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, was implemented to protect the forest
rights and occupation of forest land in forest dwelling tribes, in order to
balance their socio-economic class and their right to environment.
LESSON 16
HUMAN COMMUNITIES AND THE
ENVIRONMENT

INTRODUCTION
Human population growth is the genesis of most of the environmental issues we
face today and can be linked with negative environmental, economic and social
impacts. The environmental impacts may include deforestation, land degradation,
land-use change, water crisis, and climate change. Several steps have been taken
to ensure sustainability in growth and development, but the ever-growing human
population keeps on challenging these initiatives.
The current human population on earth is over 7.8 billion and is increasing
with projections of over 9 billion by 2040 and 11 billion by 2100. The rapidly
growing population is far outpacing the carrying capacity of the planet, which is
the ability of the planet to support the overly sized population of humans as per the
available resources. Overpopulation is the genesis of most of the environmental
issues we face today and can be linked with negative environmental, economic
and social impacts.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR HUMAN
POPULATION GROWTH
Growth in the human population can be largely attributed to some advancement in
the recent past in the field of agriculture,science, technology, and health facilities.
The surplus of food and other supplementary resources has provided ample space
for the growing human population. Overpopulation at specific locations, mainly
cities can also result from migration in search of better living conditions. Several
factors that lead to such unprecedented growth in the human population are:
1. Increase in agricultural productivity: Inclusion of modern techniques
in agriculture like use of agrochemicals (like fertilizers, pesticides, and
insecticides) and modern machinery has led to multi-fold increase in the
agricultural yield. The surplus of food resources have been able to support
the growing human population.
2. Decrease in death rate and infant mortality rate: With the advancement
in medical facilities including improved medicines and vaccines there has
been a considerable worldwide decline in the death rate and infant mortality
rate, which has led to larger population size.
3. Advancement in Science and Technology:Advance scientific technology
which fueled the industrial revolution provided a surplus of resources that
could support a larger human population.
4. Lack of awareness: Illiteracy, poverty, and lack of awareness about the
harmful impacts of a large population have also led to the problem of
overpopulation. Awareness and use of various family planning methods
are also lacking in most highly populated countries.
16.4 IMPACTS OF HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH
ON ENVIRONMENT, HUMAN HEALTH, AND
WELFARE
Following are some of the major environmental and health impacts of growing
human population:
1. Deforestation: The growing human population will lead to an increased
demand for food, space, and energy which will ultimately lead to the
destruction and clearing of pristine forest areas. In order to increase the
agricultural yield to support a large population, new areas have to be
brought under agriculture which will lead to a large scale deforestation.
Forests will also be cleared due to urbanisation, infrastructure development,
and industrialisation. Deforestation will lead to reduced carbon dioxide
absorption which will ultimately lead to global climate change phenomenon.
2. Biodiversity loss: Decline in forest cover and other available habitats
will also lead to a decline in floral and faunal biodiversity. This will lead
to an ecological imbalance and a decline in the biological resource of the
planet.
3. Urbanisation: Rapidly growing human population has led to rapid
urbanisation which has adversely affected the environment and natural
resources. Due to the growing population, natural resources in the urban
areas are depleting at a faster rate. A large part of the urban population is
devoid of proper sanitation facilities and pure drinking water which has
resulted in adverse health impacts.
4. Industrialsation: The establishment of industries such as fertilizers,
cement, steel, chemicals, and oil refineries to support the needs of the
growing population leads to environmental degradation, land-use change,
and pollution. Growing levels of toxic pollutants in the atmosphere have
a detrimental effect on the respiratory health of the affected people.
5. Land Degradation: Intensive farming, excessive use of agrochemicals,
and overexploitation of land and water resources leads to soil degradation,
including soil erosion, salination, and desertification.
6. Generation of Waste: The large human population generates humungous
solid and liquid waste which has detrimental environmental and health
impacts.
7. Loss of Fresh Water: Overexploitation of both surface and groundwater
leads to a decline in the available fresh water resources. It leads to water
scarcity issues and unavailability of safe drinking water. It is projected
that 2/3rd of the world’s population will be living with water shortages by
2025.
8. Climate Change: Overpopulation and excessive use of fossil fuels
have increased the level of various gaseous pollutants in the atmosphere
including greenhouse gases.
9. Transport Infrastructure: Development of transport infrastructure
for the large human population has led to the release of large quantities
of poisonous gases such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and
hydrocarbons. The development of ports and harbours in the sea has led
to oil spills from ships which adversely affect the marine biodiversity and
ecosystems.
10. Productivity: Environmental degradation not only harms the environment
but also reduces economic productivity. Polluted air and water causes
several diseases in different parts of the world and thus reduces the
productivity of the country. Water pollution hasled to a decline in fisheries
and water availability for agriculture. Soil degradation leads to the siltation
of reservoirs and canals and transport channels.
16.5 STEPS FOR POPULATION CONTROL
Health and Welfare
India has the largest population (1.3 billion) in the world and it is still growing.
Hence, effective population control measures have become the need of the hour.
Following measures can be taken to control the population growth in India:
1. Minimum age of Marriage: In India, the minimum age for marriage is
21 years for men and 18 years for women. This law should be effectively
implemented and people should be made aware regarding the same through
publicity.
2. Better Education: Education to different strata of society changes the
outlook of people. Educated families prefer to delay marriage and adopt
small family norms.
3. More employment opportunities: Developing employment opportunities
in both urban and rural areas will improve people’s income and standard
of living and thus their chances of adopting small family norms.
4. Family Planning: Increasing awareness about various family planning
methods and their easy availability can ensure their use and thus help in
reducing family size.
5. Incentives: The government can provide various types of incentives to
the people to adopt birth control measures. This can include monetary
incentives, tax benefits, and other facilitieslike leave and promotion which
can be extended to the working class which adopts small family norms.
16.6 CARBON FOOTPRINT
Carbon Footprint is the amount of greenhouse gases mainly carbon dioxide
released into the atmosphere by any anthropogenic activity. It can be a broad
measurement of the environmental impact due to the actions of an individual,
family, organization, industry, or even an entire nation. Example: To calculate
an individual’s carbon footprint we need to include a rough estimate of our
overall carbon dioxide production from several daily activities including the
use of electrical appliances, the distance we drive, our food consumption, and
how much we recycle.
Our carbon footprint can be reduced by using environment-friendly vehicles
(battery operated), using public transportation, using energy efficient appliances,
insulating our homes to reduce electricity consumption on room heaters and air
conditioning, and consuming local and organic food. Individuals and companies
can also offset some of their carbon dioxide emissions by purchasing carbon
credits, the money from which can go into environment-friendly initiatives such
as planting trees or investing in renewable and clean energy.
16.7 RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION
OF DEVELOPMENTAL PROJECT AFFECTED
PERSONS AND COMMUNITIES
Displacement of human populations in India is mostly initiated by factors such
as large scale developmental projects like mining, dam building, and industrial
establishments apart from political conflicts, natural disasters, and declaration of
an area as a National Park, Wildlife Sanctuary, or Biosphere Reserve. In India, a
national policy on Resettlement and Rehabilitation of project-affected families
came into force in 2004. However, all displacement and resettlement programs
have faced several challenges due to regional issues and administrative delays.
Resettlement and Rehabilitation (R&R) of families and communities
displaced during the establishment of any large-scale developmental project is
an integral part of the Environmental Impact Assessment and Environmental
Management Plan Reports (EIA and EMP). The R&R Plan for project-affected
families for any proposed or ongoing is prepar based on the National Policy for
Rehabilitation and Resettlement, 2003, and as per National Rehabilitation and
Resettlement Policy, 2007 (NRRP-2007). The resettlement plan is implemented
in association with the concerned state government, representatives from the
project affected families, and other stakeholders in the area. A detailed socio-
economic survey has to be conducted before the formulation of the R&R Plan.
Large-scale infrastructure projects involve the involuntary displacement of
many people which gives rise to severe economic, social, and environmental
problems. People are relocated to new places where their productive skills may
be less applicable, production systems are degraded, employment opportunities
and income sources are lost. The social fabric within the community is broken if
the families from one area are displaced to separate locations. The resettlement
of affected people (oustees) must aim to minimize involuntary resettlement,
provide a time-bound resettlement plan, and compensation for land and other
assets affected by the project.
16.8 CNG (COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS) VEHICLES
INITIATIVE IN DELHI
Rising levels of pollution have been a major cause of concern in the National
Capital, Delhi, which has been put on the list of 20 most polluted cities in the
world by the World Health Organisation. The main issues related to environmental
pollution are air pollution caused due to vehicular and industrial pollution and
water pollution in the Yamuna River. The number of private and public vehicles
has increased many folds in the recent past. This has polluted the environment
and made people, especially children and old vulnerable to multiple diseases in
the city.
Reacting to the court order which was the result of a PIL, the government
made it compulsory to introduce the CNG vehicles and make the pollution check
mandatory for all private vehicles. The introduction of the CNG vehicles has
resulted in the reduction of the environmental pollution in the city. Similarly, the
Delhi government has been forced to shift the polluting industries out of the city
and launch the Yamuna River cleaning operation. Moreover, taking action as per
recent orders of the Supreme Court of India to check it, the Delhi Government
is planning to push hydrogen enriched CNG buses on its roads. From just five
lakh vehicles in 1981, the increase in the number of vehicles has tremendously
proliferated. According to Delhi traffic police, around eighty thousand vehicles
travel through Delhi every day between 8pm and 6am indicating the size of its
fleet. On 28 July 1998, the Supreme Court ordered all commercial vehicles to
be mandatorily converted to CNG vehicles, especially taxis, buses, and three-
wheelers.
Advantages of using CNG: CNG may be generated and used for bulk storage
and pipeline transport of renewable energy and also be mixed with biomethane,
itself derived from biogasfrom landfills or anaerobic digestion. This would allow
the use of CNG for mobility without increasing the concentration of carbon in
the atmosphere. It would also allow continued use of CNG vehicles currently
powered by non-renewable fossil fuels that do not become obsolete when stricter
CO
2
emissions regulations are mandated to combat global warming.
Limitations of using CNG: The use of CNG vehicles faces several limitations
such as fuel storage and infrastructure available for delivery and distribution at
fuelling stations. CNG must be stored in high pressure cylinders only and this
cylinder takes up more space than gasoline or diesel tanks. Other limitation
include relatively price and environmental insensitivity.
Due to burning issues like climate change and estimations that non-
renewable fuels like crude oil will get exhausted in near future, exploring new
fuels like CNG is a boon. Thus the government shall now take more initiatives
so that alternative fuels can be commercialised.
16.9 SUMMARY
1. Challenges associated with resettlement and rehabilitation of project
affected families and communities.
2. Legal frameworks are available to formulate effective resettlement plan.
3. Negative impacts of the ever-growing human population on the environment
and human health.
4. Factors responsible for the human population explosion.
5. Population control measures.

LESSON 17
ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS IN INDIA
INTRODUCTION
Environmental and ecological movements are among the important examples
of the collective actions of several social groups. Protection and recognition of
constitutional and democratic rights, which are not defined by law but form an
important part of the day to day living of the subaltern masses like the control
over their resources, the right of indigenous people to preserve their culture,
protection of environment, and maintenance of ecological balance are significant
concerns of these movements as they affect the human life to a great extent.
These movements also reflect an enlarged vision of economics and politics.
Economic justice sought by these movements does not mean mere distribution
of resources but encompass a larger vision like enhancement in the quality of
life through recognition of people’s right over their natural resources, their right
to live with dignity, and their participation in the decision making. The con-
cerns of human environment received spectacular attention of scholars follow-
ing the conclusion of the United Nations Conference on Human Environment,
Stockholm in 1972. By the 1980s the “green movement” became a worldwide
phenomenon encompassing various countries of the world including India. It
is signified by several movements of people for the protection of their envi-
ronmental and ecological rights in India, ‘eco-greens’ or ‘green movement’ in
Germany and North Amercia.
17.3 BISHNOI MOVEMENT
Fig. 1
This was begun 400 years ago by a Sage known as Sombaji. In Rajasthan, a large
number of trees are still worshiped by devotees. People resisted the cutting of
such trees and advocated movement against deforestation
· Year: 1700s
· Place: Khejarli, Marwar region, Rajasthan
· Leaders: Amrita Devi along with Bishnoi villagers in Khejarli and
surrounding villages.
· Aim: Saving sacred trees from being cut down by the king’s soldiers for
a new palace.
Amrita Devi, a female villager could not bear to witness the destruction
of both her faith and the village’s sacred trees. She hugged the trees and
encouraged others to do the same. Totally 363 Bishnoi villagers were killed in
this movement. The Bishnoi tree martyrs were influenced by the teachings of
Guru Maharaj Jambaji, who founded the Bishnoi faith in 1485 and set forth
principles forbidding harm to trees and animals. The king who came to know
about these events rushed to the village and apologized, ordering the soldiers to
cease logging operations. Soon afterwards, the maharaja designated the Bishnoi
state as a protected area, forbidding harm to trees and animals. This legislation
still exists today in the region.
17.4 CHIPKO MOVEMENT
The Chipko movement of Uttaranchal is famous for its tree-hugging campaign
to resist the tree cutting. It was started by noted environmentalist Sunderlal Ba-
huguna in 1970 to safe guard the rich forest of western Himalaya Range.
· Year: 1973
· Place: In Chamoli district and later at Tehri-Garhwal district of Uttarakhand.
· Leaders: Sundarlal Bahuguna, Gaura Devi, Sudesha Devi, Bachni Devi,
Chandi Prasad Bhatt, Govind Singh Rawat, Dhoom Singh Negi, Shamsher
Singh Bisht, and Ghanasyam Raturi.
· Aim: The main objective was to protect the trees on the Himalayan slopes
from the axes of contractors of the forest.
Mr. Bahuguna enlightened the villagers by conveying the importance
of trees in the environment which checks the erosion of soil, cause rains, and
provides pure air. The women of Advani village of Tehri-Garhwal tied the sacred
thread around trunks of trees and they hugged the trees, hence it was called
‘Chipko Movement’ or ‘hug the tree movement’. The main demand of the people
in these protests was that the benefits of the forests (especially the right to fodder)
should go to local people. The Chipko movement gathered momentum in 1978
when the women faced police firings and other tortures. The then state Chief Minister, Hemwati Nandan
Bahuguna set up a committee to look into the matter,
which eventually ruled in favour of the villagers. This became a turning point in the history of eco-
development struggles in the region and around the world.

SAVE SILENT VALLEY MOVEMENT

Save Silent Valley was an environmental movement intended to protect Silent Valley, an evergreen
tropical forest in the Palakkad district of Kerala, India. It was started through a hydroelectric project.
·Year: 1978
·Place: Silent Valley, an evergreen tropical forest in the Palakkad district of Kerala, India.
·Leaders: The Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP), an NGO, and the poet-activist Sughathakumari
played an important role in the Silent Valley protests.
·Aim: In order to protect the Silent Valley, the moist evergreen forest from being destroyed by a
hydroelectric project.

The Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB) proposed a hydroelectric dam across the Kunthipuzha River that
runs through the Silent Valley. In February 1973, the planning commission approved the project at a cost
of about Rs. 25 crores. Many feared that the project would submerge 8.3 sq km of untouched moist
evergreen forest. Several NGOs strongly opposed the project and urged the government to abandon it.
In January 1981, bowing to unrelenting public pressure, Indira Gandhi declared that Silent Valley will be
protected. In June 1983, the center re-examined the issue through a commission chaired by Prof. M.G.K.
Menon. In November 1983, the Silent Valley Hydroelectric Project was called off. In 1985, Prime Minister
Rajiv Gandhi formally inaugurated the Silent Valley National Park.

APPIKO MOVEMENT
The Appiko movement was an innovative movement based on the environmental conservation in India.
This movement focused on the issues of forest based environmental actions in India.
·Year: 1983
·Place: Uttara Kannada and Shimoga districts of Karnataka State
 ·Leaders: Appiko’s greatest strengths lie in it being neither driven by a
personality nor having been formally institutionalised. However, it does have a facilitator in Pandurang
Hedge. He helped launch the movement in 1983.
·Aim: Against the felling and commercialisation of natural forest and the
ruining of ancient livelihood.
It can be said that Appiko movement is the southern version of the Chipko movement. The Appiko
Movement was locally known as “Appiko Chaluvali”. The locals embraced the trees which were to be cut
by contractors of the forest department. The Appiko movement used various techniques to raise
awareness such as foot marches in the interior forest, slide shows, folk dances, street plays, etc. The
second area of the movement’s work was to promote afforestation on denuded lands. The movement
later focused on the rational use of ecosphere by introducing alternative energy resource to reduce the
pressure on forest. The movement became a success. The current status of the project is stopped.

NARMADA BACHAO ANDHOLAN (NBA)

The Narmada movement begun in the late 1970s. This movement was centred on the issue of human
rights and rehabilitation programmes for the dam displaced.
·Year: 1985
·Place: Narmada River, which flows through the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
·Leaders: Medha Patker, Baba Amte, adivasis, farmers, environmentalists, and human rights activists.
·Aim: A social movement against a number of large dams being built across the Narmada River.
The movement first started as a protest for not providing proper rehabilitation and resettlement
for the people who have been displaced by the construction of Sardar Sarovar Dam. Later on, the
movement turned its focus on the preservation of the environment and the eco-systems of the valley.
Activists also demanded the height of the dam to be reduced to 88m from the proposed height of 130m.
World Bank withdrew from the project. The environmental issue was taken into the court. In October
2000, the Supreme Court gave a judgment approving the construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam with a
condition that height of the dam could be raised to 90 M. This height is much higher than the 88 M
which anti-dam activists demanded, but it is definitely lower than the proposed height of 130 M. The
project is now largely financed by the state governments and market borrowings. The project is expected
to be fully completed by 2025.

SUMMARY
1. The environmental movement also including conservation and green politics is a dissimilar scientific,
social, and political movement to address environmental issues. Environmental movement is a type of
“social movement that involves an array of persons, groups and coalitions that observe a common
interest in environmental protection and act to bring about changes in environmental policies and
practices” (Tong, Yanki 2005).
2. The environmental movements favour the sustainable management of natural resources. The
movements often stress the protection of the environment via changes in public policy. Many
movements are centred on ecology, health and human rights.
3. Environmental movements range from the highly organised and formally institutionalised ones to the
radically informal activities.
4. The spatial scope of various environmental movements ranges from being local to the almost global.
 LESSON 18
DISASTER MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION
A disaster is a serious problem occurring over a period of time that causes widespread human,
material, economic, or environmental loss which exceeds the ability of the affected community or
society to cope using its own resources. The Indian subcontinent is very vulnerable to droughts, floods,
cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, and forest fires. Disasters are routinely divided into either
“natural disasters” caused by natural hazards or “human-instigated disasters” caused from
anthropogenic hazards. However, in modern times, the divide between natural, human-made, and
human-accelerated disasters is difficult to draw. Disaster Management as a subject essentially deals with
management of resources and information as far as a disastrous event is concerned and also how
effectively and seamlessly one coordinates these resources. Disaster management, at the individual and
organisational level, deals with issues of planning, coordinating, communication and risk management. A
book to teach disaster management would accomplish very little unless a broad spectrum of knowledge
is imparted regarding effects of various types of disasters, their dimensions, and characteristics, the role
of United Nations in complex emergencies and the role of Indian government in prevention and control
of disasters. Equally important is the knowledge about various international and national agencies
involved in disaster relief and humanitarian assistance. This book covers all these subjects in order to
enhance the ability of students and professionals for better disaster response.

‘POST DISASTER MANAGEMENT’ AND ‘DISASTER MITIGATION

Disaster management is a process of effectively preparing for and responding to disasters. It involves
strategically organizing resources to lessen the harm that disasters cause. It also involves a systematic
approach to managing the responsibilities of disaster prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery.
It is multi-sectoral as it involves administrators, scientists, planners, volunteers, and communities. These
roles and activities span the pre-disaster, during disaster, and post disaster plans. Since their activities
are complementary as well as supplementary to each other, there is a critical need for coordinating
these activities. The Indian subcontinent is very vulnerable to droughts, floods, cyclones, earthquakes,
landslides, and forest fires. While not all natural calamities
can be predicted and prevented, a state of preparedness and ability to respond quickly to natural
calamity can considerably mitigate loss of life, property, human suffering, and restore normalcy at the
earliest. The post disaster approach towards developing a set of strategies to assist a community in
rebuilding after a disaster occurs. It deals with natural disasters, involving problems such as evacuation,
warnings, communications, search and rescue, fire-fighting, medical and psychiatric assistance, provision
of relief, shelter, etc, is generally referred to as ‘Post Disaster Management’. It is a primarily a ‘Reactive
Mechanism’ to the natural disasters.
 Today we have a range of early warning systems for a range of natural hazards. Although they are more
accurate than before and can help in prediction but it is not enough to ensure communities are safe from
disasters. This is where disaster mitigation can play an important role. ‘Mitigation’ is defined as a
sustained action taken to reduce long term vulnerability of human life and the recovery property to
natural hazards while the preparatory, response, and the recovery phases of emergency management
relate to specific events. Mitigation activities have the potential to produce repetitive benefits over time.
Though traditionally disaster management consisted primarily of reactive mechanisms, the past few
years have witnessed a gradual shift towards a more proactive, mitigation based approach i.e. a
‘Proactive approach’ to natural disasters. Goals - The goals of post-disaster recovery planning are to:
1. To identify and prioritize key issues.
2. Establish partnerships.
3. Develop a recovery strategy.
4.Effectively direct external and internal resources.
5. Identify per-disaster mitigation projects.
6. Enhance response and preparedness capabilities.

Disaster Preparedness:
Preparedness and focuses on plans to respond to a disaster threat or occurrence. It takes into account
an estimation of emergency needs and identifies the resources to meet these needs. It also involves
preparation of well-designed plans to structure the entire post-disaster response, and familiarising the
stakeholders, particularly the communities through training and simulation exercises. Preparedness has
to be supported by the necessary legislation, means a readiness to cope with disasters or similar
emergencies that cannot be avoided. The first objective of preparedness is to reduce the disaster impact
through appropriate actions and improve the capacity of those who are likely to be affected most (that
is, marginalised, poor and handicapped) to get maximum benefit out
of relief. The second is to ensure that ongoing development continues to improve the capacities and the
capabilities of the system to strengthen preparedness and efforts at community level. Finally, it guides
reconstruction so as to ensure reduction in vulnerability. The best examples of preparedness activities
are the development of local warning and community evacuation plans through community education,
evolving local response structures such as Community based Disaster Management Teams (DMT) and
administrative preparedness by way of stockpiling of supplies; developing emergency plans for rescue
and relief.
 MULTI-DISCIPLINARY AND MULTI- SECTORAL NATURE OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Disaster management is a multidisciplinary area in which a wide range of issues that range from
forecasting, warning, evacuation, search and rescue, relief, reconstruction, and rehabilitation are
included. It is also multi-sectoral as it involves administrators, scientists, planners, volunteers, and
communities. India is a parliamentary democracy with a federal structure. An integrated disaster
management mechanism exists within government framework. The essential responsibility of disaster
management lies with the State Government where the disaster has occurred. However, in the event of
disasters which spread over several states and assume uncontrollable proportions, the Central
Government may be required to supplement appropriate measures in the fields of rescue, relief, and
preparedness

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT OF MITIGATION PROGRAM

The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), headed by the Prime Minister of India, is the
apex body for Disaster Management in India-
1. Pre-disaster mitigation can help in ensuring faster recovery from the impacts of disasters.
2. Mitigation measures must ensure protection of the natural and cultural assets of the community.
3. Hazard reduction methods must take into account the various hazards faced by the affected
community, their desires, and priorities.
4. Any mitigation programme must also ensure an effective partnership between the Govt, Scientific,
private sector, NGOs, and the community

THE MAIN ELEMENTS OF A MITIGATION STRATEGY

Disaster mitigation focuses on the hazard that causes the disaster and tries to eliminate or drastically
reduce its direct effects. The best example of mitigation is the construction of dams or leevies to prevent
floods or coordination of release of water from various irrigation dams to avoid flooding in the
downstream areas. Other examples include strengthening buildings to make them earthquake resistant,
planting of crops that are less affected by disasters, controlling land-use
patterns to restrict development in high-risk areas and diversification of economic activities to act as
insurance to offset losses in different sectors. A mitigation strategy however, cannot be successful unless
it has the backing and support of all concerned – the administrative machinery, the research institutions,
the non-officials, and the community. So, it also becomes imperative to have built-in institutional
arrangements and/or legislative backing to oversee the mitigation strategy over a period of time.
The main elements of mitigation strategy are-
1. Risk assessment and Vulnerability analysis: This involves the identification of hotspot areas of prime
concern, collection of information on past natural hazards, information on the population and
infrastructure.
2. Applied research and technology transfer: There is a need to establish or upgrade observation,
equipment and networks, monitor the hazardous properly, improve the quality of forecasting, and
warning.
3. Public awareness and training: Training to be given to officials and staff of various departments
involved in state & district level.
4. Institutional mechanisms: There is need to emphasize on proactive and pre-disaster measures rather
than post-disaster response. It is thus essential to have a permanent administrative structure which can
monitor the developmental activities across departments and provides suggestions for necessary
mitigation measures. The national disaster management
center (NDMC) can perform such a task. Professionals like architects, structural engineers, doctors and
chemical engineers who are involved with management of hazardous chemicals, can be asked to form
groups that can design specific mitigation measures.
5. Incentives and resources for mitigation: Provides stable source of funding for all mitigation programs.
6. Land use planning and regulations: Designate floodplains areas as places for outdoor recreation,
wildlife attractions, or hiking trails. They can also urge people to avoid these areas during flood season.
7. Hazard resistant design and construction: In areas that are prone to disasters, protection can be
enhanced by careful selection of sites and the way the buildings are built. Thus it is essential to promote
the knowledge of disaster resistant construction techniques and practices among engineers, architects,
and technical personnel.
8. Structural and Constructional reinforcement of existing buildings: It is also possible to reduce the
vulnerability of existing buildings through minor adaptations or alterations thereby ensuring their safety.
This can be done by the insertion of walls, especially on choked frames, construction of new frame
systems, designing residential electrical equipment above flood level, designing water storage tanks to
be able to withstand cyclonic winds, earthquakes, and floods. In disaster situations, a quick rescue and
relief mission is inevitable. However, considerable damage can be minimized if adequate preparedness
levels are achieved. Indeed, it has been noticed in the past , that as and when attention has been paid to
adequate preparedness measures, the loss to life and property has been considerably reduced.
Preparedness measures, such as training of role players, including the community, development of
advanced forecasting systems, effective communications, and above all, a sound national policy and a
well-networked institutional structure involving government organisations, academic and research
institutions, the armed forces and NGOs would greatly contribute to the overall disaster management of
the region. Later, it would lead to the much needed change in the overall orientation from rescue and
relief to preparedness.

CAUSES, EFFECTS AND MITIGATION MEASURES OF THE DISASTERS IN INDIA

Flood:
Based on hydrological studies carried out, it is estimated that only 18 percent of the rainwater can be
stored in dams, reservoirs, etc. while 82 percent of the rainwater flows through rivers ultimately into the
sea. Floods are therefore a recurring phenomenon in our country. Floods can be caused by natural,
ecological, or anthropogenic factors either individually or as a combined result. Human activities such as
deforestation and shifting cultivation can also contribute to floods. Heavy rainfall is the main cause of
floods in the rivers. The breaches to tanks and reservoirs due to inflow of large quantities of water from
excessive rainfall also result in floods. Floods occur sometimes in a flash due to intensive rains at the
time of cyclones. India is the most affected country in the world. The west coast of India has an
advantage, as it has Western Ghats with thick forests which acts as a natural buffer to floods.
Flooding in rivers is mainly caused by:
• Inadequate capacity within the banks of the river to contain high flows.
• River bank erosion and silting of riverbeds
• Landslides leading to obstruction of flow and change in the river course.
• Synchronization of flood in the main and tributary rivers.
•Flow retardation due to tidal and backwater effects.
• Poor natural drainage.
• Cyclone and heavy rainfall.

Effects:
Floods cause heavy suffering to people living in low lying areas because the houses and the properties
are inundated or washed away. Most of the victims are rural folks who are economically poor. Floods
also damage standing crops and livestock. Mitigation measures includes structural measures:
1. Reservoirs for impounding monsoon flows to be released in a regular manner.
2. After the peak flood flow passes.
3. Prevention of overbank spilling by the construction of embankments and flood walls.
4. Improvement of flow conditionsin the channel and anti-erosion measures.
5. Improved drainage.
Flood-Plain management such as:
1. Flood Plain zoning and flood proofing including disaster preparedness.
2. Maintaining wet lands.
3. Flood forecasting and warning services.
4. Disaster relief and public health measures.
5. Flood insurance.
The various measures adopted for flood mitigation may be categorized into two groups:
i) Structural
ii) Non-structural
The general approach was aimed at preventing floodwaters from reaching the potential damage centres,
as a result of which a large number of embankments came up along the various flood prone rivers. The
main thrust of the flood protection programme undertaken in the country so far in the form of structural
measures may be grouped into the following:
• Dams and Reservoirs
•Embankments, flood walls, and sea walls
• Natural detention basin
• Channel improvement
• Drainage improvement
• Diversion of floodwaters.
Post Flood Management :
Post – Disaster Management could inter alia including the following essential requirements:
• Speedy restoration of roads, rail routes, and the postal services.
• Normal water supply in the affected areas either by arranging tankers or fire tenders.
• Repair of the power, telephone, and sewerage lines on priority basis so that normalcy is restored.
• Proper arrangements for the supply of food, shelter, and clothing to the marooned people.
• Ensuring adequate supply of POL and kerosene oil and keeping the supply line moving.
• Constitution of a survey team to assess the loss and compensation to be given to the affected
population.
• Assistance for repairing or rebuilding of private properties.
• Desilting and dewatering of the inundated areas.
• Taking up appropriate measures according to Contingency Plan for the agriculture sector.

Arrangements During and After Floods:

i) Organising rescue operations.
ii) Organising shelter for the people in distress. In case the efforts of the
civil authorities are considered inadequate, army assistance should be requisitioned.
iii)Relief measures by non-official and voluntary organisations may be enlisted as far as possible.
iv) Organise relief camps.
v) Provision of basic amenities like drinking water, sanitation and public health care, and arrangements of
cooked food in the relief camps.
vi) Making necessary arrangements for air dropping of food packets in the marooned villages through
helicopters.
vii) Organising enough relief parties to the rescue of the marooned people within a reasonable time
limit.
viii)Establish alternate communication links to have effective communication with marooned areas.
ix) Organising controlled kitchens to supply foods initially at least for 3 days.
x) Organising cattle camps, if necessary, and provide veterinary care, fodder, and cattle feed to the
affected animals.
xi) Grant of emergency relief to all the affected people.
xii) Submission of daily reports and disseminate correct information through mass media to avoid
rumours.
xiii) Rehabilitation of homeless.
xiv) Commencement of agricultural activities – desiltation and resowing.
xv) Repairs and reconstruction of infrastructure facilities such as roads, embankments, and resettlement
of flood prone areas.
xvi) Health measures.
xvii) Relief for economic reconstruction.

Earthquakes:
An abrupt and tremendous release of energy stored in the rocks and the earth’s crust through the
action of tectonic process is described as an earthquake. Some areas on the planet earth are so located
that more than one tectonic plate constantly change against one another and an earthquake can result
when one or more of these plates move against the others at high speed. In certain regions of earth,
earthquakes occur with regularity. In India, Assam and the Himalayan regions are more infested with
earthquakes. Earthquake that occurred in 2001 in Gujarat taking a toll of 30,000 per ape was the major
one Hythi at present. The intensity of earthquake is measured on the Richter scale. As of now there is no
way of predicting an earthquake. Earthquake by themselves do not cause casualties but the houses
collapse due to poor construction. The construction of quake-proof houses may reduce human loss but it
may be economically difficult for poor countries. The Government of countries which are quake prone
should ensure that the infrastructure could withstand earthquakes. The role of NGOs in this is very
important. Their strength lies in their manpower, informality in operations, and valuable human
resources. Their ability to reach out to the community and sensitivity to local traditions is an asset in
such situations. For earthquake prediction a number of geophysical and geochemical parameters are
continuously observed and some of which shows anomalously precursory changes. These include the
following:
1. Land deformation, tilt, and strain are the most important changes which are observed well before the
earthquakes.
2. Number of small shocks (foreshocks) increase before a main earthquake but decrease just prior to the
main earthquake.
3. Velocity of longitudinal waves in the earthquake zone decreases and then becomes normal prior to an
earthquake.
4. Electrical resistivity of the ground decreases.
5. Radon, a radio active gas, is found to increase prior to earthquakes.
According to the report, the initiatives of the International Fund for Agriculture Development in
supporting the Self Employed Women’s Association and the Government’s initiative in a community
based livelihood security for earthquakes and drought victims have the potential to shape the future
disaster response and development projects. The author however states that the coordination between
government, local NGOs, and local community initiatives for both the rescue as well as rehabilitation
needs to be strengthened as this can cause delays, overlaps, and waste of relief material and efforts.
Cyclones:
Cyclone is a meteorological phenomenon of intense depressions forming over the open oceans and
moving towards the land on the shore. In reaching the shores, it moves into the interior of the land or
along the shorelines. The cyclone once formed may be active from days to weeks and affects many days
to weeks and affects many areas, even countries depending on the nature and the intensity. Globally
North West pacific regions are more prone to cyclones. The Indian Ocean is one of the six major cyclone
prone regions of the world. India has a long coastline of 5700 kms, which is exposed to tropical cyclones
arising in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. The eastern coastline is more prone to cyclones as it is
hit by about 80 percent of the total cyclones generated in the region. In India, cyclones originating from
Bay of Bengal are more in number and intensity. In India, cyclones occur usually between April and May
and also between October and December. The damage depends on the intensity of cyclone, the damage
to human life, crops, settlements roads, communications, tanks, canals, and livestock. Sometimes their
occurrence slow down the developmental activities of the areas. Disaster management should aim at
reducing the impact of the three main characteristics and effects of a cyclone, which are - High speed
winds, Storm Surge, and Floods caused by Heavy and wide-spread rainfall. The focus therefore has to be
on the following: -
a) Understanding the mechanism of formation, development, structure, and movement of cyclones.
b) The capability of detecting cyclones while out at sea.
c) The capability to predict their movement and behaviour.
d) Capacity to warn vulnerable people in time.
e) Measures for cyclone preparedness both in advance and during a cyclone.
f) Relief and rehabilitation after the cyclone.
g) An integrated hazard mitigation policy dove-tailed into the development
plan.
The first four are essentially based on meteorology and the rest are in the field of planning, organising,
and implementation. Mitigation measures are:
· Installation of early warning systems
· Developing communication infrastructure
· Developing shelter belts
· Construction of permanent houses
· Training and educating on land use, control, and settlement planning.
Landslides:
Landslides are recurring phenomena in the Himalayan region. It is a geological process which includes a
wide range of mass movements, such as rock falls, deep failure of slopes, and shallow debris flows.
Although gravity acting on an over steepened slope is the primary reason for a landslide, there are other
contributing factors affecting the original slope stability like erosion by rivers, glaciers, or ocean waves
create over steepened slopes. In recent years, however, intensive construction activity and the
destabilizing forces of nature have aggravated the problem. Landslides occur as a result of changes on
the slope, sudden or gradual, either in its composition, structure, hydrology, or vegetation. The changes
can be due to geology, climate and weather, changing land use, and earthquakes.
1. Rock and soil slopes are weakened through saturation by snowmelt or heavy rains. Earthquakes create
stresses that make weak slopes fail.
2. Volcanic eruptions produce loose ash deposits, heavy rain, and debris flows.
3. Vibrations from traffic, machinery, thunder, and blasting can trigger weak slopes.
4. Groundwater pressure acting to destabilize the slope.
5. Excess weight from accumulation of rain or snow, stockpiling of rock or ore, from waste piles, or from
man-made structures may stress weak slopes to failure and other structures. Measures to prevent
landslides are drainage measures, erosion control measures such as bamboo check dams, terracing, jute
and coir netting and rock fall control measures such as grass plantation, vegetated dry masonry walls,
preventing deforestation, and improving forestation. A significant reduction in the hazards caused by
landslides can be achieved by preventing the exposure of population and by physically controlling the
land slides.

Tsunami:
The term ‘Tsunami’ comes from the Japanese language, meaning harbor (tsu) and wave (nami). A
tsunami is generated when the sea floor abruptly deforms andvertically displaces the overlying water. It
is the wave disturbance that rapidly displaces a large mass of water like an undersea earthquake,
volcanic eruption, or submarine land slide. Tectonic earthquakes are a particular kind of earthquakes
that are associated with earth’s crustal deformation; when these earthquakes occur beneath the sea, the
water above the deformed area is displaced from its equilibrium position. Waves are formed as the
displaced water mass, which acts under the influence of gravity attempts to regain its equilibrium. When
large areas of the sea floor elevate or subside, a tsunami can be created. Tsunami wave can travel at the
speed of a commercial jet plane, over 800 km/h. They can move from one side of the Pacific Ocean to
the other in less than a day. The waves can be extremely dangerous and damaging when they reach the
shore. The wave travels across the ocean at speed of 500-1000 km/h. As the wave approaches the land,
it compresses - sometimes up to a highest of 30ms and the sheer weight of water is enough to crush the
objects in its path, often reducing the building to their foundations and scouring exposed ground to the
bed rock. One of the most severely affected areas was that closest to the epicenter, the province of Aceh
on Sumatra, Indonesia. More than 130,000 people died and 36,786 were still missing in December 2005.
The highest tolls were among the women and children who were in the low lying coastal areas while
their husbands were at sea fishing. Over 800 kilometres of coast was severely affected, often up to five
kilometres inland. At least 654 villages were damaged or destroyed, more than 500,000 people lost their
homes, and more than 150,000 children were left without schools. To add to the devastation an
earthquake measuring 8.7 on the Richter scale struck the west coast of Sumatra near the island of Nias
on 28 March, 2005. On the morning of Sunday, 26 December, 2004, there was a severe earthquake in the
Indian Ocean off the coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia. The earthquake measured 9.0 on the Richter
scale and was followed by
aftershocks ranging from 6.3 to 7.0 in severity in a zone 1,000 kilometres north to the Andaman Islands.
The underwater earthquake also resulted in a powerful tsunami (‘soo-na-mi’, from the Japanese words
meaning ‘harbor wave’). The wave travelled quickly under the ocean, building to a wall of water up to 10
meters high when it reached the shallow coastal waters and causing massive destruction when it hit
land. Without an effective warning system and disaster plan, many
people did not know to move quickly to higher ground to escape the wave and its load of debris. In some
places the sea receded for hundreds of meters before the wave rushed in. Curious people looking at this
strange occurrence from the beaches did not recognize this as a sign of danger, and as a result many
were killed by the tsunami. The tsunami caused extraordinary damage. The death toll was put at roughly
187,000, with nearly 43,000 missing and many hundreds of thousands injured and suffering. Countries
lost people with the knowledge and skills that were needed for their ongoing development. Roads,
bridges, water and electricity supplies, health centres and schools were destroyed.

DEALING WITH DISASTER –

1) Natural Disaster can strike suddenly, unexpectedly and with or without warning. It leads to temporary
disruption of all social, economic and community life.
2) Large number of agencies like Revenue, Police, Health, Transport, Electricity, Fire brigade have a part
in dealing with disaster and rehabilitation.
3)Effectiveness of the response depends upon how well the emergency services, both Local and Central
Governments have harmonised and fine tuned their preparation and exercised their preparational
arrangements - emergency procedures.