Nutrition

Nutrition is a process of making or taking in food substances and converting them to nutrients
necessary or required by the body.

There are two major types of nutrition:

1. Autotrophic mode of nutrition
2. Heterotrophic mode of nutrition

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
It's a type of nutrition in which organisms manufacture their food themselves.
There are two types of autotrophic nutrition:
1. Photosynthetic nutrition
2. Chemosynthetic nutrition
Photosynthetic nutrition
This type of nutrition is specific to plants, and also algae, cyanobacteria and plant like protists.
Any organism that has the pigment Chlorophyll is capable of this type of nutrition.
Photosynthesis is a process by which green plants manufacture their good using CO₂, water and
presence of sunlight.
The equation is simply:
6CO₂ + 6H₂O —> C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis in plants. Chloroplasts are cell organelles that are
present only in plant cells and are located within the mesophyll cells of leaves. All green parts of a
plant, including the green stems, green leaves, and sepals comprise of chloroplasts. They contain
chlorophyll (green pigment) which absorbs energy from sunlight to provide energy needed to drive
the photosynthesis process.
In photosynthesis, glucose (sugar) is produced which is converted to starch in the leaf cells. The
starch are in insoluble form and are stored until night time. At night, the starch is converted back
into sugars (which is now soluble) and are transported to other parts of the plants where they're
needed through a process called translocation by the vascular bundle phloem.

Materials required for photosynthesis

1. Chlorophyll
2. Water and mineral salts
3. Sunlight
4. Carbon(IV)oxide
5. Optimum temperature

Note:
Approximately 57% of Sun Energy is absorbed in the Atmosphere and scattered in the Space. Some
35% is spent to heat Water and land areas and to evaporate waters.
Approximately 8% of the light Energy is used in Striking Plant surfaces
1. (10-15%) is reflected
2. 5% is transmitted
3. Between 80-88% is absorbed
4. An average of 2% (0.5 to 3.5% of the total light energy striking a leaf) is used in
photosynthesis

Stages of Photosynthesis
There are two stages of Photosynthesis in Plants
1. Light reaction stage
2. Dark reaction stage

Light reaction stage

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Light reaction stage
Photosynthesis begins with the light reaction which is carried out only during the day in the
presence of sunlight. In plants, the light-dependent reaction takes place in the thylakoid
membranes of chloroplasts. Thylakoids are disc-shaped structures stacked into grana with in the
chloroplast.
Photosystems are protein complexes in the thylakoids of chloroplasts that play a crucial role in
photosynthesis. There are two main types of photosystems Photosystem II (PSII) and Photosystem
I (PSI) which capture light energy and initiate the process of converting light or solar energy into
chemical energy. Photosystems contain two main components:
• Light-Harvesting Complex: This is a collection of pigment molecules, primarily chlorophylls
and carotenoids, that absorb light energy and transfer it to the reaction center.
• Reaction Center: This is a specialized pair of chlorophyll molecules that receive the energy
transferred from the light-harvesting complex. The reaction center initiates the electron
transfer process by releasing an excited electron to the electron transport chain, starting the
light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.
Four steps of light reaction stage of photosynthesis
1. Energizing of Chlorophyll.
The Chlorophyll absorbs energy from the sun. It's the green pigment in the chloroplast of
plants which aids photosynthesis and it's major work is to absorb energy. The
2. Photolysis of water.
The energy absorbed by the chlorophyll is used to break water. Photolysis of water means
breaking water with light. It occurs during non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
4H₂O → 4H⁺ + 4OH⁻
The hydroxyl ion is converted back to water.
4[OH⁻] → 2H₂O + O₂ + 4e-
Here oxygen is given off as a byproduct.
3. NADP is reduced by Hydrogen ion to NADPH₂.
The remaining hydrogen ion from photolysis of water combines with a coenzyme NADP and
reduces it to NADPH₂.
4. ATP is formed from ADP (an energy carrier present in chloroplast) through the process of
photophosphorylation.

Photophosphorylation: utilizing light energy to convert ADP to ATP.

It involves transferring phosphate group into ADP molecule in the presence of light. It occurs in the
thylakoid membranes during the light reaction stage.
When chlorophyll absorbs light, it causes excitation of electrons which will aid conversion of ADP to
ATP in the chloroplast.
There are cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
• Cyclic photophosphorylation: excited electrons are used for the cyclic
photophosphorylation. Electron carrier will return the excited electrons back to chlorophyll.
The electrons can be re-excited and reused for another cyclic photophosphorylation. Only 2
ATP molecules are produced in this process.
• Non-cyclic photophosphorylation: Electrons from photolysis of water are used for the non-
cyclic photophosphorylation process. The electrons will not be returned to the chlorophyll
but are lost in the process. The electrons are accepted by NADP and H+ from water photolysis
reduces NADP to NADPH2. 1 ATP and 2 NADPH2 molecules are produced in the process.
The ATP synthesized in light reaction stage is used to drive glucose synthesis in Calvin cycle.

Dark reaction stage (Calvin cycle)

In dark reaction stage, CO₂ is converted to sugar through reduction by atoms of hydrogen provided
by NADPH₂. This takes place through processes controlled by several enzymes. The energy
required for this process is provided by ATP formed in light reaction stage.
CO₂ + 4H⁺ ---> CH₂O + H₂O
CH₂O (sugar) is a basic structure from which other food substances are from.
Dark reaction stage is also called Calvin cycle and takes place in the stroma in the chloroplast.
Stroma is the liquid portion of chloroplast.

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Stroma is the liquid portion of chloroplast.

Importance of photosynthesis
• Plant prepares their food by photosynthesis. The plants, in turn, are eaten by the animals.
• It provides oxygen in atmosphere for all living organisms.
• It maintains the balanced level of oxygen and carbon dioxide ecosystem.

Chemosynthetic nutrition
It involves certain bacteria synthesizing organic compounds from simple inorganic materials. The
energy they use comes from oxidation of the inorganic materials. Since what they use involve
inorganic materials or chemicals, the process is called chemosynthesis.
It is also a process where certain bacteria which are autotrophs manufacture their own food from
simple inorganic substance such as carbon (iv) oxide, water, hydrogen sulphide by using the
chemical energy released during the process as their source of energy. The bacteria have enzyme
system capable of trapping chemical energy.
E.g the Sulphur bacteria in the soil can oxidize hydrogen sulphide around it to chemical energy.
2H2S + O ——–> S + 2H2O + Chemical energy
Organisms that exhibit chemosynthetic nutrition are nitrosomonas, nitrobacter. Nitrosomonas
convert ammonia to nitrite. Nitrobacter converts nitrite to nitrate.

Summarily,
Photosynthesis is a process which involves production of food using light energy.
Chemosynthesis is a process in which some organisms use chemical energy instead of light energy
to produce food.

PLANT PIGMENTS
Chlorophyll is the main photosynthetic pigment in plants and it appears green. It is responsible for
the green colour of plants. Chlorophyll is the main pigment in chloroplast where photosynthesis
occurs.
Chlorophylls:
• Chlorophyll a: The primary (major) photosynthetic pigment responsible for capturing light
energy and initiating the photosynthesis process. It is found in all photosynthetic organisms
(plants, algae, cyanobacteria and appears light to medium green.
Other chlorophylls, carotenoids and phycobilins are accessory photosynthetic pigments.
• Chlorophyll b: An accessory pigment found in green algae and plants. It assists chlorophyll a
by capturing additional light energy.
• Chlorophyll c: found in brown algae (Phaeophyta) and diatoms
• Chlorophyll d: found in red algae and some cyanobacteria
Accessory Pigments:
• Carotenoids: These pigments provide colour ranging from yellow to orange shades and are
produced in chromoplasts. They are found mainly and chromoplasts but are also present in
chloroplasts. Carotenoids absorb light energy and transfer it to chlorophyll for
photosynthesis. They are produced in chromoplasts and include:
○ Carotene: Orange pigment.
○ Xanthophyll: Yellow pigment.
Fucoxanthin is a kind of xanthophyll which is a brown pigment found in kelps and
diatoms.
• Phycobilins: Water-soluble pigments found in cyanobacteria and red algae, located in the
cytoplasm or stroma of the chloroplast. They include:
○ Phycocyanin: Blue pigment found in cyanobacteria.
○ Phycoerythrin: Red pigment found in red algae.
Anthocyanins:
These are flavonoid pigments responsible for red, violet, and blue colors in fruits, flowers, and other
plant parts. They are water-soluble and stored in vacuoles. Anthocyanins can appear red in acidic
conditions, violet in neutral, and blue in alkaline solutions. They primarily serve as protective

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conditions, violet in neutral, and blue in alkaline solutions. They primarily serve as protective
pigments and contribute to plant coloration.

MINERAL REQUIREMENTS OF PLANTS

Macronutrients: nutrients required by plants in large amounts or quantities for normal and
healthy growth of plants.
There are primary macronutrients needed in large amounts and secondary macronutrients needed
in moderate amounts.
➢ Primary macronutrients: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium
➢ Secondary macronutrients: Calcium, Magnesium, Sulphur
Micronutrients: nutrients required by plants in small quantities or amounts for healthy growth of
plants.
Examples: iron, copper, molybdenum, manganese, zinc, boron, nickel, chlorine.
These are the 17 essential nutrients in plants.

1. Nitrogen: essential for amino acid and protein formation, photosynthesis, and plant growth.
Deficiency: General chlorosis, starting from older to younger leaves; plants become spindly
and stunted.
2. Phosphorus: for energy transfer, photosynthesis, and early root development.
Deficiency: Purple or bronze discoloration on older leaves; stunted growth.
3. Potassium: promotes protein synthesis, photosynthesis, and disease resistance.
Deficiency: Leaf edge chlorosis on newly matured leaves, progressing to necrosis.
4. Calcium: Provides structural support to cell walls and aids in continuous cell division.
Deficiency: Stunted growth in new foliage and roots; tip burn on younger leaves.
5. Magnesium: Key component of chlorophyll and aids in phosphorus utilization.
Deficiency: Interveinal chlorosis in older leaves, reduced growth rate.
6. Sulphur: Integral in amino acid formation and promotes chlorophyll production.
Deficiency: Uniform pale green chlorosis throughout the plant.
7. Iron: Promotes chlorophyll formation and acts as an oxygen carrier.
Deficiency: Interveinal chlorosis on young leaves, reduced growth.
8. Manganese: Aids in chlorophyll synthesis and enzyme function.
Deficiency: Interveinal chlorosis on young leaves, reduced phosphorus availability.
9. Molybdenum: Required for nitrate reduction and legume nodule formation.
Deficiency: Poor nitrate reduction, stunted plant growth.
10. Zinc: Necessary for hormone production, enzyme function, and seed formation.
Deficiency: Small, distorted leaves; chlorosis on younger leaves.
11. Boron: Essential for cell wall formation, pollen germination, and sugar translocation.
Deficiency: Poor growth of pollen tubes and cell walls, delayed maturity.
12. Copper: Catalyzes photosynthesis and improves reproductive stages.
Deficiency: Poor chlorophyll production, reduced sugar content, and colour intensity

ANIMAL NUTRITION
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) with
the general formula Cₓ(H₂O)y, where the molar ratio of C:H
is approximately 1:2:1. Their empirical formula is (CH₂O)n, where n represents the number of
carbon atoms. Carbohydrates are essential for energy storage and supply in living organisms due to
the many C-H bonds that release energy when broken.
Types of Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates can be monosaccharides, disaccharides or polysaccharides.
1. Monosaccharides: The simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of single sugar molecules
with 3 to 7 carbon atoms.
Examples:

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 Examples:
- Trioses (3 carbon): glyceraldehyde, dihydoxyacetone
- Tetroses (4 carbon): erythrose, threose
- Pentoses (5 carbon): ribose, deoxyribose, xylose
- Hexoses (6 carbon): glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose
- Heptoses (7 carbon): Glyceroheptose
- Monosaccharides can be aldoses or ketoses.
Aldoses: Contain an aldehyde group (e.g., glucose, galactose).
Ketoses: Contain a ketone group (e.g., fructose).
2. Disaccharides: they are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharide molecules,
joined by a glycosidic bond.
Examples:
▫ Sucrose: Composed of glucose and fructose. Found in table sugar and formed by a
dehydration reaction.
▫ Lactose: Composed of glucose and galactose. Found in milk.
▫ Maltose: Composed of two glucose molecules. Found in malt and produced during the
digestion of starch.
3. Oligosaccharides: carbohydrates that consist of a small number of monosaccharide units,
typically ranging from 2 to 10 sugar molecules linked together by glycosidic bonds. Types are
disaccharides, trisaccharides (raffinose), tetrasaccharides.
4. Polysaccharides: large carbohydrates composed of long chains of monosaccharide units.
Examples include starch, glycogen, and cellulose. They serve as energy storage (starch and
glycogen) or structural components (cellulose).
Reducing vs. Non-Reducing Sugars:
• Reducing Sugars: they are capable of reducing other substances. Examples include glucose,
fructose, galactose, lactose, and maltose. Aldoses are generally reducing sugars while ketoses
are generally non-reducing sugars. Fructose is a ketose that can act as a reducing sugar in the
presence of strong alkalis, due to its ability to form an aldose structure (via isomerization).
• Non-Reducing Sugars: they are not capable of reducing other substances. Examples include
sucrose, trehalose, and raffinose.

PROTEINS
Proteins are composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), and sometimes
phosphorus (P) and sulfur (S). They are polymers made up of amino acids.
Amino Acids
Amino acids are classified as essential (these cannot be synthesized by the human body and must
be obtained from the diet) and non-essential (these can be synthesized by the human body and do
not need to be obtained directly from the diet).
Essential Amino Acids: I Love Lucy Very Much Please Try Too
Isoleucine, leucine, lysine, valine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan.
Non-Essential Amino Acids: Almost All Girls Go Crazy After Getting Perfectly Styled Tattoos
Alanine, asparagine, glutamine, glutamate, cysteine, aspartic acid, glycine, proline, tyrosine, serine.
Semi-Essential Amino Acids: Histidine, arginine.
Protein Breakdown: Protein → Peptone → Polypeptides → Amino Acids.
Types and Functions of Proteins
1. Digestive Enzymes: Amylase, lipase, pepsin, trypsin.
Function: Aid in digestion by breaking down nutrients into monomeric units.
2. Transport Proteins: Hemoglobin, albumin.
Function: Carry substances in the blood or lymph throughout the body.
3. Structural Proteins: Actin, tubulin, keratin.
Function: Form cellular structures, like the cytoskeleton.
4. Hormones: Insulin, thyroxine.
Function: Regulate body processes and coordinate system activities.
5. Defense Proteins: Immunoglobulins.
Function: Protect the body from pathogens.
6. Contractile Proteins: Actin, myosin.

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 6. Contractile Proteins: Actin, myosin.
Function: Facilitate muscle contraction.
7. Storage Proteins: Albumin (egg white).
Function: Provide nourishment in early development stages of embryos and seedlings.

LIPIDS (FATS AND OILS)

Fats, like all lipids, are composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O). They contain more
energy per gram than carbohydrates, making them an efficient energy source.
Types
• Fats: Solid at room temperature due to the presence of saturated fatty acids. They are often
found in animal products like butter and lard.
• Oils: Liquid at room temperature due to the presence of unsaturated fatty acids. Common in
plant-based sources like olive oil and canola oil.
Lipids are primarily made up of triglycerides, which consist of glycerol (three-carbon alcohol) and
fatty Acids (long hydrocarbon chains with a carboxyl group at one end). Fatty acids can be
saturated (no double bonds) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds).
Triglycerides are stored in adipose tissue and serve as a long-term energy reserve. They are also
used for insulation and protection of organs.
Functions of Lipids
- Energy Storage: Fats provide a dense source of energy and are stored in adipose tissue for
future use.
- Insulation: Help to insulate the body and maintain body temperature.
- Protection: Cushion vital organs to protect them from physical damage.
- Cell Membrane Structure: Integral to the formation and function of cell membranes.

MINERALS
Minerals are inorganic substances essential for various bodily functions and overall health. They
help maintain the health of muscles, bones, the heart, and the brain.
Types of Minerals
Two kinds of minerals are found to be known including macrominerals and trace minerals.
- Macrominerals: are the elements required in larger amounts which include calcium,
phosphorus, magnesium, sodium potassium, sulphur, and chloride.
- Trace minerals: are required in small amounts and some examples include manganese, iron,
copper, iodine, zinc, cobalt, selenium, and fluoride.
Functions of Minerals
▪ Calcium: Vital for strong bones and teeth, muscle contraction, blood clotting, and nerve
function.
▪ Phosphorus: Essential for bone and teeth formation, energy production, and cell function.
▪ Magnesium: Important for muscle and nerve function, energy production, and bone health.
▪ Sodium: Regulates fluid balance, nerve function, and muscle contractions.
▪ Potassium: Helps maintain fluid balance, nerve signals, and muscle function.
▪ Sulfur: Involved in protein synthesis, detoxification processes, and joint health.
▪ Chloride: Aids in fluid balance, digestion (as part of hydrochloric acid), and maintaining pH
balance.
▪ Iron: Crucial for oxygen transport in the blood (as part of hemoglobin) and energy
metabolism.
▪ Iodine: Necessary for thyroid hormone production, which regulates metabolism.
▪ Fluoride: Helps in the formation of strong bones and teeth and prevents dental cavities.
▪ Cobalt: A component of vitamin B12, essential for red blood cell formation and neurological
function.

VITAMINS
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamins are found in natural foods which are important for the normal growth and maintenance of
the body. These are organic compounds. Vitamins help in the generation of energy as they utilize
carbohydrates and fats appropriately in the form of a catalyst. Vitamins are essential for the

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carbohydrates and fats appropriately in the form of a catalyst. Vitamins are essential for the
humans survival and the human body cannot produce most of them by its own, only vitamin D and
vitamin B3 are known to be produced. Major sources of food that contain vitamins include meat,
fruits and leafy vegetables.
Vitamin Function Deficiency Symptoms Sources
Vitamin A Vision (rhodopsin Flaky skin, xerophthalmia, night Carrots, yeast,
(Retinol) formation), skin health blindness, keratomalacia, retarded locust beans, cod
growth liver oil, palm oil
Vitamin D Bone and teeth Rickets, osteomalacia, osteoporosis Oily fish, red meat,
(Calciferol) formation, liver, egg yolks
calcium/phosphorus
absorption
Vitamin E Antioxidant, cell Impaired reflexes, difficulty Plant-based oils,
(Tocopherol) membrane protection walking, weak muscles, weakened nuts, seeds, fruits,
immune system, muscular vegetables
dystrophy
Vitamin K Blood clotting, Slow blood clotting, severe Green leafy
(Phylloquino synthesis of clotting hemorrhage, hemolytic anemia, vegetables, soybean
ne) factors hypo-prothrombinemia oil, canola oil

Water-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin Function Deficiency Symptoms Sources
Vitamin B1 Coenzyme in cellular Beri-Beri (weakness, Fresh fruits, potatoes,
(Thiamine) respiration difficulty walking, loss of sweet potatoes, peas,
sensation, mental confusion) corn
Vitamin B2 Coenzyme in cellular Cracking around mouth, Banana, dates,
(Riboflavin) respiration nose, eyes, cheilosis, mushrooms, grapes,
dermatitis mangoes
Vitamin B3 Coenzyme in cellular Pellagra (scaly skin, sore Meat, fish, eggs, milk
(Niacin) respiration mouth and tongue) products, cereals
Vitamin B5 Coenzyme in cellular Disorder of nervous system, Organ meats, beef,
(Pantothenic respiration dermatitis, feet syndrome chicken, mushrooms,
Acid) avocado
Vitamin B6 Enzyme formation for Anemia Meat, fish, poultry,
(Pyridoxine) amino acid synthesis, red vegetables, fruits
blood cell formation
Vitamin B7 Part of enzyme for energy Hair loss, scaly rash Legumes, egg yolks,
(Biotin) metabolism organ meats, nuts,
seeds, mushrooms
Vitamin B9 Red blood cell formation Megaloblastic anemia Leafy greens, legumes,
(Folic Acid) seeds, orange juice,
liver
Vitamin B12 Red blood cell formation Megaloblastic anemia, Meat, poultry, fish,
(Cyanocobalam pernicious anemia seafood, eggs, milk
in)
Vitamin C Immunity, tissue and bone Scurvy (gum disease, fatigue, Citrus fruits,
(Ascorbic Acid) health skin issues) strawberries, peppers,
tomatoes

Food Tests

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Food Tests
Tests for Carbohydrates
Fehling's solution and Benedict's solutions can be used. The solutions are blue due to presence of
CuSO4. The CuSO4 is reduced to brick-red ppt of Cu2+.
• Fehling's Solution: Composed of Fehling's A (copper(II) sulphate CuSO₄·5H₂O) and Fehling's B
(alkaline tartrate solution - Sodium potassium tartrate (Rochelle salt, KNaC₄H₄O₆·4H₂O, in
NaOH)
• Benedict's Solution: Contains copper(II) sulphate (CuSO₄·5H₂O), Sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃),
Sodium citrate (Na₃C₆H₅O₇)
1. Test for Simple (Reducing) Sugars:
Fehling's Test: Add Fehling’s solution to the sugar solution, then boil. A positive result is
indicated by an orange or brick-red precipitate.
Benedict’s Test: Add Benedict’s solution to the sugar solution, then heat. A positive result is
indicated by a yellow, orange, or red precipitate.
2. Test for non-reducing sugars (sucrose):
Hydrolyze sucrose solution with dilute hydrochloric acid, then neutralize with NaOH, and add
Benedict’s or Fehling's solution. A red, orange, or yellow precipitate after hydrolysis indicates
the presence of sucrose.
3. Starch
Add iodine or Lugol's reagent (Lugol's iodine solution) to the sample. There is blue-black
colouration.

Tests for Proteins

Test Procedure Positive Result
Biuret Test Add 2 ml of sodium hydroxide and 5-6 drops of Bluish-violet or purple color
copper sulfate solution to the sample. Shake and (indicates proteins); pink color
let stand for 4-5 minutes. (indicates peptones).
Million's Add 2-3 drops of Millon’s reagent and shake Brick red precipitate (deep red
Test well. Heat the mixture. color).
Xanthoprot Add hot concentrated HNO₃ to the sample. After Yellow color turning to orange.
eic Test formation of a yellow precipitate, add ammonia
or sodium hydroxide.
Ninhydrin Add Ninhydrin reagent to the sample. Purple-colored or deep blue
Test complex.

Tests for Fats and Oils

1. Sudan III Test: Add Sudan III reagent to the sample. Red color is observed before boiling,
turns black on boiling.
2. Translucent Test: Drop the sample on filter paper and observe through light. Translucent
spot is observed.
3. Osmic Acid Test: Add osmium tetroxide solution to the sample. Black precipitate is formed.
4. Ethanol Test: Mix sample with ethanol, then add water. White emulsion is formed.

Tests for Vitamin C

1. DCPIP Test: Add DCPIP solution to the sample. Blue solution turns colorless.
2. Iodine Test: Add iodine solution to the sample. Brownish color becomes colourless.

Test for Water

1. White Anhydrous Copper(II) Tetraoxosulphate VI: turns blue.
2. Blue Cobalt(II) Chloride: Turns pink.

HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
Heterotrophic nutrition is a nutrition type in which organisms cannot manufacture their food but

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Heterotrophic nutrition is a nutrition type in which organisms cannot manufacture their food but
depend on already made food substances produced by autotrophs to get their food nutrients.
Animals, fungi and protozoans are classified as heterotrophs since they are unable to prepare their
food themselves.
Heterotrophs break down complex food into its readily absorbable and usable nutrients.

Types of heterotrophic nutrition

1. Holozoic nutrition
2. Saprotrophic nutrition
3. Parasitic nutrition

Holozoic nutrition
Holozoic nutrition involves the ingestion and internal processing of solid and liquid food in an
organism which involves the steps of ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and excretion.
Examples of animals that exhibit holozoic nutrition include all vertebrates. Even some unicellular
organisms such as amoeba also exhibit holozoic nutrition
Holozoic Nutrition in Amoeba
It is the nutrition that occurs in the organisms that intake solid or liquid food inside their body. It involves the steps:
ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation, and egestion.
Amoeba exhibits holozoic nutrition. The process takes place in the following steps:
- The amoeba projects its pseudopodia and encircles the food. It then engulfs the food by the process of
phagocytosis.
- The food vacuoles of amoeba are rich in digestive enzymes, which help break the food into simpler substances.
This process is known as digestion.
- The digested food is absorbed into the cytoplasm leaving behind the undigested materials. This absorbed food is
utilised to produce energy for the growth and development of the cell.
- The undigested food material is ejected out by the rupturing of the cell membrane.
Types of Holozoic Organisms
• Herbivores- they depend on plants for their food e.g goats, rabbits, Cows, buffaloes, deer,
elephants.
Some herbivorous animals can be:
▫ Frugivorous : feed on fruits e.g Parrot, Bats.
• Carnivores- These animals feed on other animals for their food. E.g hyenas, lions, tigers,
leopards.
• Omnivores- they feed on either plants or animals. E.g pig, chimpanzees, man.
• Scavengers: feed on carrion i.e animal carcasses e.g vulture.
• Detrivorous: Eating small decomposed fragments of plats and animal.
• Coprophagous: Feeding on feccal matter (faeces) e.g. Pig
• Sanguinivorous: Feeding on blood e.g. Leech, female Mosquito, Vampire bats
• Cannibalism: animals feeding upon smaller animals of the same species e.g snakes, frogs
• Fluid Feeders : Animals feeds on plant fluid e.g. Butterflies, male mosquito

Saprotrophic nutrition
Saprotrophs feed on dead and decayed organisms. They are an important part of the ecosystem as
they help to keep our environment clean and recycle nutrient back into the ecosystem. Some
examples of saprotrophs are fungi and certain types of bacteria.
Saprotrophs release certain enzymes to act on the complex organic matter. It works by breaking it
down into its constituents, which can be easily consumed by them.

Parasitic nutrition
Parasitic Nutrition is a mode of heterotrophic nutrition where an organism (known as a parasite)
lives on the body surface or inside the body of another type of organism (known as a host). The
parasite obtains nutrition directly from the body of the host.
Parasitic plants
• Cuscuta (dodder): complete parasite
• Mistletoe: partial parasite
Complete parasite plants are heterotrophic plants that depend entirely on the host plant, including
shelter, water, food, for all their requirements, they penetrate into the xylem and phloem of the

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shelter, water, food, for all their requirements, they penetrate into the xylem and phloem of the
host.
Partial parasites are those that rely, in portion, on their hosts and penetrate into the xylem only.
Partial parasitic plants are typically chlorophyllous, thus they are just dependent on water and
nutrients from their hosts. Their green leaves do the rest of the job.

Carnivorous plants
Carnivorous plants are plants that derive some or most of their nutrients (but not energy) from
trapping and consuming animals or protozoans, typically insects and other arthropods.
While carnivorous plants may be considered heterotrophic to a certain degree, for the most part
they are autotrophic just like other plants.
Examples: Nepenthes (Monkey Cups), Drosera (Sundews), Dionaea muscipula (Venus Flytrap),
Sarracenia (Pitcher Plants), Utricularia (bladderwort), Pinguicula (butterwort).

Mixotrophic nutrition
Organisms that have the ability to switch over to alternate source of nutrition. E.g Euglena from
photosynthetic to saprotrophic in dark, carnivorous plants that can also photosynthesize.

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