Classification of Living Organisms

Taxonomy is the broader science that involves the identification, naming, and classification of
organisms based on shared characteristics. It includes principles, rules, and procedures for
categorizing organisms.
Biological classification is the grouping of organisms based on characteristics such as their
anatomy, development, mode of nutrition, level of organization and biochemical composition into a
structured hierarchy (e.g., kingdom, phylum, class, etc.).

The system of naming used today was introduced by Car Von Linne (a Swedish botanist,
1707-1778). He was also called Carolus Linnaeus in Latin. He is regarded as the father of taxonomy.
He classified living organisms into seven major divisions in a hierarchical order:
1. Kingdom
2. Phylum
3. Class
4. Order
5. Family
6. Genus
7. Species
Species contain organisms with very similar features or characteristics and they can interbreed
among themselves. (I mean among themselves in a particular species).
Carolus Linnaeus also introduced a system of naming called binomial nomenclature. That's a system
of giving two names to organisms. E.g human beings are called Homo sapiens.

Domains
Classification of organisms into domains was introduced by Carl Woese in 1990.
Organisms are classified into three major domains:
1. Archaebacteria (prokaryotes)
2. Eubacteria (prokaryotes)
3. Eukarya (eukaryotes)

PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES

Prokaryotic organisms or prokaryotes are organisms that contain prokaryotic cells and prokaryotic
cells are cells without nuclei. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus nor membrane bound
organelles.
Note:
• Double membraned organelles: nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast.
• Single membraned organelles: Vacuole, Lysosome, Golgi Apparatus, Endoplasmic Reticulum.
• Non membraned organelles: Ribosomes, centrioles, cytoskeleton, cell wall.
Prokaryotic DNA is found in the central part of the cell: the NUCLEOID region.
All prokaryotic organisms are unicellular.
Eukaryotic organisms are organisms that contain eukaryotic cells.
Eukaryotic cells are cells with definite nucleus and they contain membrane bound organelles unlike
prokaryotic cells.

KINGDOM
There are 5 kingdoms recognized widely by biologists.
1. Monera
2. Protista
3. Fungi
4. Plantae
5. Animalia

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MONERA
They're the simplest group of living organisms containing all unicellular prokaryotes e.g,
cyanobacteria (blue green algae), Anabaena, Oscillatoria etc.
All bacteria belong to the kingdom Monera.
Bacteria can be autotrophic (photosynthetic/ chemosynthetic) or heterotrophic (parasitic/
saprophytic).

Monerans are divided into:

A. Schizophyta (Bacteria)
B. Cyanophyta (Cyanobacteria)

A. General Characteristics of Bacteria

1. The bacterial cell is prokaryotic lacking membrane bound organelles and a definite nucleus.
2. They have cell wall made up of PEPTIDOGLYCAN.
*Cell wall of plant is: cellulose
*Cell wall of fungi is: cellulose or chitin
*Cell wall of bacteria is: peptidoglycan
Peptidoglycan is also known as murein.
3. They lack nuclear envelope since they don't have a well-defined nucleus (you should
understand that fully by now)but each cell has long strand of DNA suspended in the nucleoid.
4. They are single-celled (unicellular).
5. They can be aerobic or anaerobic.
6. They may be spherical, rod-like or spiral in shape.
7. They may be motile or non-motile (they may have flagella or not).
8. They reproduce by binary fission.
9. They are mainly saprophytes but some are parasites.

B. Cyanophyta (Cyanobacteria or Blue-green algae)

The difference between Cyanobacteria and bacteria is the presence of chlorophyll in cyanobacteria
making them able to photosynthesize.
Blue-green bacteria or blue-green algae are a special type of moneran bacteria that can produce their
own food through photosynthesis. This is because blue-green bacteria contain chlorophyll.
Note: they have chlorophyll but no chloroplast. Their chlorophyll is stored in thylakoids in their
cytoplasm.

Types of Bacteria
There are two divisions of bacteria according to Gram staining technique.
1. Gram positive bacteria: they have a thick peptidoglycan layer and no outer lipid membrane.
Gram positive will test positive and show violet or Purple colour after staining e.g
Staphylococcus, Bacillus and Lactobacillus
2. Gram negative bacteria: they have a thin peptidoglycan layer and have an outer lipid

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 2. Gram negative bacteria: they have a thin peptidoglycan layer and have an outer lipid
membrane. Gram negative bacteria are more resistance to antibodies because of a lipid layer
coating their thin peptidoglycan. Gram negative bacteria retain pink colour after staining e.g
Salmonella, Escherichia coli

KINGDOM PROTISTA
They're single celled eukaryotes with well-defined nucleus. They live in moist places, water, seas and
body fluids of living organisms. Some have pseudopodia, flagella and cilia for movement. They
reproduce asexually or sexually (by means of spores).
Protists are highly diverse and are classified into about 18 phyla. They are also classified on different
bases.
Two major phyla of protists:
A. Phylum protophyta
They're plant like organisms because they possess chloroplast and cellulose cell wall. E.g
chlamydomonas, chlorella, diatoms.
B. Phylum protozoan
They're animal like organisms (no chloroplast and cellulose cell wall). E.g amoeba, paramecium.
CLASSES UNDER PROTISTA (Protozoans) based on locomotion
1. Rhizopoda: moves with pseudopodia (amoeba)
2. Ciliophora: moves with cilia (paramecium)
3. Mastigophora: moves with flagellum (thricomonas)
4. Sporozoa: no organelle for movement (plasmodium). They depend on gliding, twisting, and
bending to move.

Trophic modes of protists

1. Autotrophic mode: Plant-like protists (algae) which can photosynthesize e.g diatoms,
dinoflagellates
2. Heterotrophic mode: Animal-like protists (protozoans) e.g Foraminiferans, ciliates, amoebae
3. Saprotrophic mode: Fungal-like which are saprophytic, feeding on decaying organic matter. e.g
slime moulds, slime nets, water molds
4. Mixotrophic mode

Rhizaria: A Key Protist Group

Rhizaria is a supergroup within Protista, including mainly amoeboid organisms. Rhizarians are
known for their pseudopodia, which can be thread-like (filose), net-like (reticulose), or supported by
microtubules. This group includes:
• Foraminifera: These are marine amoeboids with reticulose pseudopodia. They are known for
their calcium carbonate shells, called tests.
• Radiolarians: group of marine amoeboids, Radiolarians possess intricate silica-based tests and
have filamentous pseudopodia supported by microtubules.

EUGLENA
Euglena viridis: It belongs to the group Euglenozoa which includes about 1800 species. The size of
the elongated cell ranges from 15-500 micrometer.
Euglena is a protist with both plant and animal characteristics. It has pellicle, eyespot, chloroplast and
undergo autotrophic mode of nutrition.
Animal xteristics of Euglena
• Flagellum for movement
• Gullet for feeding
• Contractile vacuole for osmoregulation and excretion
• Eye spot for detection of light.
• Pellicle which gives it shape and makes it flexible.
Plant xteristics of Euglena
• Chloroplast for photosynthesis
• Pyrenoids for storage of starch

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 • Pyrenoids for storage of starch
• Euglena stores food in the form of paramylum and also starch granules.

PARAMECIUM
Paramecium caudatum is a ciliate.
• It has an elongated slipper like shape.
• Pellicles: gives the paramecium a definite shape protects of its cell content.
• Vacuole- It has two types of vacuoles.
○ Food vacuole: aid in food digestion
○ Contractile vacuole: helps in excretion and osmoregulation.
• Nucleus: it has two nuclei (meganucleus/macronucleus and micronucleus).
○ Meganucleus: performs normal function of a nucleus
○ Micronucleus: used for reproduction
• Cilia: helps in locomotion and gathering food.
• Trichocysts: for defense against predators.

KINGDOM FUNGI
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that can be multicellular or unicellular.
Mushrooms and moulds are examples of multicellular fungi and yeast is an example of a unicellular
fungi.
**Yeast (Saccharomyces cerviseae) is a prominent unicellular fungus.
Fungi are mainly non-motile organisms composed usually of thread-like structures called hyphae.
They do not possess chlorophyll and so cannot photosynthesize. Instead, most fungi are saprophytes
which make use of the food present in the dead parts of plants and animals and some are parasites.
• All fungi have a cell wall made of chitin. The major component of the cell wall is chitin.
• They store food as glycogen.
Note that they absorb carbohydrates as glucose as store them as starch.
• Fungi reproduce sexually and asexually by spore formation.
• They are either saprophytic or parasitic.
• Examples of fungi are Rhizopus, mushrooms, yeast.
An important example of a useful fungus is Penicillium (a fungus which was used to make
penicillin, one of the most powerful antibiotics ever created).
• Fungi are composed of thread like structures called hyphae.
• A single thread (filament), or a branch is termed a hypha.
• A mass of hyphae that constitute the body of a fungus is termed a mycelium.
i.e bunch or mass of hyphae is called mycelium. Mycelium (consisting of hyphae) is the
vegetative part of a fungus.
• Hyphae of most fungi are divided into cells by internal cross-walls called "septa" (singular
septum) .
• Hyphae that are divided into cells by septa are called septate hyphae.
• Hyphae without septae are called coenocytic hyphae (Non-septate hyphae).

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Septum (cross wall dividing hyphae into cells).
• Hyphal cells may contain one, two or many nuclei, and are referred to as being uninucleate,
binucleate or multinucleate, respectively. Most fungi are multinucleate. Yeast is uninucleated.
• The substance on which they grow is called substrate.

• The bread is the substrate.

• Sporangiophore: vertical hyphae
Each sporangiophore bears a number of fingerlike sporangia, which produce large numbers of
thin-walled green spores.
• Stolon: horizontal hyphae which connects sporangiophores together.
• Sporangium: the capsule structure in which the reproductive spores are produced and stored.
• Rhizoid: root like structure which anchors the growing (vegetative) body of the fungus to a
substratum and that is capable of absorbing nutrients.

Classification of Fungi
1. Phycomycetes (conjugated fungi): divided into Zygomycetes e.g Rhizopus stolonifera and
Oomycetes e.g Phytophthora, Albugo
2. Ascomycetes (sac fungi)- e.g Yeasts – Saccharomyces, Penicillium, Aspergillus
3. Basidiomycetes (club fungi)- e.g. mushrooms, shelf fungi, puffballs
4. Deuteromycetes (Fungi imperfecti) e.g Alternaria, Colletotrichum, Trichoderma. They produce
conidia.

Reproduction in Fungi
Fungi reproduce sexually and/or asexually by spores.
• Some other asexual means of reproduction are budding, fragmentation while they also
reproduce sexually by plasmogamy (fusion of hyphae), followed by karyogamy (fusion of
nuclei).
Deuteromycetes (fungi imperfecti) are a group of fungi that do not have a known sexual
reproductive cycle. Perfect fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually, while imperfect fungi (Class
Deuteromycetes) reproduce only asexually. Deuteromycetes produce conidia as their asexual spores.
Asexual spores formed in Fungi
1. Conidium (formed in conidiophores): Ascomycetes
2. Sporangiospore (formed in Sporangium): Phycomycetes (Zygomycetes and oomycetes)
Sporangiospores are either motile and naked- zoospores, or nonmotile and walled -
aplanospores.
3. Basidiospores (formed in Basidium): Basidiomycetes

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 3. Basidiospores (formed in Basidium): Basidiomycetes
Sexual spores of Fungi
As a result of sexual reproduction sexual spores are produced. Sexual spores are fewer in number
than asexual spores.
Types of sexual spores
1. Ascospore: it is usually single celled produced in a sac called ascus (plural;asci) found in
Ascomycetes. Usually there are 4-8 ascospore in an ascus but the number may vary from
species to species. The ascospore are usually arranged in a linear order.
2. Basidiospore: produced by basidiomycetes. These single celled spores are born in a club
shaped structure called basidium. These basidiospores serve as main air dispersal unit for the
fungi.
3. Zygospore: produced by Zygomycetes (e.g Rhizopus) in sporangium. Zygospores are thick
walled spores formed when two sexually compatible hyphae or gametangia of zygomycetes fuse
together.
4. Oospore: these are formed within a special female structure called Oogonium in Oomycetes.
Fertilization of egg by male gamete in female sex organ give rise to oospores.

Note:
• Holocarpic fungi: These fungi use their entire thallus (body) to produce reproductive
structures. In other words, the whole organism is converted into a fruiting body.
• Eucarpic fungi: Unlike holocarpic fungi, eucarpic fungi only use a specific part of their thallus
for reproduction. The rest of the organism continues to grow and function.

KINGDOM PLANTAE
This kingdom consist of plants with cellulose cell wall and autotrophic mode of nutrition.
There are three major divisions under this kingdom which include:
1. Thallophyta
2. Bryophyta
3. Tracheophyta (vascular plants)
• Pteridophyta: vascular cryptogam
• Spermatophyta:
Eukaryotic organisms are organisms that contain eukaryotic cells.
Eukaryotic cells are cells with definite nucleus and they contain membrane bound organelles
unlike prokaryotic cells.

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Keywords to note:
• Cryptogam: Non flowering plants and they include thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta
• Phanerogams: flowering plants and they're the spermatophytes
• Vascular plants: plants with vascular bundles; xylem and phloem. They include Pteridophyta
and Spermatophyta.
• Non vascular plants: plants with no vascular bundles or poorly developed vascular bundles.
They include thallophyta and bryophyta.
**All members of this kingdom exhibit alternation of generation which will be explained in details
later.

ALTERNATION OF GENERATION
• Gametophyte: haploid (n) produces gamete.
• Sporophyte: diploid (2n) produces spores.
Terminologies
It is a phenomenon by which plant exhibits two phases in its life cycle. Each phase performs a specific
function.
The two phases are:
• Sporophyte - a multicellular diploid organism that produces spores by meiosis - spores
germinate and grow into gametophytes.
Gametophyte - a multicellular haploid organism that produces gametes by mitosis can be either
male or female.
○ Males produce sperms from the Antheridium of a gametophyte
○ Females produce eggs from the Archegonium of a gametophyte.
Fusion of gametes produces a zygote that grow into a multicellular sporophyte.
• Homosporous - spores (produced by meiosis) are indistinguishable in size and may give rise to
either male or female gametophytes.
• Heterosporous - spores differ in size.
○ Megaspores produce megagametophytes, which produce eggs.
○ Microspores produce microgametophytes, which produce sperms.
Fusion of an egg and sperm produces a zygote that can grow into a multicellular sporophyte.

• Cells within the sporophyte undergo meiosis to give rise to the haploid spores.
• The spore develops into the gametophyte, which produces the gametes.

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THALLOPHYTA (ALGAE)
They include organisms like spirogyra, volvox, sargassum, kelp..
Thallophytes are a group of plantlike-organisms with a thallus i.e. they lack differentiated leaves,
roots, stems, and a vascular system.
Algae lack roots, stems and leaves, and their plant body is therefore referred to as thallus.
They are commonly found in pools, ponds and temporary waters, in lakes, streams, along ocean
shores and in surface waters of oceans; on moist surfaces.
• Algae are the largest group of terrestrial plants.
Thallophyta can be:
• Chlorophyta (green algae) e.g. Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Ulva and Chara, Volvox
Volvox is unicellular colonial algae.
• Phaeophyta (brown algae) e.g. Fucus, Ectocarpus, Sargassum, Laminaria (Kelp)
• Rhodophyta (red algae) e.g. Polyphyridium, Polysiphonia and Batrachospermum
**Plant-like protists which photosynthesize are called algae. E.g chlorella, diatoms, chlamydomonas,
euglena..
Algae exhibit alternation of generations.
Their life cycle include two alternating generations, the gametophyte and sporophyte. In algae,
gametophyte is the dominant stage while sporophyte depends on the gametophyte. All algae spores are
homosporous.

BRYOPHYTA
Bryophytes are the second largest group among terrestrial plants. They live in damp places on land.
They grow on land or soil but depend on water for sexual reproduction.
They're also known as plant amphibians because they're land plants but need water solely for
fertilization.
Bryophytes do not have vascular tissue (non-vascular plants) and they do not produce seeds.
Bryophytes do not have roots but rhizoids which are relatively simpler than roots.
They lack leaves but have leaf-like scales that contains chloroplasts and which photosynthesis occurs.
They have autotrophic and saprophytic modes of nutrition.
In their alternation of generation, the gametophyte is the dominant stage while the sporophyte depends
on the gametophyte.
The male gametophyte produces motile sperm from its antheridium.
The female gametophyte produces non motile ovum from its archegonium.
The sperm reaches the ovum with the aid of water.
The spores once released are dispersed by air currents and, once they settle somewhere moist,
germinate. The spores germinate into new haploid gametophytes.
Classes of Bryophytes
There are three classes of bryophytes:
1. Class Musci: Mosses
2. Class Hepaticae: Liverworts
3. Class Anthocerotae: Hornworts

PTERIDOPHYTA
Pteridophytes are considered as the first plants to be evolved on land. They are cryptogams (seedless
but sporous) and vascular (contain vascular tissues).
Pteridophytes are vascular seedless plants that possess true root, stem and leaves. The leaf (frond) is
the most conspicuous part of most ferns. The leaf margin is generally dissected into leaflets called
pinnae. The sporangium (spore-bearing) are grouped in sori (singular sorus) and the sori may be
protected by an outgrowth tissue called indusium.

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protected by an outgrowth tissue called indusium.
Their sex organs are multicellular (male: antheridia; female: archegonia). The gametophyte possess
these sex organs and they produce male and female gametes.
They show true alternation of generations. Sporophyte is dominant (Sporophyte is the plant that we
see). Gametophyte and Sporophyte exist differently and none is dependent on the other.
• Sporophyte is the dominant phase in the life cycle of pteridophytes but the sporophyte and
gametophyte are independent of each other and are free-living.
They're generally called ferns.
Examples of Pteridophytes are: Ferns, Selaginella, Pteris, Dryopteris, Adiantum.

The gametophyte structure of ferns is a heart-shaped plant called a prothallium or prothallus.

SPERMATOPHYTA
spermatophyte (seed plants or phanerogam) are seed-bearing tracheophytes (vascular plants).
They can be further divided into:
1. Gymnosperms
2. Angiosperms
Gymnosperms are seed producing plants that produce naked seeds (their seeds are unenclosed).
They do not have outer covering or shells around their seeds. They produce cones (their reproductive
organs).
The male and the female cones are their reproductive structures.
They do not bear fruits and flowers. They propagate via wind pollination. The adult plant body is a
sporophyte and it is a perennial, evergreen, woody plant.
Examples include the conifers (pines, cypresses, etc.), cycads, gnetophytes, and Ginkgo.

Angiosperms, also called flowering plants, have seeds that are enclosed within an ovary (usually a
fruit).
The characteristics that differentiate angiosperms from gymnosperms include presence of flowers,
fruits, and endosperm in the seeds of angiosperms.
All angiosperm plants have the characteristic vascular bundle with the xylem and phloem tissues for
conduction of water, minerals, and nutrients. The plant body is well differentiated with a well-
developed root system, shoot system and leaves. Specialised structures called as the flowers are
present. Within these flowers, the male and female gametes develop. After fertilization, when these
flowers mature, fruits are formed which have the seeds within them.
In Angiosperms the flower is the reproductive organ. One of its basic functions is to produce seeds
through sexual reproduction.
Angiosperms are divided into:
1. Monocotyledonous plants
2. Dicotyledonous plants
Monocotyledonous plants

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Monocotyledonous plants
The monocots have some distinct features that include the presence of adventitious roots, simple
leaves with parallel venation, and trimerous flowers. The number of vascular bundles is more and is
closed. Some of the examples include cereals, banana etc.

Dicotyledonous plants
The dicotyledonous plants have two cotyledons with a tap root system. The venation seen in the
leaves is reticulate. Vascular bundles are generally arranged in a ring and number between two to six.
Examples include Grapes, Sunflower, Tomatoes, and Potatoes etc.

• Monocots are the most advanced plants.

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
Kingdom Animalia constitutes all animals. Amongst the five kingdoms, the largest kingdom is the
animal kingdom. Animals are multicellular eukaryotes. They do not possess chlorophyll or a cell wall.
Members of the animal kingdom exhibit a heterotrophic mode of nutrition.

Phyla of the animal kingdom

1. Porifera
2. Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
3. Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)
4. Nematoda (Roundworms)
5. Annelida

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 5. Annelida
6. Mollusca
7. Arthropoda
8. Echinodermata
9. Chordata

Protostomes and Deuterostomes

Protostomes and deuterostomes are two major groups of animals that are classified based on their
embryonic development.
Protostomes are animals whose blastopore (the initial opening in the embryo) develops into the
mouth. They also exhibit determinate and spiral cleavage, meaning the fate of each cell is determined
early in development, and have a coelom formed through the splitting of mesoderm tissue
(schizocoelous).
Examples: Mollusks (snails, clams, octopuses), Annelids (earthworms, leeches), Arthropods (insects,
spiders, crustaceans), Nematodes (roundworms). PCPNAMA
Deuterostomes are animals whose blastopore develops into the anus. They exhibit indeterminate
and radial cleavage, meaning the fate of each cell is not determined early in development, and have a
coelom formed from outpouchings of the archenteron (they are enterocoelous).
Examples: Echinoderms (sea stars, sea urchins), Chordates (humans, fish, birds, reptiles,
amphibians). EC

Note under each of these phyla:

• Coelom or body cavity: aceolomate, pseudocoelomate or coelomates
• Body layer: diploblastic or triploblastic
• Symmetry: asymmetrical, bilateral symmetry or radial symmetry
• Segmentation: segmented or not
• Cephalization: differentiated into head and tail or not.
Cephalization is having sensory organs, mouth, nerve ganglia and brain (if you can find it) at the
front of the animal.
• Mode of reproduction
• Habitat
• Examples

PORIFERA
Porifera means "pore-bearing". Water enters through pores bringing in food and oxygen. They're
generally called SPONGES.
*They are aceolomates.
*They have two body layers (i.e they're diploblastic).
*They are asymmetrical.
*They are not segmented.
*No cephalization as they're not not differentiated into head and tail; do not have a well-developed
organ or organ system.
*They reproduce asexually by fragmentation (pieces break off & form a new sponge) and sexually by
producing gametes.
They are hermaphrodites.
• They are simplest of all animals.
• They contain specialized cells and are at cell organization level.
• Most are marine while some are freshwater.
• They have Osculum – large opening at the top where excess water leaves.
• They are sessile as adults non motile (attach to rocks).
• They have skeleton made of network of protein fibers called Spongin.
• Their skeletal materials (spicules; protective covering) are hard structures made of CaCO3
(limestone) or silica (glass).
• Examples of phylum Porifera include- Spongilla, Sycon.
Classes of Phylum Porifera
1. Calcarea or Calcispongiae (Calcareous Sponges): Their skeleton is composed of calcareous

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 1. Calcarea or Calcispongiae (Calcareous Sponges): Their skeleton is composed of calcareous
spicules made of calcium carbonate. They have radial symmetry.
2. Class Hexactinellida (Triaxonida, Hyalospongiae (Glass Sponge): The skeleton is made up of
six-rayed siliceous spicules. They have radial symmetry.
3. Class Demospongiae: Asymmetrical, The skeleton comprises spongin fibres and siliceous
spicules.

COELENTERATA (CNIDARIANS)
General Characteristics
*They're aceolomates.
*They have two body layers (ectoderm/epidermis and endoderm/gastro dermis) i.e they're
diploblastic.
*They have radial symmetry.
*They're not segmented.
*No cephalization.
• They are carnivores. Oral end terminates in a mouth surrounded by tentacles. They use their
tentacles to capture prey and direct it toward the mouth so that it can be digested in the
gastrovascular cavity via secretions from gland cells.
Specialized stinging cells called cnidocytes located in the outer epidermis help in prey capture.
Each cnidocyte contain a stinging structure called nematocyst.
• They reproduce asexually by budding and sexually by producing gametes. They can be
monoecious (having the same sexes on the same organism i.e hermaphroditic) or diecious
depending on the species.
• They're of two body types. There is the polyp form (which is sessile/non motile) and the
Medusa form (which is motile).
• Coelenterates can be solitary (living singly) or colonial (living in colonies).
• Examples include hydra, jellyfish, sea anemones, corals..
Classes of Coelenterates
1. Class Hydrozoa: hydra (solitary), obelia (colonial).
2. Class Scyphozoa: jellyfish, Aurelia.
3. Class Anthozoa: sea anemones (solitary), corals (colonial).
Cnidarians different body forms (Polymorphism)
There is the polyp form and the Medusa form.
Polyp form
• Tubular body
• Mouth is directed upward with feeding tentacles.
• They only have a small amount of mesoglea
• The polyp form is sessile (non motile).
Medusa form
• Bell-shaped or umbrella shaped body
• Mouth is directed downward with small tentacles directed downward.
• Possess a large amount of mesoglea
• The medusa form is motile, move by weak contractions of body.

PLATYHELMINTHES (FLATWORMS)
Commonly referred to as the 'flatworms' coz their bodies are dorsoventrally flattened.
• They're aceolomates.

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 • They're aceolomates.
• They have three body layers i.e they're triploblastic. The mesoderm (third germ layer) gives
rise to muscles, various organ systems.
• They exhibit bilateral symmetry.
• No segmentation.
• They show some degree of cephalization (formation of head). Cephalization was first observed
in platyhelminthes.
• Most flatworms are hermaphroditic and they reproduce sexually. The majority of sexual
reproduction is through cross-fertilization (where both individuals fertilize each other).
They also reproduce asexually by fission.
• They are either free-living (Planaria) or parasitic (liver flukes, tapeworms).
• They have statocysts for balancing.
Classes
1. Class turbellaria: e.g planaria (free living flatworms).
2. Class trematoda: parasitic flukes E.g
• Fasciola hepatica → liver fluke.
• Paragonimus westermani → lung fluke
• Schistosoma → blood flukes
3. Class Cestoda: parasitic worms. E.g Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), Taenia saginata (beef
tapeworm).
Note:
Taenia solium: secondary host is pig.
Taenia saginata: secondary host is cow.
Taenia solium has hooks and rostellum in addition to its suckers while Taenia saginata has no hook
and rostellum.

NEMATODA (ROUNDWORMS)
Nematodes have a cylindrical body. They are parasitic and cause diseases such as elephantiasis,
ascariasis.
• They are pseudocoelomates. (They have pseudocoelom, false body cavity).
• They have three body layers i.e triploblastic.
• Their bodies are bilaterally symmetrical.
• They are free-living or parasitic. Parasitic nematodes cause diseases in the host.
• Nematodes also parasitize virtually every type of animal and many plants.
• Nematodes reproduce sexually. Most nematodes are dioecious. Males are smaller than females,
and their posterior end usually bears a pair of copulatory spicules.
Examples
1. Enterobius vermicularis (pinworm)
2. Trichuris trichiura (whipworm)
3. Ascaris lumbricoides (large roundworm)
4. Necator americanus
5. Ancylostoma duodenale (hookworms)
6. Dracunculus medinensis (guinea worm)
7. Wuchereria bancrofti (filarial worm)
8. Onchocerca volvulus (filarial worm) which causes onchocerciasis, river blindness.

ANNELIDA
Annelida consists of the segmented worms.
• The Annelids are coelomate and triploblastic.
• Body metamerically segmented
• They exhibit bilateral symmetry.
• They exhibit organ system level organization.
• Their body is segmented.
• They respire through their body surface.
• Nephridia are the excretory organs.

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 • Nephridia are the excretory organs.
• They have a well-developed circulatory and digestive system.
• Their body contains haemoglobin, which gives them a red colour.
• Most annelids are hermaphrodite, i.e., male and female organs are present in the same body.
They reproduce both sexually and asexually. Asexual reproduction may occur by budding or
fission.
Classes of Annelids
1. Class Polychaeta
Polychaetes are the largest class of annelids.
Example: nereis, syllis.
1. Class Oligochaeta
Cross fertilization of eggs occurs and embryos develop in cocoon secreted by clitellum.
Example: earthworms.
1. Class Hirudinea
They're mostly ectoparasitic blood suckers and rest are predators on invertebrates.
E.g leeches.

MOLLUSCA
• They are coelomates and triploblastic.
• They exhibit bilateral symmetry.
• They exhibit organ system level organization.
• Their body is unsegmented.
• They are mostly found in marine and freshwater. Very few are terrestrial and found in moist
soil.
• The body is divided into head, visceral mass, muscular foot and mantle.
• The head comprises of tentacles and compound eyes. The body is covered by a calcareous
shell.The muscular foot helps in locomotion.
• They have a well-developed digestive system, the radula is the rasping organ for feeding.
• Gaseous exchange by gills, lungs, mantle, or body surface.
• The sexes are separate in most of the molluscs but some species are hermaphrodites.
Fertilization may be external or internal.
• They are generally oviparous.
Classes of molluscs
1. Gastropoda (snails, nudibranchs and slugs)
2. Pelecypoda/Bivalvia (clams, oysters, and other bivalves)
3. Cephalopoda (squids, octopuses, cuttlefish, and chambered nautiluses)

ARTHROPODA
Arthropods are invertebrate animals having an exoskeleton, a segmented body, and paired jointed
appendages.
• The body is triploblastic, segmented, and bilaterally symmetrical.
• They exhibit organ system level of organization.
• The body is divided into head, thorax, and abdomen or cephalothorax and abdomen.
• Their body has jointed appendages which help in locomotion.
• The coelomic cavity is filled with blood.
• Exoskeleton of cuticle containing protein, lipid, chitin, and often calcium carbonate secreted by
underlying epidermis and shed (molted) at interval (a process called ecdysis).
• The terrestrial Arthropods excrete through Malpighian tubules while the aquatic ones excrete
through green glands or coaxal glands.
• Sexes usually separate, with paired reproductive organs and ducts; usually internal fertilization;
oviparous or ovoviviparous; often with metamorphosis; parthenogenesis in a few forms;
growth with ecdysis.
• They have a well-developed digestive system.
• Respiration by body surface, gills, tracheae (air tubes), or book lungs.
• They contain sensory organs like antennae, simple and compound eyes, auditory organs, and
statocysts.

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 statocysts.
• Circulatory system open, with dorsal contractile heart, arteries, and hemocoel.

Features Crustacea Arachnida Insecta Myriapoda

Body divisions Cephalothorax Cephalothorax Head, thorax, Head and trunk
and abdomen and abdomen abdomen
Number of jointed 5 3 4 One to two pairs on
appendages each segment
Antennae 2 pairs Absent A pair One pair in some
Eyes A pair of 8 simple eyes A pair of A pair of simple eyes
compound eyes compound eyes
Wings Absent Absent Present Absent
Respiration Gills Book lungs Tracheae Tracheae
Excretion Green glands Coaxal glands Malpighian Malpighian tubules
tubules

Crustacea
• They are aquatic, terrestrial, or parasitic.
• The head is fused with the thorax region known as the cephalothorax. Thus, body division is
cephalothorax and abdomen.
• Respiration occurs through gills or general body surface.
• They excrete through green glands.
• They possess two pairs of antennae and five pairs of appendages (jointed legs).
• They have a pair of compound eyes.
• Wings are absent.

Insecta
• They are mostly terrestrial.
• The body is differentiated into head, thorax, and abdomen.
• They have three pair of appendages.
• They have a pair of compound eyes.
• They have a pair of antennae.
• They respire through gills and trachea.
• Malpighian tubules are the excretory organ.
• Wings are present.

Arachnida
• They are mainly terrestrial.
• The arachnid body is organized into the cephalothorax, a fusion of the head and thorax, and the
abdomen.
• Four pairs of appendages and antennae are absent.
• They have eight simple eyes.
• Some respire through book lungs and others through tracheae.
• They excrete through coaxal gland which is similar to the green glands of crustaceans.
• Wings are absent.

Myriapods
• They are mostly terrestrial.
• Their body is divided into head and trunk with the trunk containing segments which have a pair
of appendages each.
• The head is provided with a pair of antennae which is lacking in some and two pairs of jaws.
• They have a pair of simple eyes.

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 • They have a pair of simple eyes.
• They contain numerous legs.
• They respire by trachea and excretion occurs by Malpighian tubules.
They're divided into:
→ Chilopoda: The chilopoda include the centipede with one pair of legs on each body segment and
one pair of antennae or none.
→ Diplopoda: The diplopoda include the millipedes with two pairs of legs on each segment, and
one pair of antennae or none.

ECHINODERMATA
Echinoderms are sessile or slow –moving marine animals with radial symmetry.
Characteristics of Echinoderms
1. They have a star-like appearance and are spherical or elongated and they have spiny skin.
2. They are exclusively or totally marine animals
3. Triploblastic animals i.e they have three body layers.
4. They're coelomates.
5. Their bodies are radially symmetrical at adult stage but bilateral at larva stage. Their
remarkable penta-radial symmetry sets them apart from the other major group of radial
animals
6. Body not segmented, neither head nor brain.
7. They exhibit organ system level of organization.
8. Unique to Echinoderms is the water vascular system ending to tube feet that function in
locomotion, feeding and exchange of gas.
The tube feet aids in locomotion.
9. Most species are dioecious (i.e separate sexes), but few species are hermaphroditic. Individual
release their gametes into the sea water.
10. They have a remarkable power of autotomy (self-amputation) and power of regeneration of lost
body parts.
The characteristics that distinguish Phylum Echinodermata are: radial symmetry, internal skeleton
and water-vascular system.
Their internal skeleton is made up of calcareous or bony plates called ossicles..
Examples: Sea Stars, bristle Stars, Basket Stars, Sea urchins, Sand dollars, Sea lilies, Feather stars, Sea
Cucumbers, sea daisies.
CHORDATA
The phylum chordata consist of all the vertebrates (animals with back bone) and several other
invertebrates that share chordate characteristics.
Characteristics that chordates possess:
1. They are coelomates with bilateral symmetry.
2. They are triploblastic with segmented bodies.
3. They exhibit organ system level of organization.
4. Possess a notochord – a kind of internal skeleton they drive name from, notochord.
Notochord: It is a longitudinal, cartilaginous rod running between the nerve cord and the
digestive tract. It acts as a support for the nerve cord and is replaced by the vertebral column
after the embryonic stage in all vertebrates.
5. They possess a dorsal hollow nerve cord i.e nerve cord on dorsal side.
Other animals (non-chordates) have ventral solid nerve cord.
6. They have a perforated pharynx (i.e pharyngeal slits)
7. Possess muscular post anal tail. Most Chordates have a tail extending beyond anus.
8. They possess closed circulatory system.

Phylum Chordata is classified into three subphyla, namely

1. Urochordata (tunicates)
2. Cephalochordata (lancelets
3. Vertebrata (vertebrates).
The subphylum Urochordata and Cephalochordata are collectively known as protochordates, which
are marine animals. They are invertebrates but they share attributes of chordates.

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are marine animals. They are invertebrates but they share attributes of chordates.
• Notochord can be seen only in the larval stage and disappears in adults in Tunicates
(Urochordates).
• Notochord persist throughout the entire lives of cephalochordates.

We'll dwell more on vertebrata.

Subphylum Vertebrata
Vertebrates are the group of animals that include humans and their closest relatives. Many features
are unique to the vertebrates, including the cranium and backbone.
Characteristics of Vertebrates
1. These are advanced chordates and have cranium around the brain.
2. The notochord is replaced by a vertebral column in adults.
This is why it is said that ‘all vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates’.
3. A high degree of cephalization is observed.
4. They have a well-developed coelom.
5. The alimentary canal is complete.
6. They have well-developed respiratory and excretory systems.
7. Endocrine glands are present in all.
8. They are unisexual and reproduce sexually, hagfish being an exception.

Subphylum Vertebrata is further classified into five main classes. They are:
1. Pisces (Fishes)
2. Amphibia
3. Reptilia
4. Aves
5. Mammalia
(PARAM)

PISCES
i. Agnatha (Jawless Fishes)
ii. Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous fishes e.g Sharks and Rays, dog fish, minnow fish, skates..
Possess tooth-like scales on the body. The scales are called dermal denticles or placoid scales.
Fertilization is internal in chondrichthyes, may lay eggs or bear live young.
iii. Osteichthyes (Bony fishes e.g Tilapia fish, carp, salmon, mackerel, herring).
The skin is covered by flattened smooth, bony scales (rhomboid, ctenoid, cycloid). Fertilization
is external, many bony fish are oviparous.
Note: All jawless vertebrates and jawed fishes are restricted to aquatic habitats and they use gills to
extract oxygen from the water that surrounds them.
Characteristics of pisces
1. They are found in fresh, marine, and brackish water.
2. The body is usually streamlined.
3. Their body is distributed into a head, trunk and tail. They swim with the help of their tail.
4. Paired and unpaired fins represent the appendages. These help the fish to balance while
swimming.
5. The lateral line system functions as a sensory organ to sense the disturbances in the nearby
environment. It is used for detection of vibration and pressure in water.
6. The body is covered with scales, which helps by providing protection to the internal organelles
although some are without scales.
7. The gills help in respiration or gaseous exchange.
8. Closed type blood circulation is observed.
9. The internal skeleton is bony or cartilaginous.
10. These are cold-blooded organisms (poikilothermic animals). Their body temperature varies
with that of the environment.
11. They have two chambered heart.
12. They may be herbivores or carnivores, oviparous or ovoviviparous.

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 12. They may be herbivores or carnivores, oviparous or ovoviviparous.
13. The sexes are separate thus reproduction is sexual and they exhibit external fertilization
majorly.
14. Middle and inner ear are present.

Fins provide fish with balance, steering, and protection. Fins are either single along the centerline of
the fish: the dorsal fin, anal (ventral) fin, and tail (caudal) fin; or paired fins: the pectoral fins and
pelvic fins. The top fin or dorsal fin is also used in balance but its main function is usually protection.

AMPHIBIANS
1. Amphibians larvae are aquatic and adult can survive on land i.e terrestrial. Adults may be
aquatic, amphibious or terrestrial.
2. They are ectothermic (poikilothermic) animals.
3. The skin is soft usually with no scales.
4. Three chambered heart- one ventricle and two auricles.
5. The larva use gills for gaseous exchange (i.e respiration) while adult use lung, skin and mouth.
The skin is widely used than lungs.
6. Reproduction is sexual while fertilization is external. Eggs are laid and fertilized in water, where
they hatch into larvae, such as tadpoles of frogs, that eventually metamorphose into adults.
7. They have poisonous glands which they used for defence.
8. The young ones (tadpoles) are herbivores while adults are carnivores.
Examples are: toads, frogs, salamander, newts.

REPTILIA
They are believed to be the first set of chordate to live on land – terrestrial but few are with young
ones terrestrial and adults aquatic e.g Crocodiles, Sea snake, crocodile, chameleon, wall gecko,
tortoise, turtles.
1. The skin is dried and covered with scales.
2. They are poikilothermic animals.
3. Respiratory organ is lung.
4. Possess two pairs of limbs except snakes.
5. Reproduction is sexual and fertilization is internal. Oviparous mode of reproduction.
6. Egg hatches into young reptile. No aquatic larva stage.

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 6. Egg hatches into young reptile. No aquatic larva stage.
7. They do not show parental care for the young ones.
8. They have homodont dentition.
9. They have middle ear and inner ear, no external ear.

AVES
1. They are primarily terrestrial animals with their respiratory organ being lung.
2. There are some swimming and diving birds e.g ducks. There some running birds e.g Ostriches.
Most birds do fly e.g Pigeons.
3. Front pair of limbs are adapted to form wings to fly. Hind limbs form legs.
4. Body are warm blooded i.e homoeothermic.
5. Skin is dried and covered with feathers except on leg where scales are present.
6. No larva stage i.e development is direct.
7. They have four chambered heart – two auricles and two ventricles.
8. They have rigid and hollow bones with air sacs which make them light during flight.
9. Reproduction is sexual, fertilization is internal.
10. They exhibit oviparous mode of reproduction.
11. They show parental care for the young ones.
Examples are pigeons, ducks, woodpeckers, sparrow, weaver birds..

MAMMALIA
1. They are homoeothermic i.e warm blooded animals.
Mammals maintain a constant body temperature (via homeostasis).
2. They have four chambered heart – two auricles and two ventricles.
3. The skin is covered with hair and has two types of glands – sebaceous and sweat glands.
Mammary gland is also located in the skin in the breast region which is responsible for
lactation.
4. The internal cavity is divided into chest and abdomen by a muscle called diaphragm.
5. Reproduction is sexual and fertilization is internal.
6. They have viviparous mode of reproduction i.e they give birth to young ones alive.
7. They show parental care to the young ones.
8. They have well developed brain and they seem to be most capable learners.
9. Respiratory organs are lung.
10. They have external ears called pinnae. Middle and inner ears are also present. Middle ear has
three bone ossicles.
11. They exhibit heterodont dentition. Mammals have four types of teeth – incisors, canine,
premolars and molars which allow them to feed efficiently.
Examples: man, rabbit, whale, bats, monkey, elephant...
Types of mammals
1. Monotremes: this type of mammals lay eggs, and the offsprings come out from the hatched
eggs. These are the ancient form of mammals, and even today, these mammals do exist. The
babies feed on mother’s milk similar to any other mammals. E.g platypus.
2. Marsupial Mammals: This type of mammal gives birth to the barely formed offspring, and the
baby grows on a pouch on the mother’s belly. From there, babies drink mother’s milk to get all
nutrients and become a fully evolved baby. e.g kangaroo.
3. Placental Mammals: The offsprings grow into a well-formed structure inside the mother’s
belly for a long time (time differs between size and shape of mammals) before the mother gives
birth to them when ready. The baby in the womb gets the nourishment from the mother’s diet
via the umbilical cord (attached to the mother) inside the placenta (an organ where the baby
grows). e.g humans, monkeys, giraffes.
Examples of placental mammals include:
a. Rodents: rats, porcupines, squirrels.
b. Cestaceans: aquatic mammals with streamlined body. E.g. whales and dolphins.
c. Carnivores: meat eaters and good hunters. E.g dogs, lions.
d. Ungulates: plant eaters with hoofed feet. E.g goat, pig, rhinocerus, cattle.
e. Chiropterans: nocturnal animals. E.g fruit bats and insectivorous bats.

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 e. Chiropterans: nocturnal animals. E.g fruit bats and insectivorous bats.
f. Primates: grasping fingers and toes. E.g lemurs, monkeys, man, apes..

VIRUS
Viruses are infectious agents with both living and nonliving characteristics.
Living characteristics of viruses
1. They multiply or reproduce inside the host cell.
2. They have their own genetic material made up of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA.
3. They show response towards stimuli like light, heat and temperature.
4. They are capable of causing diseases and infect plants, animals and even other microorganisms.
5. They can undergo mutation.

Nonliving characteristics include the fact that they are not cells, have no cytoplasm or cellular
organelles, and carry out no metabolism on their own and therefore must replicate using the host
cell's metabolic machinery. Viruses are not made out of cells, they can't keep themselves in a stable
state, they don't grow, and they can't make their own energy.
Even though they definitely replicate and adapt to their environment, viruses are more like androids
than real living organisms

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