Reproduction

Reproduction is the ability of living organisms to produce new individual of their type or new
offspring. Reproduction is necessary for increase in number and perpetuation of life.
Reproduction is divided into two types:
1. Sexual reproduction
2. Asexual reproduction

Asexual Reproduction
This is a type of reproduction which only one part is involved to produce offspring by itself without
formation and fusion of gametes. Offspring which are identical (clones) to the parent cells are
always produced.
Xteristics of asexual reproduction
1. It involves a single parent.
2. There is no gamete formation or fertilization.
3. The whole process takes place in a small period of time.
4. There is limited variation (genetically similar offsprings)

Types of Asexual Reproduction

1. Binary Fission: this is the simplest form of asexual reproduction during which a parent
organisms, divided into two parts or more than two equal parts. The mucus first divides into
two parts. The nucleus part divides into two parts. Then follows the division of the cytoplasm.
After the completion of the division of the cytoplasm, two daughter cell are formed. Example
can be seen in Amoeba, Paramecium or Euglena.
2. Budding: the new offspring formed developed as a protrusion or outgrowth of the parent.
This outgrowth is referred to a BUD. The bud may form on an internal or external buds break
off from the independent life. Examples are yeast, hydra, coral polyps.
3. Spore Formation: certain plants such as fungi reproduce asexually by spores which are small
unicellular bodies. They are light and can be easily be dispersed by air. Each spore can
develop to an independent organisms. This independent organism develops a hypha which
grows from the substrate to the air. These are termed aerial hyphae or sporangiophores. The
tip of these aerial hyphae become swollen to form sporangia which houses the spores.
E.g bacteria, fungi, and plants reproduce by spores.
4. Fragmentation: an organism may break into two or more pieces and each piece can then
develop into a new individual organism. Examples are sponges, spirogyra and coelenterates.

REPRODUCTION IN FUNGI
Fungi reproduce sexually and/or asexually.
Perfect fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually, while imperfect fungi reproduce only
asexually.
Deuteromycetes (fungi imperfecti) reproduce asexually only e.g Alternaria, Colletotrichum,
Trichoderma. They produce conidia as their asexual spores.
Asexual spores formed in Fungi
1. Conidium (formed in conidiophore) e.g Ascomycetes
2. Sporangiospores (formed in Sporangium) e.g Phycomycetes (Zygomycetes and oomycetes)
Sporangiospores are either motile and naked- zoospores, or nonmotile and walled -
aplanospores.
3. Basidiospore (formed in Basidium) e.g Basidiomycetes
Sexual spores formed in Fungi
1. Ascospore (formed in ascus) e.g Ascomycetes (Penicillium, Aspergillus).
2. Basidiospore: produced in Basidium by basidiomycetes (Mushroom, Agaricus, Puccinia,
Ustilago).
3. Zygospore: formed in Sporangium of Zygomycetes (Rhizopus, Mucor)
4. Oospore: formed in Oogonium in Oomycetes (Phytophthora)

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 4. Oospore: formed in Oogonium in Oomycetes (Phytophthora)

Asexual reproduction in plants

Natural asexual reproduction means in plants are: budding, fragmentation, spore formation,
vegetative reproduction.
Apomixis in flowering plants is defined as the asexual formation of a seed from the maternal tissues
of the ovule, avoiding the processes of meiosis and fertilization, leading to embryo development.
Parthenocarpy: formation of fruit without fertilization.
Vegetative propagation
This occurs mainly in higher plants. A new plant grows from any portion of an old plant without
utilizing seed. It involves detaching a portion from the body of the parent plant which starts a new
life in a suitable condition.
Organs of vegetative propagation
• Bulbil (bud): Bryophyllum, wild yam, garlic
• Bulb: onion, garlic, lily
• Rhizome: ginger, Cana Lily, ferns
• Stem tuber: yam, Irish potato
• Runner: potato potato
• Sucker: banana, pineapple
• Leaf: Bryophyllum, ferns
• Corm: cocoyam, Caladium
Stolons and runners are similar but stolons are underground runners.
Prennating organs: rhizome, tuber, bulb, corm, sucker, stolon
Non prennating organs: bulbil, runner
Artificial asexual reproduction in plants
1. Layering e.g rose, cocoa, coffee
2. Marcotting e.g mango, lemon
3. Grafting: bud grafting and stem grafting; the Scion (with desired xters) is made to grow on the
stock e.g citrus
4. Cuttings e.g cassava, sweet potato, cocoa, croton

Advantages of Asexual Reproduction

1. The offspring are genetically similar to their parent which is a great advantages if the
organisms are well adapted to their environment
2. Agents of pollination are not needed.
3. Agent of dispersal are not needed
4. Greater nourishment is obtained from the parents therefore they can withstand adverse
condition
5. Since food is ready at hand, the offspring grow and mature quickly
6. They can colonise the locality easily

Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction

1. No variation since parents and offspring are similar from generation to generation
2. Bad adaptation of the parents and offspring can lead their death since they are similar
genetically
3. Since there are no means of dispersal overcrowding, competition, food, space and light may
result. This will lead to stunted growth.
4. There is less chance of evolution

PLANT REPRODUCTION
Flower is the reproductive structure of flowering plants. It has the male and female sex organs and
is the most advanced reproductive structure in plant kingdom. Fertilization occurs in flowers and
produces seeds which germinate into new plants.

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FLOWER STRUCTURE
Flower stalk/pedicel: the shortened stem which flower is borne on.
Floral parts or whorls of flower:
1. The sepals (the calyx)
2. The petals (the corolla)
3. Stamens (androecium)
4. Carpels (gynoecium)
They are arranged one above the other on the receptacle or thalamus which is the swollen tip of
the thalamus.

Sepals (collectively called the calyx)

Sepals are the outermost whorl and green-coloured part of the flower beneath the petals to protect
rising buds. Flower is made of three to five sepals.
• When sepals are separate: polysepalous
• When sepals are fused to form a cup: gamosepalous

Petals (collectively called the corolla)

The sepals form the second whorl and are the bright coloured part of the flower that attract bees,
insects and birds (pollinators). Petals are scented Flower can be made of four to ten petals.
• When petals are separated: polypetalous
• When petals are joined to form a tube: gamopetalous
 When sepals and petals look alike: collectively perianth and each unit of the perianth is called
tepal e.g lilies
 When petals are green in colour like sepals: sepaloid
Some flowers have an additional whorl of structures at the base of the petals called corona. Corona
may be fused to form cup-like structure e.g spider lily or free from one another e.g passion flower
and oleander.

Stamens (collectively called androecium)

The stamens are the third whorl of the flower and the male reproductive organs. It consist of:
Filament: long slender stalk
Anther: swollen end on the top of filament; a yellowish sac-like structure involved in producing and
storing the pollens. Anther produces pollen grains in lobes within regions called pollen sacs.
Pollen grains are composed of:
• Two coats:
 extine: a tough protective outer coat
 Intine: a thin inner coat made of cellulose
• A haploid generative nucleus which gives rise to two male gametes
• A haploid tube nucleus

Pollen grains are composed of:

• Two coats:
 extine: a tough protective outer coat
 Intine: a thin inner coat made of cellulose
• A haploid generative nucleus which gives rise to two male gametes
Mitotic division of the generative nucleus (already haploid) gives rise into two male gametes.
These two male gametes fuse with the haploid egg cell (ovum) and the diploid secondary
nucleus formed from the polar nuclei in the embryo sac of the ovule to produce the diploid
embryo and the triploid endosperm.
• A haploid tube nucleus
The function of the tube nucleus is to control, direct and guide the growth of the pollen tube
when the pollen enters the pistil.
Landing of pollen grains on the mature stigma of the same type of flower, it germinates to form a
pollen tube.

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Carpels (collectively called gynoecium)
The carpels is the central whorl of the flower and are the flower's female reproductive organs.
A single carpel or several fused carpel is called pistil.
When a pistil has:
• Just one carpel: monocarpous e.g flamboyant
• Two or more separate carpels: apocarpous e.g rose flower
• Two or more carpels fused to form a single structure: synocarpous e.g Hibiscus
A pistil has:
1. An ovary: contain ovules which contain the female gamete or egg cell. The ovary develops
into a fruit while the ovules develop into seeds.
2. Style: slender structures arising from the ovary. The style supports the stigma and holds it in
the best position for receiving pollen grains.
3. Stigma: the surface that receives pollen grains. Stigmatic surfaces may be smooth, rough or
hairy. Stigmas mature when the egg cells in the ovules are ready to be fertilized by pollen
grains. The pollen grains received by the stigma are carried to the egg cell in the ovary.
Types of ovary based on their positions
1. Superior ovary: when the ovary is placed above the other floral parts
2. Half inferior ovary: the ovary lies in the receptacle and other floral parts appear to be
slightly above it or at the same level
3. Inferior ovary: the ovary is placed below other floral parts

Structure of an ovule
A mature ovule consists of:
• An embryo sac: the important structure in the ovule that produces haploid female gametes. It
consists of:
 An egg cell and two synergid cells
 Two polar nuclei in the centre that fuse to form diploid nucleus
 Three antipodal cells
• The nucellus: the tissue enclosed by integument and is nutritive in function.
• The integuments: protective sheaths that surround the nucellus covering the ovule
• The micropyle: a tiny opening into the ovule.
• Hilum: point of attachment of the ovule to the placenta.

Structure of an ovule
A mature ovule consists of:
• An embryo sac: the important structure in the ovule that produces haploid female gametes. It
consists of:
 An egg cell and two synergid cells
The egg cell forms the zygote after fertilization and gives rise to a diploid embryo.
The synergid cells nourish the egg cell and give direction to the pollen tube after pollination
has occurred. They majorly function to give signals and guidance needed by the pollen tube
inside the embryo sac of the ovule. If synergid cells are absent, no fertilization would occur.
 Two polar nuclei in the centre that fuse to form diploid nucleus called the secondary nucleus
or definitive nucleus.
This secondary nucleus (diploid) forms the nutritive tissue called endosperm in the double
fertilization process.
 Three antipodal cells
Antipodal cells are situated at the opposite end of the micropyle and they supply nutrition to
the whole female gametophyte (major function is nutrition of the embryo).
• The nucellus: the tissue enclosed by integument and is nutritive in function.
• The integuments: protective sheaths that surround the nucellus covering the ovule
• The micropyle: a tiny opening into the ovule.
• Hilum: point of attachment of the ovule to the placenta.

Classification of flowers

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Classification of flowers
Flowers are different in the number of parts in each whorl, colour petals, size and shape of petals.
Other distinguishing features include:
Flowers are classified on the basis of different categories
 Symmetry
○ Actinomorphic or regular flower: radially symmetrical e.g Hibiscus
○ Zygomorphic or irregular flower: bilaterally symmetrical e.g pride of Barbados, Delonix
Based on shapes and sizes of the floral parts
○ Regular flower: when all the parts of each whorl of a flower such as petals are similar in
shape and sizes. i.e Petals are identical, sepals are identical.
○ Irregular flower: when any of the parts of each whorl of a flower are not similar in shape.
 Based on whether all four whorls are present
○ Complete flower: all the four floral parts are present e.g Hibiscus, pride of Barbados
○ Incomplete flower: one of the floral parts is not present e.g maize flower, pawpaw flower
 Based on whether stamens and carpels are present
○ Perfect flower: a flower that has both carpels and stamens e.g pride of Barbados. A complete
flower is definitely perfect but a perfect flower may not be complete.
○ Imperfect flower: a flower whose carpels or stamens is naturally not present e.g maize
flower
 Based on position of ovary and type of ovary
○ Hypogynous flower: a flower with superior ovary. e.g Hibiscus flower
○ Perigynous flower: a flower with half-inferior ovary. e.g rose flower
○ Epigynous flower: a flower with inferior ovary. e.g cana lily and sunflower.

 If they occur singly or in groups

○ Solitary flower: occurs singly or is attached singly to a leaf axis or branch tip e.g Hibiscus
flower, pawpaw flower
○ Inflorescence: group of flowers attached to a common stalk or axis e.g pride of Barbados
 If the flowers are borne in the axis of the leaves or at the end of stem or branches
○ Axillary flowers: flowers borne in the axils of leaves
○ Terminal flowers: flowers borne at the end of stems or branches
 Sex of the flower
○ Bisexual flower: perfect or having both stamens and carpels. Most flowers are bisexual.
○ Unisexual flower: an imperfect flower that either has stamens or carpels.
○ A flower with only carpels: pistillate e.g maize flower, pawpaw flower
○ A flower with only stamens: staminate e.g pawpaw flower, maize flower
Monoecious plant: when male and female unisexual flowers or bisexual flowers are found on the
same plant e.g maize plant, oil palm.
Dioecious plant: when male and female flowers are found on different plants e.g pawpaw plant

POLLINATION
Pollination is the transfer of mature pollen grains from the anthers of one flower to the mature
stigma of the same flower or another flower of the same plant or another plant of the same species.
Pollination precedes fertilization.
Types of pollination
1. Self pollination

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 1. Self pollination
2. Cross pollination
Self pollination: transfer of mature pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the
same flower or of another flower of the same plant. Self pollination occurs in the same plant. e.g
cotton, pea, cotton, tomato. Self pollination aids pollination in bisexual flowers and does not waste
pollen grains. However, it produces weak offspring as offspring are less adapted to the
environment.
Conditions that aid self pollination:
• Bisexuality or presence of staminate and pistillate unisexual flowers on the same plant.
• Homogamy: ripening of the anthers and stigmas of a bisexual flower or flowers in the same
plant at the same time.
• Cleistogamy: ripe pollen grains are deposited on the stigma which becomes ripened at the
same time in bisexual flowers that never open (closed flowers).

Cross pollination: transfer of mature pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a
flower of another plant of the same or closely related species e.g morning glory, hibiscus, pride of
Barbados. Cross pollination occurs between different plants. Cross pollination leads to the
production of healthier offspring than self pollination as offspring are more adapted to the
environmental conditions, it produces viable seeds and new varieties of species with desirable
characteristics. But the shortcomings of this type of pollination is that it relies on external agents
such as wind and insects whose presence at the right time cannot be guaranteed. It also causes
wastage of pollen grains.
Conditions that aid cross pollination
• Unisexuality in dioecious plants; higher carpels than stamens in monoecious plants.
• Dichogamy: ripening of anther and filament of a bisexual flower or flowers in the same plant
at different times.
 Protandry: ripening of anthers before stigmas. Sunflower, okra, cotton
 Protogyny: ripening of stigmas before anthers. Palms, figs
• Self incompatibility: if pollen grains from the same flower or flowers from the same plant
fall on the stigmas of some flowers, they wither and die. Thus, only pollen grains from another
plant can fertilize such plants. e.g passion flower and tea.

Pollinating agents
Wind, insect (major pollinators); water, other animals.
Flowers pollinated by insects are called entomophilous flowers and have the following
characteristics:
• They have large and conspicuous petals/ sepals with bright colours.
• They usually possess scents and nectar is also present.
• Pollen grains are rough, sticky and relatively few.
• Stigma is flat with sticky surface to receive pollens
• Petals are shaped and arranged to enable visiting insects become dusted with pollen grains.
• Short and pendulous filament
Examples of entomophilous flower: Hibiscus, Delonix, cowpea, crotolaria, pride of Barbados e.t.c.

Flowers pollinated by wind are called anemophilous flowers:

• They have small, inconspicious petals/ sepals and are usually dull coloured.
• They are not scented and do not possess nectar.
• Pollen grains are small, smooth, light and non sticky and are produced in large quantities.
• Stigma is elongated and sticky with large surface area. Stigma is large and feathery hanging
outside the flower providing large surface area for easy trapping of pollen grains.
• Anthers are attached to the flower in such a way that they readily swing in the air and release
the pollen grains.
• Long and thin filament
Examples of wind pollinated flowers are maize, guinea grass, rice, millet and wheat.

PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT OF ZYGOTE IN FLOWERING PLANTS

P.C.T Bio Note Page 6

PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT OF ZYGOTE IN FLOWERING PLANTS
Pollination precedes fertilization and development of the zygote in sexual reproduction.
Pollen grain is the main male sex cell.
Ovule is the female sex cell.
Pollen grains are composed of:
• Two coats:
 extine: a tough protective outer coat
 Intine: a thin inner coat made of cellulose
• A haploid generative nucleus which gives rise to two male gametes
Mitotic division of the generative nucleus (already haploid) gives rise into two male gametes.
These two male gametes fuse with the haploid egg cell (ovum) and the diploid secondary
nucleus formed from the polar nuclei in the embryo sac of the ovule to produce the diploid
embryo and the triploid endosperm.
• A haploid tube nucleus
The function of the tube nucleus is to control, direct and guide the growth of the pollen tube
when the pollen enters the pistil.
Landing of pollen grains on the mature stigma of the same type of flower, it germinates to form a
pollen tube.

Structure of an ovule
A mature ovule consists of:
• An embryo sac: the important structure in the ovule that produces haploid female gametes. It
consists of:
 An egg cell and two synergid cells
The egg cell forms the zygote after fertilization and gives rise to a diploid embryo.
The synergid cells nourishes the egg cell and give direction to the pollen tube after pollination
has occurred. They majorly function to give signals and guidance needed by the pollen tube
inside the embryo sac of the ovule. If synergid cells are absent, no fertilization would occur.
 Two polar nuclei in the centre that fuse to form diploid nucleus called the secondary nucleus
or definitive nucleus.
This secondary nucleus (diploid) forms the nutritive tissue called endosperm in the double
fertilization process.
 Three antipodal cells
Antipodal cells are situated at the opposite end of the micropyle and they supply nutrition to
the whole female gametophyte (major function is nutrition of the embryo).
• The nucellus: the tissue enclosed by integument and is nutritive in function.
• The integuments: protective sheaths that surround the nucellus covering the ovule
• The micropyle: a tiny opening into the ovule.
• Hilum: point of attachment of the ovule to the placenta.

Fertilization in Flowering plants

The generative nucleus of the pollen grain divides into two male nuclei. The male nucleus is the
male gamete.
The tube nucleus controls the growth of the pollen tube (intine growing as a pollen tube due to
rupture or pore in the exine) and eventually disintegrates.
The two male nuclei formed from the generative nucleus are released into the embryo sac. Out of
these two nuclei,
 One male nucleus (haploid, n) fuses with the egg cell (haploid, n) to form a diploid (2n)
zygote which develops into the embryo → first fertilization
 The second male nucleus fuses with the diploid nucleus (formed from two fused polar nuclei
in the embryo sac) to form a triploid (3n) primary endosperm cell that produces the
endosperm → second fertilization
The first and the second fertilization in flowering plants only give rise to the term double
fertilization.

Development after fertilization

P.C.T Bio Note Page 7

Development after fertilization
The zygote develops into an embryo after repeated cell division. Also, the primary endosperm cell
gives rise to the endosperm tissue.
The embryo is made up of:
• The plumule or embryonic shoot
• The radicle or embryonic root
• One or two cotyledons in monocotyledonous embryo and dicotyledonous embryo
respectively.
A monocotyledonous embryo also has:
❖ Coleoptile: plumule sheath
❖ Coleorhiza: radicle sheath
Cotyledon is also known as scutellum.

Endosperm
The primary endosperm nucleus divides many times to produce endosperm tissue.
It functions for food storage for the embryo.
It may remain as endosperm providing food for some embryos such as maize and castor plants. Or
transfer the function of food reserve to cotyledons and disappear as the cotyledons develop as in
the embryos of cowpea seeds.

Back to what happens to other parts of the ovule:

The ovule develops into a seed i.e the embryo and the endosperm in the ovule develop gradually
into a seed.
As the ovule grows, the nucellus gives it's nutrient to the endosperm and embryo and is crushed out
to accommodate growth. The integuments surrounding the embryo sac become the tough and
protective testa (seed coat). The integuments of the ovule become seed coats. The tiny opening into
the ovule (micropyle) remains to allow water and oxygen in at germination. The water content of
the seed decreases as it prepares for dormancy. The ovary wall becomes the pericarp (fruit wall).
The ovary becomes a fruit after fertilization.

Placentation in flowering plants

Placentation is the arrangement of ovules within the ovary. The ovules are attached to the ovary by
fleshy structures called placentae through short stalks called funicles.
Types of placentation
1. Marginal placentation: ovules are attached to the placenta along the margin of the ovary.
Formed from monocarpous pistil e.g cowpea, pride of Barbados, flamboyant, cassia, crotolaria
and Delonix.
2. Parietal placentation: ovules are attached to the sides of a synocarpous ovary e.g pawpaw
3. Free-central placentation: ovules are borne on a knob projecting from the base of the ovary.
Formed from synocarpous pistil e.g cana lily
4. Axile placentation: carpels of a synocarpous ovary meet in the center to form the placenta
e.g tomato.
5. Basal placentation: ovules are attached to the base of a synocarpous ovary e.g sunflower
6. Superficial placentation: random arrangement of a large number of ovules borne on the
walls of the loculi.

P.C.T Bio Note Page 8

The ovules lie in a compartment called loculus. Monocarpous pistil has one loculus while
synocarpous pistil has several loculi separated by partitions called septa.

FRUITS AND SEEDS

SEEDS
A seed is a ripened, fertilized and developed ovule.
Structure of a seed
i. Seed coat or testa: covers the inner embryo formed from integuments. Consists of tough outer
testa and softer inner tegmen.
ii. Hilum: point of attachment of the seed stalk or funicle
iii. Micropyle: hole that permits air and water into the embryo of the seed
iv. Embryo: the embryo has
• Plumule (embryonic shoot)
• Radicle (embryonic root)
• One or two cotyledons (seed leaves)
Monocotyledonous seed also has ______ in their embryo:
• Coleorhiza (radicle sheath): sheath protecting the radicle
• Coleoptile (plumule sheath): protects the plumule
Functions of seed
To protect the seed, store sufficient food for the development of the embryo, to provide a dormant
and resistant form for the species to survive adverse conditions.

Monocotyledonous seed: one seed leaf or cotyledon e.g rice, wheat, maize, sorghum.
Dicotyledonous seed: two seed leaves or cotyledons e.g beans, mango.

Not all seeds have endosperm. Seeds with endosperm are called endospermic seeds. Only
Angiosperms have endosperm (food reserve). E.g maize, wheat, castor bean, coconut, barley,
rubber.

GERMINATION OF SEEDS
Germination is the gradual development of the embryo of the seed into a seedling or a young plant.
Seeds pass through a period of rest called dormancy. Under unfavourable conditions, seeds can
withstand and remain alive (dormancy) but under favourable conditions, they can still germinate
(viable seeds).

Types of germination
• Epigeal germination: cotyledons are carried above the soil surface. seen in dicots e.g
cowpea, melon, mango, groundnut.
• Hypogeal germination: cotyledons remain in the soil surface. Seen in monocots e.g millet,
wheat, oil palm, maize.

Conditions necessary for germination

1. Sufficient water or moisture: to activate the enzymes, transport nutrients to the embryo,
provide medium for metabolic reactions.
2. Oxygen: for aerobic respiration
3. Suitable or optimum temperature for adequate enzyme activate.

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 3. Suitable or optimum temperature for adequate enzyme activate.
4. Enzymes: break food down to release energy.
5. Food: food is stored in cotyledons in dicots and endosperm in monocots.
6. The seeds must be viable.

FRUITS
A fruit is a mature fertilised ovary of a flower and contains one or more seeds.
Fruits that develop without fertilization are called Parthenocarpic fruits and are often seedless e.g
bananas and pineapples.
Structure of a fruit
1. Pericarp: fruit wall (develops from ovary wall). There are three layers of the pericarp:
a. Epicarp: outer covering
b. Mesocarp: middle layer
c. Endocarp: inner layer. Seeds are within the endocarp.
The pericarp may be soft, hard, dry or fibrous.
2. Seeds: seeds are arranged in the fruit just as ovules are arranged in the ovary. A seed has
hilum (a scar left by the point of attachment of the funicle of the seed to the placenta). An
embryo is present in each seed. Some seeds store food in endosperm while other store food in
cotyledons.
3. Fruit stalk: a scar showing point of attachment of the fruit to the plant due to receptacle of
the flower.
4. Remains of the style: a scar showing point of attachment of the fruit (developed from ovary)
to the style.
Differences between seed and fruit
• A fruit develops from ovary, has pericarp and contains seeds while a seed develops from
ovule, has seed coat and contains an embryo.
• A seed has micropyle (an opening), a fruit does not have a micropyle.
• A fruit has remains of style while a seed does not.
• A fruit has fruit stalk due to receptacle while a seed has a scar (hilum) formed by attachment
of funicle.

Types of fruits
A. Whether it develops from only ovary or not:
• True fruit: develops solely and from fertilized ovary e.g mango, orange and cowpea.
• False fruit: develops from an ovary and other floral parts e.g apple, pineapple, cashew.
B. Number of ovaries and flowers that form the fruit
• Simple fruit: develops from a single flower with a single ovary. Pistil maybe monocarpous
(cowpea, maize) or synocarpous (okra, tomato, pawpaw).
• Aggregate fruit: develops from a single flower with several ovaries; apocarpous pistil (pistil
with separate carpels). Each ovary develop into a fruitlet like in grapes and the fruitlets are
embedded in a fleshy receptacle.
* Flowers are solitary in simple and aggregate fruits.
• Composite fruit: develops from an inflorescence (group of flowers) or flowers that are close
to one another. All the fruitlets from each flower and the floral parts (as in false fruits)
develop into one big fruit. e.g pineapple and breadfruit.
C. Nature of pericarp (dry or fleshy)
• Fleshy fruits: with fleshy (thick, soft, succulent) pericarp. The fleshy parts of some fruits may
develop from other floral parts and may not include the pericarp.
Types of fleshy fruits: drupe, berry, pome, sorosis, hesperidium, syconium.
• Dry fruits: with dry, hard, woody or fibrous pericarp.
Types of dry fruits: dry dehiscent and dry indehiscent fruits.
**Dehiscence: when pericarp split when ripe to release seeds.
**All fleshy fruits are indehiscent.

Fleshy fruits
1. Drupe: true simple fruit with well developed pericarp. The pericarp of drupe has three layers:

P.C.T Bio Note Page 10

 1. Drupe: true simple fruit with well developed pericarp. The pericarp of drupe has three layers:
• Thin epicarp
• Mesocarp which may be fibrous, edible or non edible.
• Hard or stony and inedible endocarp.
Examples of drupe: mango, coconut, palm nut. A drupe has only one seed.
2. Berry: true, simple fruit with a pericarp with the following layers:
• Thin epicarp
• Succulent mesocarp
• Succulent endocarp (not hard and stony) and edible.
Mesocarp and endocarp are fused and edible unlike drupe. Berry has many seeds.
Both drupe and berry have succulent mesocarp and thin epicarp.
1. Pome: simple, false fruit in which skin and fleshy edible parts re derived from the receptacle
and only the core enclosing the seeds are from the ovary. e.g apples, pears.
2. Sorosis: a composite, false fruit formed from a dense of inflorescence. Every part of each
flower forms a part of the fruit, while the stalk or axis of the inflorescence swells to form the
core. e.g pineapple, breadfruit.

Dry fruits
1. Dry dehiscent fruits: dry fruits that split to release the seeds when ripe.
Types of dry dehiscent fruits
a. Legume: simple fruit from a superior monocarpous pistil; has marginal placentation; fruit
dehisces longitudinally along both sides. e.g cowpea, soya beans, pride of Barbados,
flamboyant, crotolaria.
b. Follicle: simple fruit from a superior monocarpous pistil; ripe fruit dehisces longitudinally on
one side only e.g silk cotton, kola.
c. Capsule: simple fruit from a single ovary divided into many carpels; dehisces along many
sides. e.g castor oil fruit, para-rubber fruit, okra fruit and cotton.
d. Schizocarp: formed from an ovary made up of one carpel; breaks up into units each enclosing
one seed. e.g desmodium, cassia.

1. Dry indehiscent fruits: dry fruits that do not split when ripe; they fall to the ground, pericarp
decays to release seeds instead.
Types of dry indehiscent fruits
a. Caryopsis: simple fruit from monocarpous pistil; pericarp and seed coat are fused to form a
covering over seed. e.g maize grain, rice, millet, guinea corn.
b. Nut: true simple with a hard woody pericarp and has only one seed. e.g cashew nut
c. Achene: true fruit with only one seed from an apocarpous pistil. Pericarp is free from seed
coat e.g strawberry, sunflower.
d. Cypsela: simple true fruit from a superior monocarpous ovary and has only one seed;
pericarp is free from seed coat. e.g tridax fruit, emilia.
e. Samara: simple true fruit from superior ovary with > 1 carpels; the pericarp form wing like
structures. e.g combretum, pterocarpus (African rose flower).

Dispersal of fruits and seeds

It is the transfer of seeds or fruits from the parent plant to other places where the seed may
germinate.
Means or agents of dispersal of seeds and fruits
1. Wind
2. Animals (+ humans)
3. Water
4. Explosive mechanism
Wind for fruits and seeds that are small and easy to carry.
Animals for edible seeds and fruits, seeds and fruits with hooks or hairs.
Water for fruits and seeds that are light or can float in water.
Explosive mechanism for dehiscent fruits.

P.C.T Bio Note Page 11

 MAMMALIAN REPRODUCTION
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction is important as it introduces genetic variation during meiosis and fertilization.
During meiosis, new combinations of genes occur when crossing over takes place between the
chromatids of homologous chromosomes and then separation of the homologous

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system consists of ovaries, Fallopian tube or oviduct, uterus, cervix, vagina
and vulva.
1. Ovaries: These are two oval-shaped structure located in the abdominal cavity on the side of
the uterus. Each ovary is held in position by ligaments. Ovaries are small and short, each
contain thousands of undeveloped egg (ova). It is only when a girl has reached the age of
puberty (9-15years) that a ripe egg is released alternatively each months by the ovaries. The
ovaries stop producing eggs at about the age of 45-55years, a condition referred to as
menopause.
Functions
i. Ovaries produce and release mature egg.
ii. They produce female sex hormones (oestrogen and progesterone)
1. Fallopian Tube (oviduct): this arise from the uterus as narrow tube of about (9-13cm) long.
The free ends are funnel-shaped free ends are lined with cell having cilia. When an egg is
released from the ovary, the cilia beat to direct the egg into the fallopian tube. Fertilization
takes place in the upper two-third of the oviduct or fallopian tube. Fertilization is only
possible when an egg cell is present by the time sperm cells reach the oviduct.
Functions of Fallopian Tube
i. Directs the release egg from the ovary to itself.
ii. Fertilization takes place inside the oviduct.
iii. The fertilized egg (zygote) is pushed to the uterus by the cell of the fallopian tube.
Ovulation is the release of the egg into the Fallopian tube by the ovaries.
1. Uterus (womb)
The uterus is a wide and thick-walled muscular chamber of about 8cm long and 5cm wide.
Two fallopian tubes enter into it at the top while the lower narrow part terminates as a neck
or cervix. The inner side of the uterus is lined with endometrium (layer well supplied with
blood and food to receive fertilized egg)
Function of Uterus
i. Implantation of fertilized egg (zygote): Implantation is the attachment of the fertilized egg to
the wall of the uterus.
ii. The uterus provides a place for the attachment of foetal placenta. Before the development of
placenta, the uterus provides nutrients for the embryo.
1. Cervix: The cervix is a ring of muscle with tiny aperture that closes the lower end of the
uterus where it joins the vagina. It controls the opening and closing of the vagina during birth.
2. Vagina: The vagina leads from the cervix of the uterus to the outside of the body. It is an
elastic and muscular tube of about 10-14cm long. The opening of the vagina is partially
covered by a thin membrane called hymen. If the hymen is intact, it means that the girl is still
a virgin. However the hymen can be torn during vigorous physical exercise such as athletics
or during sexual intercourse.
Function of the Vagina
i. It receives the male penis which deposits sperm into it
ii. It serves as birth canal during the expulsion of the foetus from the uterus
iii. The woman menstruate through the vagina
1. Vulva: The external female organ are collectively called vulva. These include the two thick
fold of skin covered with pubic hair called labia majora, two fold of hairless skin called labia
minora.
Function of Vulva
i. It protects the opening of the vagina.
ii. It allows the passage of urine from the bladder through the urethral meatus to the exterior.

P.C.T Bio Note Page 12

 ii. It allows the passage of urine from the bladder through the urethral meatus to the exterior.
iii. It permits passage of penis into the vagina and foetus out of the vagina during birth.
1. Clitoris: is a small erectile organ. It is a sensitive organ well supplied with blood vessels and
nerves. It causes excitement during sexual intercourse and accelerates orgasm in female. Like
penis it become erectile in sexual excitement.

Female Gametes
The female sex cells or gametes called the eggs or ova are produced in the ovaries by a process
called oogenesis. The human female gametes are larger than the sperms. Each ovum is about 0.1mm
in diameter. It consists of the cytoplasm, a nucleus in the centre, granules and yolk droplets. The
yolk provides a source of nourishment for the embryo, especially at the early stages of
development.
The ovum's cytoplasm is surrounded by two membranes. The outer one is called the vitelline
membrane while the inner one is the plasma membrane. The ovum is surrounded on the outside by
a jelly coat of variable thickness made of glycoprotein.
The nuclei of the sperm and ovum contain chromosomes (thread-like materials) which carry the
genes. The genes are responsible for the transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring.
When a female is born, her ovaries contain all potential egg cells or primary oocytes which are
about 20000 in each ovary. Only about 400-500 of these mature in a female's active reproductive
life.

Menstrual cycle
Maturation of the ovum occurs in one of the ovaries.
Several primary oocytes each start to develop in a structure called follicle. The cells surrounding
the oocyte in the Follicle continue to divide as the follicle matures.
Developing follicles secrete oestrogen.
Usually, only one of the developing follicles become mature and becomes a Graafian follicle and
contains a secondary oocyte. The matured ovum is then released into the Fallopian tube (a process
called ovulation).
There is thickening of the uterine endometrium after the release and the thickening is maintained
in preparation to receive a fertilized egg.
The remaining part of the Graafian follicle develops into corpus luteum (a solid yellow body which
secretes progesterone).
If the ovum does not become fertilized in the oviduct, it goes into the uterus where the uterine
endometrial tissue breaks down and are released to the exterior through the vaginal opening.
This is called menstruation.
The menstrual cycle is a 4-week cycle (about 28 days).
Functions of hormones in menstrual cycle
• FSH: starts menstrual cycle by stimulating follicle development.
• Oestrogen: causes the endometrium to build up and thicken. High amount of oestrogen in the
blood stimulate the release of LH.
• LH: stimulates ovuluation and development of corpus luteum from the Graafian follicle.
• Progesterone (pregnancy hormone): inhibits FSH and maturation of oocytes. Prevents
uterine contractions during pregnancy and aids development of placenta.
Oestrogen and progesterone maintain the endometrium. If the ovum does not fertilize, corpus
luteum shrivels and since there's no more progesterone to maintain the endometrial tissue, it
breaks down. In the absence of progesterone, FSH starts work again and the whole cycle is
repeated.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system in man consists of testes, vasa efferentia, vas deferens (sperm duct)
penis and glands.
1. Testes: There are two testes in male animal. Each testes is oval in shape and is housed in a
wrinkled sac called scrotum which hangs out of the body behind the penis. The scrotum
functions as a thermoregulator that protects the sperm from high temeperature. The body

P.C.T Bio Note Page 13

 functions as a thermoregulator that protects the sperm from high temeperature. The body
temperature is too high for the formation of sperm hence the testes are positioned out of
body that is slightly lower (2 or 3°C lower) than the normal body temperature. Each testis is
made of a large number highly coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules and interstitial cells
which lie with the seminiferous tubules. The seminiferous tubules produces the sperm while
the interstitial cells produce testosterone.
2. Vasa efferentia: are small number of tubes which are connected with seminiferous tubules
and unite to form epididymis.
3. Epididymis: This is highly coiled tube about 6 metre long which receives sperm from vas
deferens. Sperm are temporarily stored to mature and develop in the epididymis.
4. Vas deferens (sperm duct): a narrow tube that carries or conducts sperm duct to the
accessory glands associated which lead to the urethra.
Three glands open into the male reproductive system. These are seminal vesicle, prostate gland and
Cowper’s gland.
The prostate gland is located a little below the bladder while a pair of cowper’s gland is situated
below the prostate gland.
1. Seminal Vesicle: the seminal vesicle is a smaller sac where sperms are stored. It is located
close to the posterior end of vas deferens. It secretes seminal fluid. Seminal fluid contains
fructose which provides energy for the sperm.
2. Prostate gland: secretes seminal fluid which activates the sperm.
3. Cowper's gland: secretes seminal fluid which increase the pH of the female reproductive
medium which is normally acidic. Acidic environment of the female reproductive tract can kill
sperms.
The secretions of the seminal vesicle, prostate gland and Cowper's gland + sperm = semen (a milky
fluid)
1. Urethra: it serves as a passage for both urine and sperm.
2. Penis: for conveying urine and semen and for penetrating into the female reproductive tract.
The most sensitive region of the penis is the glans penis which has the urethral opening.
Prepuce is the foreskin removed during circumcision.

Male Gametes
The male sex cells or gametes called sperms are produced in the testes by a process called
spermatogenesis. The sperm or spermatozoon consists of a head which contains the nucleus, a
middle piece and a whip-like tail or flagellum. A human sperm is about 0.05mm long and
microscopic and is usually smaller than the egg (ovum).

Spermatogenesis
About 300 million sperms are produced daily by the seminiferous tubules in the testes.
The actively dividing germ cells in the seminiferous tubules undergo meiosis to produce immature
spermatids which develop into the spermatozoa. The sperm cells (spermatozoa) are carried to the
epididymis where they're stored and become mature.
The best temperature for sperm production is a little lower than body temperature (35°C). This is
why the testes descend into the scrotal sac (scrotum) outside the body.
The Leydig (interstitial) cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testes produce testosterone
responsible for the development of male sexual characters.
Hormonal function in male sexual activity
• FSH stimulate sperm production.
• LH which is called ICSH (interstitial cells stimulating hormone) in males aids testosterone
production by stimulating the interstitial cells (Leydig cells).

Structure and Function of Sperm Cell

1. Acrosome: Acrosome is located at the anterior end of the head which contains lytic enzymes
or agents used to dissolve the egg membrane or it enhances penetration of the egg
during fertilization.
2. Middle piece: The middle piece contains numerous mitochondria which generate the energy

P.C.T Bio Note Page 14

 2. Middle piece: The middle piece contains numerous mitochondria which generate the energy
used by the sperm cell to swim towards
the egg.
3. Long whip-like tail or Flagellum: It helps to move or propels the sperm cell.
4. Nucleus: This is found in the head of the sperm cell and contains genetic materials which
fuses with the nucleus of the egg or ovum.

Similarities between the male and female reproducive systems

1. Both produce gametes.
2. Both contain gonads (testes and ovaries).
3. Both have external openings.
4. Both have tubes through which the gametes pass.
5. Both gonads act as ductless (endocrine) glands.

Fertilization in man
When being sexually aroused, blood flows into the genitals and the penis become erect in males
while the vagina produces a lubricating mucus to aid free thrusting of the penis into the vagina.
Ejaculation (release of semen) into the vagina gives makes a pleasant sensation called orgasm. The
female may also experience orgasm.
Each ejaculation release about 200-300 million sperms which can stay up to 3 -5 days in females
before dying. Fertilization can only occur if an egg cell still remains in the upper part of the oviduct
(about 24 hours after release from the ovary).
This means that fertilization can occur if sexual intercourse has taken place about 5 days before
ovulation and about a day after ovulation.
This means that usually, there are six possible days for fertilization in a human female per month.

When a sperm meets an egg cell, the acrosomal lytic enzymes break down the cell coats and
membranes of the egg cell and penetrate into it with its head leaving it's tail behind.
The nucleus of the sperm fuses with the egg nucleus to form diploid zygote. When a sperm enters
the egg cell, the zona pellucida prevents other sperms from entering. Out of the millions of sperms
ejaculated, only 1 fertilizes an ovum. When the ovum becomes fertilized, the corpus luteum
continue producing progesterone and oestrogen.
Fertilization takes place in the upper part of the oviduct.

If more than one egg is released and fertilized, the pregnancy involves more than one fetus, usually
two (twins). Because the genetic material in each egg and in each sperm is slightly different, each
fertilized egg is different. The resulting twins are thus fraternal twins. Identical twins result when
one fertilized egg separates into two embryos after it has begun to divide. Because one egg was
fertilized by one sperm, the genetic material in the two embryos is the same.

Development in humans
The zygote undergoes mitotic divisions and increases in size to form the embryo. The embryo
becomes implanted in the uterine wall. Uterus grows to compliment the growth of the embryo. The
embryonic membranes (amnion and chorion) develop. The amnion forms a sac containing amniotic
fluid. The embryo eventually develops into a foetus.
The placenta is a tissue containing both maternal and embryonic tissues. It is connected to the
foetus via the umbilical cord.
The foetal capillaries lie in finger-like projections called villi in the placenta and stick into the
maternal blood spaces. Here there is exchange materials between the mother and the foetus
without mixing of their blood. Trophoblast (a thin barrier between them) allows selective exchange
of materials). Oxygen and nutrients diffuse into the foetal blood from the maternal blood while
carbondioxide and urea from the foetal blood enter the maternal blood.
Gestation period in man is about 38 weeks.
• Uterus: implantation and development of the embryo occurs here
• Placenta: connection between mother and foetus for exchange of materials.

P.C.T Bio Note Page 15

 • Placenta: connection between mother and foetus for exchange of materials.
• Umbilical cord: attaches the embryo to the placenta
• Amnion: filled with amniotic fluid which cushions and protects the developing embryo.

Parts of an amniotic egg

• Chorion: outermost membrane enveloping all membranes absorbing oxygen through the
porous shell.
• Allantois: aids respiration and excretion in the developing embryo.
• Yolk sac: provides digested food for the developing embryo.
• Chalaza: holds the yolk and the embryo in position within the albumen
• Albumen: egg white with 50% of the egg weight; rich in protein for nourishment of the
embryo.
• Shell: protects the egg and its porosity aids respiration of the embryo.

METAMORPHOSIS IN INSECTS
Metamorphosis is the gradual changes that occur during the development of an animal from the
zygote (fertilized egg) to the adult stage. There are two types of metamorphosis in insects which
include:
1. Complete metamorphosis (Holometabolism)
2. Incomplete metamorphosis (Hemimetabolism)
Complete metamorphosis: this is the series of gradual changes which takes place in insects from
fertilized eggs to larva then to pupa and finally to the adult stage:
Egg ——– larva ——- pupa ——- adult
No resemblance between pupa and adult stage. Insect undergoing complete metamorphosis include
housefly, mosquito, butterfly, moth, bees, wasps and beetles.

Incomplete metamorphosis: In this type of metamorphosis, the egg hatches into a nymph which
generally resembles the adult except that it is smaller, wingless and sexually immature e.g
grasshopper, cockroach, dragonfly, locust, aphids, termites, praying mantis.

P.C.T Bio Note Page 16