Chapter 3:

Circuit theorems and their applications in electric networks

Linearity of a Circuit and Superposition Theorem-Substitution Theorem-Compensation

Theorem - Thevenin's Theorem and Norton's Theorem -Determination of Equivalents for
Circuits with Dependent Sources -Reciprocity Theorem - Maximum Power Transfer
Theorem - Millman's Theorem-Duality Theorem - Duality between Electricity

#Superposition theorem:

Superposition theorem is based on the concept of linearity between the response and excitation of
an electrical circuit. It states that the response in a particular branch of a linear circuit when multiple
independent sources are acting at the same time is equivalent to the sum of the responses due to
each independent source acting at a time.

In this method, we will consider only one independent source at a time. So, we have to eliminate the
remaining independent sources from the circuit. We can eliminate the voltage sources by shorting
their two terminals and similarly, the current sources by opening their two terminals.

Therefore, we need to find the response in a particular branch ‘n’ times if there are ‘n’ independent
sources. The response in a particular branch could be either current flowing through that branch or
voltage across that branch.

Procedure of Superposition Theorem

Follow these steps in order to find the response in a particular branch using superposition theorem.

Step 1 − Find the response in a particular branch by considering one independent source and
eliminating the remaining independent sources present in the network.

Step 2 − Repeat Step 1 for all independent sources present in the network.

Step 3 − Add all the responses in order to get the overall response in a particular branch when all
independent sources are present in the network.

Example

Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of the following circuit using superposition theorem.
Step 1 − Let us find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by considering only 20 V voltage source.
In this case, we can eliminate the 4 A current source by making open circuit of it. The modified circuit
diagram is shown in the following figure.

There is only one principal node except Ground in the above circuit. So, we can use nodal
analysis method. The node voltage V1 is labelled in the following figure. Here, V1 is the voltage from
node 1 with respect to ground.
Step 2 − Let us find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by considering only 4 A current source.
In this case, we can eliminate the 20 V voltage source by making short-circuit of it. The modified
circuit diagram is shown in the following figure.

In the above circuit, there are three resistors to the left of terminals A & B. We can replace these
resistors with a single equivalent resistor. Here, 5 Ω & 10 Ω resistors are connected in parallel and
the entire combination is in series with 10 Ω resistor.

The equivalent resistance to the left of terminals A & B will be

Therefore, the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor is 1.6 A, when only 4 A current source is
considered.

Step 3 − We will get the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of the given circuit by doing the addition
of two currents that we got in step 1 and step 2. Mathematically, it can be written as

Substitute, the values of I1 and I2 in the above equation.

Therefore, the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of given circuit is 2 A.

Note − We can’t apply superposition theorem directly in order to find the amount of power delivered
to any resistor that is present in a linear circuit, just by doing the addition of powers delivered to that
resistor due to each independent source. Rather, we can calculate either total current flowing through
or voltage across that resistor by using superposition theorem and from that, we can calculate the
amount of power delivered to that resistor using
# Substitution Theorem:

The Substitution Theorem means replacing one element in a circuit with an equivalent element.
Specifically, it states that if any component in a network is replaced by a voltage or current source, the
voltage across and the current through that component will remain the same as in the original circuit.

To better understand the theorem, let’s examine the concept with the help of the circuit diagram
below:
Fig-Circuit Diagram

Here different resistances R1, R2, R3 are connected across the voltage source (V). The current I, is
flowing through the circuit, which is divided into current I1 flowing through the resistance R1 and the
current I2 flowing through the resistance R2. V1, V2 and V3 are the voltage drop across the resistance
R1, R2 and R3 respectively.

Now if the resistance R3 is substituted by the voltage source V3 as shown in the circuit diagram
below:

Fig-Simplified Circuit When R3 Replaced by V3

Now In the circuit diagram shown below the resistance, R3 is replaced by the current flowing through
that element, i.e. I1

Fig-Circuit Diagram When R3 is Replaced by I1

In both cases mentioned above, if the element is replaced by a voltage source or a current source, the
initial conditions of the circuit remain unchanged. This means that the voltage across the resistor and
the current flowing through the resistor remain the same, even after substitution with different
sources.

Key Concepts:

o Equivalent Networks: Substituting elements with simpler or equivalent components (such as

equivalent resistance or impedance).

o Linear Circuits: The theorem is primarily applicable to linear circuits, where the relationship
between voltage and current follows Ohm's law or similar linear relationships.

o Current and Voltage Equivalence: The current and voltage at specific points before and after
substitution should remain unchanged for the substitution to be valid.

Steps for Solving Network Using Substitution Theorem

To solve a network using the Substitution Theorem, you must follow a step-by-step approach.

Step1: Begin by determining the voltage across the concerned branch (denoted as Vxy) and the
current flowing through the branch (denoted as Ixy), as shown in Figure A below.

Fig-Circuit Replaced By Applying Substitution Theorem

Step2: The branch can then be replaced by an independent voltage source, as shown in Figure B
above.

Step3: Similarly, the branch can also be substituted by an independent current source, as depicted in
the circuit diagram C below.

Fig-Simplified Circuit
Step4: Therefore, it can be observed that the voltage drop and the current flowing through circuit A, as
shown above, will remain the same whether the branch is substituted by an independent voltage
source (Figure B) or an independent current source (Figure C).

In Short, Main Steps:

o Identify the Element for Substitution

o Find the Equivalent Component

o Substitute the Element

o Analyse the Simplified Network

o Verify Results

Advantages of Substitution Theorem

The advantages of the Substitution Theorem in electrical circuit analysis are numerous:

o Simplification of Complex Networks: By replacing a network element with a simpler

equivalent, you can significantly reduce the complexity of a circuit. This makes solving large or
intricate networks more manageable.

o Faster Calculation: The substitution process can speed up calculations, especially in the
case of large-scale electrical systems where manual calculations would be time-consuming.

o Enhances Understanding: The theorem aids in better understanding the functioning of

various network components by providing equivalent replacements that can be analysed more
easily.

o Useful in AC and DC Circuits: Whether you're dealing with DC circuits or AC circuits, the
substitution theorem is a versatile tool for simplifying the network for analysis, allowing
engineers to focus on key aspects without getting bogged down by intricate details.

o Helps in Network Optimization: Substituting elements with their equivalents is often used in
network optimization, allowing engineers to design circuits with fewer components while
maintaining the required functionality.

Limitations of Substitution Theorem

While the Substitution Theorem offers several advantages, it also has certain limitations:

o Limited to Linear Networks: The Substitution Theorem is primarily applicable to linear

circuits. Non-linear components or circuits with varying characteristics may not yield accurate
results using substitution alone.

o Requires Accurate Equivalent Calculations: The success of substitution relies heavily on

finding the correct equivalent component. Any error in calculating the equivalent resistance,
impedance, or other values can lead to incorrect results.

o Not Always Applicable for Non-Resistive Elements: The substitution theorem is more
straightforward for resistive networks. When dealing with more complex elements like
capacitors or inductors, the equivalent components must also account for phase differences
in AC circuits, adding an additional layer of complexity.
Applications of Substitution Theorem

The Substitution Theorem finds application in various aspects of electrical engineering, especially in
circuit analysis and network design. Some notable applications include:

1. Simplifying DC Circuits: In DC circuits, the substitution theorem helps in replacing resistors

and other linear components with their equivalents, making it easier to calculate currents and
voltages.

2. AC Circuit Analysis: For AC circuits, substitution is often used to replace impedance

networks, such as combinations of resistors, capacitors, and inductors, with their respective
equivalent impedances.

3. Network Theorems: The Substitution Theorem serves as a foundational principle in various

network theorems such as Thevenin's Theorem and Norton's Theorem, where network
elements are substituted with their simpler equivalents to make analysis easier.

4. Telecommunications and Signal Processing: In fields like network theory, the theorem is
often employed to replace complex transmission networks with equivalent models, aiding in
the design and analysis of signal paths.

5. Designing Filters: The substitution of components can be particularly useful in designing

filters, where various reactive components are replaced by their equivalent resistive or
inductive counterparts.

#Compensation theorem
What is a Compensation Theorem?

The Compensation Theorem says that in a linear time-invariant network, when the resistance (R) of
an uncoupled branch carrying a current (I) is changed by an amount ΔR, the currents in all branches of
the network will change accordingly. These changes can be determined by assuming an ideal voltage
source VC, which is connected in series with R+ΔR, such that VC=I⋅ΔR. In this case, all other sources
in the network are replaced by their internal resistances.

In simpler terms, the Compensation Theorem suggests that the resistance in any network can be
replaced by a voltage source, where the voltage of the source is equal to the voltage drop across the
resistance will be replaced. This voltage source opposes the original current in the network.

Fig-Equivalent Circuit of Compensation Theorem

Statement of Compensation Theorem

Statement: The compensation theorem in network analysis can be defined as: in a network, any
resistance can be replaced with a zero internal resistance voltage source & a voltage equivalent to the
voltage drop across the replaced resistance because of the current flowing throughout it.

Let’s suppose a RL load is connected to a DC source network whose Thevenin’s equivalent gives
Thevenin’s voltage V0 and Thevenin’s resistance RTH as shown in the figure below:

Since the rest of the circuit remains unaffected, the Thevenin equivalent network remains unchanged,
as depicted in the circuit diagram below:
Applications of Compensation Theorem

1. Simplification of Multi-Source Circuits: In circuits with multiple independent sources,

especially when dealing with linear networks, the compensation theorem helps in simplifying
the circuit analysis. By compensating the effects of certain sources, the overall complexity of
solving the circuit is significantly reduced.

2. Antenna Design and Analysis: In antenna theory, the compensation theorem is particularly
useful. Antennas can often have multiple sources of current that affect their performance. By
compensating for these sources, engineers can optimize the design and achieve more
accurate and efficient results in terms of radiation patterns, bandwidth, and impedance
matching.

3. Control Systems: In control system design, especially in feedback loops, the theorem can be
applied to eliminate the unwanted effects of certain components (like amplifiers or power
sources) and ensure that the system remains stable and efficient.

4. Power Distribution Systems: For power distribution networks, the compensation theorem can
be used to handle the influence of different power sources. By applying compensation,
engineers can ensure balanced load distribution, minimizing losses and improving system
stability.

5. Electrical Network Theorems: It is often used alongside other network theorems like the
Superposition Theorem, Thevenin’s Theorem, and Norton’s Theorem to make the analysis of
complex networks easier.

6. Circuit Optimization: By compensating certain parts of a circuit, engineers can optimize

performance, reduce power loss, and make designs more cost-effective and energy-efficient.

#Thevenin ‘s theorem

Thevenin’s theorem states that any two terminal linear network or circuit can be represented with an
equivalent network or circuit, which consists of a voltage source in series with a resistor. It is known as
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. A linear circuit may contain independent sources, dependent sources,
and resistors.
If the circuit contains multiple independent sources, dependent sources, and resistors, then the
response in an element can be easily found by replacing the entire network to the left of that element
with a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

The response in an element can be the voltage across that element, current flowing through that
element, or power dissipated across that element.

This concept is illustrated in following figures.

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit resembles a practical voltage source. Hence, it has a voltage source in
series with a resistor.

• The voltage source present in the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is called as Thevenin’s
equivalent voltage or simply Thevenin’s voltage, VTh.

• The resistor present in the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is called as Thevenin’s equivalent
resistor or simply Thevenin’s resistor, RTh.

Methods of Finding Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

There are three methods for finding a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. Based on the type of sources that
are present in the network, we can choose one of these three methods. Now, let us discuss two
methods one by one. We will discuss the third method in the next chapter.

Method 1

Follow these steps in order to find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, when only the sources of
independent type are present.

• Step 1 − Consider the circuit diagram by opening the terminals with respect to which the
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is to be found.

• Step 2 − Find Thevenin’s voltage VTh across the open terminals of the above circuit.

• Step 3 − Find Thevenin’s resistance RTh across the open terminals of the above circuit by
eliminating the independent sources present in it.
 • Step 4 − Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit by connecting a Thevenin’s voltage VTh in
series with a Thevenin’s resistance RTh.

Now, we can find the response in an element that lies to the right side of Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

Example

Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by first finding a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit to the
left of terminals A and B.

Step 1 − In order to find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit to the left side of terminals A & B, we should
remove the 20 Ω resistor from the network by opening the terminals A & B. The modified circuit
diagram is shown in the following figure.

Step 2 − Calculation of Thevenin’s voltage VTh.

There is only one principal node except Ground in the above circuit. So, we can use nodal
analysis method. The node voltage V1 and Thevenin’s voltage VTh are labelled in the above figure. Here,
V1 is the voltage from node 1 with respect to Ground and VTh is the voltage across 4 A current source.

• The nodal equation at node 1 is

 • The voltage across series branch 10 Ω resistor is

• There are two meshes in the above circuit. The KVL equation around second mesh is

Step 3 − Calculation of Thevenin’s resistance RTh.

Short circuit the voltage source and open circuit the current source of the above circuit in order to
calculate the Thevenin’s resistance RTh across the terminals A & B. The modified circuit diagram is
shown in the following figure.
The Thevenin’s resistance across terminals A & B will be

Step 4 − The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is placed to the left of terminals A & B in the given circuit.
This circuit diagram is shown in the following figure.

The current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor can be found by substituting the values of VTh,
RTh and R in the following equation.
#Nortons theorem

Norton’s theorem is similar to Thevenin’s theorem. It states that any two terminal linear network or
circuit can be represented with an equivalent network or circuit, which consists of a current source in
parallel with a resistor. It is known as Norton’s equivalent circuit. A linear circuit may contain
independent sources, dependent sources and resistors.

If a circuit has multiple independent sources, dependent sources, and resistors, then the response in
an element can be easily found by replacing the entire network to the left of that element with
a Norton’s equivalent circuit.

The response in an element can be the voltage across that element, current flowing through that
element or power dissipated across that element.

This concept is illustrated in following figures.

Norton’s equivalent circuit resembles a practical current source. Hence, it is having a current source
in parallel with a resistor.

• The current source present in the Norton’s equivalent circuit is called as Norton’s equivalent
current or simply Norton’s current IN.

• The resistor present in the Norton’s equivalent circuit is called as Norton’s equivalent resistor
or simply Norton’s resistor RN.

Methods of Finding Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

There are three methods for finding a Norton’s equivalent circuit. Based on the type of sources that
are present in the network, we can choose one of these three methods. Now, let us discuss these
three methods one by one.

Method 1

Follow these steps in order to find the Norton’s equivalent circuit, when only the sources of
independent type are present.

• Step 1 − Consider the circuit diagram by opening the terminals with respect to which, the
Norton’s equivalent circuit is to be found.

• Step 2 − Find the Norton’s current IN by shorting the two opened terminals of the above circuit.

• Step 3 − Find the Norton’s resistance RN across the open terminals of the circuit considered in
Step1 by eliminating the independent sources present in it. Norton’s resistance RN will be same
as that of Thevenin’s resistance RTh.

• Step 4 − Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuit by connecting a Norton’s current IN in parallel
with Norton’s resistance RN.

Now, we can find the response in an element that lies to the right side of Norton’s equivalent circuit.
#Reciprocity theorem

What is the Reciprocity Theorem?

The reciprocity theorem is a fundamental concept in electrical engineering that relates

the electromagnetic fields generated by two sources. It states that the ratio of the voltage across a
given element to the current through another element in a circuit remains unchanged when the
positions of these elements are interchanged.

In terms of electromagnetism it states that the ratio of the electric field produced by one source at a
point in space to the current generated by another source at the same point is equal to the ratio of
the electric field produced by the second source at the original location of the first source to the
current generated by the first source at its own location. This theorem is based on the principle of
electromagnetic wave superposition, which states that the total electric field at a given point is the
sum of the electric fields produced by all sources in the vicinity. In simpler terms, it means that if we
have two sources, the electric field produced by one source at a particular location is the same as the
electric field produced by the other source at the same location, but with the sources swapped.

Reciprocity Theorem to an Electric Circuit

The reciprocity theorem can be applied to electric circuits, allowing engineers to analyse the
behaviour and characteristics of the circuit. Here's how the reciprocity theorem applies to an electric
circuit:

o According to the reciprocity theorem, if a current source is placed at one point in the circuit
and the resulting voltage is measured at another point, the same voltage will be obtained when
the roles of the current source and measurement point are reversed. In other words, the
response of the circuit to a current source is the same as the response to a voltage source at
the same locations, but with the sources swapped.
 o This principle is particularly useful in circuit analysis and design. By applying the reciprocity
theorem, engineers can simplify calculations and obtain valuable insights into the behaviour of
the circuit. It allows for the determination of parameters such as impedance, admittance, and
transfer functions by exploiting the symmetry and reciprocal nature of the circuit.

o For example, in a network analysis, the reciprocity theorem can be used to determine the
transfer function between two points in a circuit. Instead of calculating the response to a
current source at one point and measuring the resulting voltage at another point, engineers
can reverse the roles and calculate the response to a voltage source at the original
measurement point. This simplifies the analysis and helps in understanding the circuit's
behaviour.

o Overall, the reciprocity theorem is a powerful tool in electric circuit analysis, enabling
engineers to relate the effects of current and voltage sources in a circuit. It aids in simplifying
calculations, understanding circuit behaviour, and optimising circuit performance.

o In the given circuit, VS represents the input voltage and current, while the response or output
current is denoted by I, which flows through the resistor R3.

In this modified circuit, we have swapped the positions of the input voltage and output current. Now,
VS represents the input voltage and current, and the response or output current is denoted by I, which
flows through the resistor R1.

In the first circuit, the current flowing through resistor R3 is equal to the current flowing through
resistor R1 in the second circuit. This is because the magnitude and polarities of the voltage, VS, are
the same in both circuits, and the direction of the output current is also the same in both circuits.

Reciprocity Theorem Application

The reciprocity theorem has various practical applications in the field of electrical engineering. Some
notable applications include:
Antenna Design: The reciprocity theorem is widely used in antenna design and analysis. It allows
engineers to determine the radiation pattern and characteristics of an antenna by measuring the
fields at a specific location with a known source. This principle is essential for optimising antenna
performance, evaluating antenna efficiency, and designing antenna arrays.

Network Analysis: The reciprocity theorem plays an important role in network analysis and circuit
design. It enables engineers to simplify complex circuits by exploiting symmetry and reciprocal
relationships. By applying the reciprocity theorem, engineers can determine the characteristics of a
network, such as impedance, admittance, and scattering parameters, without the need for extensive
measurements or simulations.

Electromagnetic Compatibility: The reciprocity theorem is utilised in electromagnetic compatibility

(EMC) testing and analysis. It allows engineers to predict the electromagnetic interference (EMI) and
electromagnetic susceptibility (EMS) of devices and systems. By evaluating the fields produced by
one source on another device, engineers can assess the potential for interference and design
appropriate mitigation measures.

Wireless Communication Systems: The reciprocity theorem is employed in wireless communication

systems, particularly in the field of MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) technology. MIMO systems
rely on multiple antennas to improve data rates and reliability. The reciprocity theorem helps
engineers calibrate and optimise the performance of MIMO systems by relating the transmit and
receive antenna characteristics.

Acoustic and Seismic Imaging: The reciprocity theorem is not limited to electromagnetic fields but
can also be applied to acoustic and seismic waves. It enables engineers to analyse and predict the
propagation of sound and seismic waves in various media. This has applications in fields such as
medical imaging, geophysical exploration, and non-destructive testing.

# Maximum Power Transfer Theorem -

Maximum power transfer theorem states that the DC voltage source will deliver maximum power to
the variable load resistor only when the load resistance is equal to the source resistance.

Similarly, Maximum power transfer theorem states that the AC voltage source will deliver maximum
power to the variable complex load only when the load impedance is equal to the complex conjugate
of source impedance.

In this chapter, let us discuss about the maximum power transfer theorem for DC circuits.

Proof of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Replace any two terminal linear network or circuit to the left side of variable load resistor having
resistance of RL ohms with a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. We know that Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
resembles a practical voltage source.

This concept is illustrated in following figures.

# Millman's Theorem-

Millman's Theorem in network theory states that in a network with multiple parallel branches, the
voltage across each branch is equal to the ratio of the sum of individual branch currents multiplied by
their respective resistances, divided by the sum of all branch resistances. This theorem simplifies
complex electrical networks. It represents such networks as equivalent circuits with simpler voltage
sources and resistors.

Millman’s Theorem Equation

The Millman’s Equation applied to any circuit drawn as a set of parallel-connected branches is given
as follows:

Millman’s Theorem involves the redrawing of a circuit as a parallel network composed of branches,
where each branch consists of a resistor or a series combination of a battery and a resistor. It is
important to note that Millman's Theorem is applicable only to circuits that can be reconfigured in this
manner. Once the circuit is redrawn accordingly, Millman's Theorem can be applied for analysis. To
illustrate this, let us take the following circuit diagram as a precedent.

The modified form of the circuit assumes the following form:

By taking into account the voltage source within each branch and the resistance within each branch,
Millman's Theorem allows us to determine the voltage across all branches. It is worth mentioning that
in the circuit, the battery in the rightmost branch has been labeled as "B3" to clearly indicate its
position in the third branch, even though there is no "B2" in the circuit.

By using the Millman’s Equation for the above circuit, we get:

This voltage is across all the parallel branches.

Applications of Millman's Theorem

Millman's Theorem is widely used in electrical engineering for a range of applications. The
applications of Millman’s theorem encompass the following::

Circuit analysis and design: Millman's Theorem enables engineers to simplify complex electrical
circuits with multiple parallel branches, making it easier to analyze and design circuits. It helps
determine voltage and current distributions, power dissipation, and overall circuit behavior.

Power systems: Millman's Theorem plays a crucial role in analyzing and designing power distribution
networks. It aids in calculating voltages and currents at different nodes, assessing power flow, and
determining the performance of power systems.

Electronic circuit design: When designing electronic circuits with multiple parallel branches,
Millman's Theorem helps simplify the circuit and analyze voltage and current characteristics. It assists
in optimizing circuit performance and ensuring proper functionality.

Control systems: Millman's Theorem is utilized in the analysis and design of control systems,
allowing engineers to understand and manipulate voltage and current parameters in parallel
branches. This aids in the design of stable and efficient control systems.

Telecommunications: In telecommunications systems, Millman's Theorem is employed to analyze

and optimize network configurations. It helps assess voltage and current distributions in parallel
branches, ensuring reliable transmission and reception of signals.

Millman's Theorem Importance

The importance of Millman's Theorem extends to various applications in electrical engineering. It

helps engineers to analyze and design circuits. It is used in power systems, telecommunications,
control systems, and electronic devices. It helps in checking the performance of circuits. It also helps
in calculating the voltage and current distribution. Millman's theorem can also help in determining
power dissipation.

Advantages of Millman’s Theorem

Millman's Theorem offers several advantages that make it a valuable tool in electrical engineering:

Simplifies complex circuits: Millman's Theorem in network theory allows for the simplification of
complex electrical networks with multiple parallel branches. By representing them as equivalent
circuits with voltage sources and resistors, it simplifies the analysis process and reduces complexity.

Facilitates circuit analysis: The theorem provides a systematic approach to analyze circuit behavior,
including voltage drops, current flows, and power dissipation. It helps engineers gain a better
understanding of the circuit's performance and characteristics.

Saves time and effort: By simplifying complex circuits, Millman's Theorem saves time and effort in
analyzing and designing electrical networks. It streamlines the calculations required for circuit
analysis, enabling engineers to focus on specific components or branches without losing accuracy.

Versatile application: Millman's Theorem can be applied to a wide range of electrical circuits,
including power systems, control systems, telecommunications, and electronic design. Its versatility
makes it a valuable tool in various fields of electrical engineering.

Accurate results: When applied correctly, Millman's Theorem provides accurate results in analyzing
circuit voltages and currents. It helps engineers make informed decisions in circuit design and
optimization.

Enhances understanding: By simplifying complex circuits and providing a clear representation,

Millman's Theorem enhances engineers' understanding of circuit behavior. It allows for better
troubleshooting, optimization, and overall circuit comprehension.

Limitations of Millman's Theorem

While Millman's Theorem is a useful tool in electrical engineering, it also has some limitations to
consider:

Applicable to specific circuit configurations: Millman's Theorem is applicable to circuits with

multiple parallel branches. It may not be directly applicable to circuits with series-parallel
combinations or more complex topologies, which require alternative analysis methods.

Assumes ideal conditions: Millman's Theorem assumes ideal conditions, such as negligible internal
resistance in voltage sources and linear components. In real-world circuits, these assumptions may
not hold true, leading to deviations from the theoretical calculations.

Limited to linear circuits: Millman's Theorem is valid for linear circuits, where the relationship
between voltage and current is linear. It may not provide accurate results for circuits with non-linear
elements such as diodes or transistors.

Relies on known resistances and voltages: To apply Millman's Theorem, knowledge of the
resistances and voltages in the circuit is required. In practical situations where these values are not
precisely known, obtaining accurate results can be challenging.

Ignores mutual coupling effects: Millman's Theorem assumes that parallel branches are isolated
from each other and do not interact. It does not consider mutual coupling effects between branches,
which can occur in certain circuit configurations and affect the accuracy of results.
Does not account for transient behavior: Millman's Theorem focuses on steady-state analysis and
does not address transient behaviors, such as initial transients or transient response to input
changes. For time-varying circuits or circuits with transient phenomena, additional analysis
techniques are necessary.

#Duality theorem

The Duality Theorem states that every electrical network has a dual counterpart where the roles of
voltage and current, as well as the roles of series and parallel elements, are interchanged. The
behavior of the dual network mirrors the original network's behavior.

Dual Networks:

A dual network is constructed by systematically replacing elements and configurations in the original
network to maintain the dual relationship. The dual network satisfies all physical laws such as Ohm’s
law, Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL), and Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL), albeit in an inverted form.