SESSION 1

Understanding the Nature and

Ethics of Research
Section Intended Learning Outcome (SILO)

Describe and explain the nature of research and the ethical considerations
involved when carrying out a research activity.
 CHAPTER 1
Basic Concepts in Research
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

• Define research.
• Explain the importance of research.
• Differentiate the goals and purposes of research.

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

Explain the characteristic of educational research.

Research is a method of acquiring knowledge based on the scientific
method of inquiry to enrich the system of objective knowledge in the fields of
natural and social sciences.

The authors cited below defined research from different points of view.

◦ Polit & Beck (2001) stated that research is a systematic inquiry that uses
disciplined methods to answer questions or solve problems. The goals of
research are to develop, refine, and expand a body of knowledge.
◦ Palispis (2001) cited that research is carried out for a specific purpose to
answer specific questions to solve a particular problem or issue. It seeks new
knowledge and provides useful information in the form of verifiable data. It
contributes to the attainment of the development goals of a nation.
Research is not only conducted because it is a prerequisite to obtaining a
degree, but more so because it can potentially mobilize society.
◦ Burns & Grove (2007), said that research is to search or examine again and
again or carefully. Research is a diligent, systematic inquiry or investigation
to validate and refine existing knowledge and generate new knowledge.
◦ Parel (1973) defined research as a systematic investigation or something to
answer the questions posed by the researcher.
◦ Coleman & Briggs (2002) defined research as both a critical and self-critical
inquiry aimed at contributing towards the advancement of knowledge and
wisdom.
◦ Sanchez (2002) defined research as a discovery and exploration of the
unknown. It involves an investigation of facts leading to the discovery of
new ideas and new methods. It proceeds from the known to the unknown.
 The result is the discovery of truth. To arrive at such, the researcher uses a
method that suits his chosen field.

Research is an academic understanding across disciplines. It involves

scholarly process of search and research. It involves observation, investigation,
and experimentation on a subject for any of the following purpose to discover
new knowledge and paradigm; to develop and improve standards and
protocols; and to test and apply theories or laws in professional practice (De
Belen, 2015).
Research is systematic research on any topic. Here are examples:

◦ In Art - when it deals with skills that require dexterity and proficiency.
◦ In Natural Science - when it pertains to an empirical inquiry of natural
phenomena including biological life.
◦ In Social Science - when it involves a study of human behavior and
societies. It is "social" research because its primary interest is human being,
the context of his/her life and environment.

Research is therefore a method of acquiring knowledge based on the

scientific method of inquiry, it is known as the scientific problem-solving process or
an empirical inquiry. It is also an organized body of knowledge humans have
acquired and organized the process of research.

The purpose of research is to inform action. A study should seek to

contextualize its findings within the larger body of research. Research must always
be high quality to be able to produce knowledge applicable outside the study
setting with implications that go beyond the study participants. In addition, the
results of the research should have implications and policy implementation. One
problem that hinders progress is the slow translation of research into practice (The
Importance of Research, n.d.).
Importance of Research

Researchers must not simply set results and recommend actions. The
importance of research should be measured on the extent to which they are
being actually carried out (Katigbak, 2008).

Best & Kahn (1993) described research as "the systematic and objective
analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the
development of generalizations, principles, or theories, resulting in prediction and
possibly ultimate control of events."

Research is conducted in many different settings. Conducting research in

an educational setting is important in every educator's professional life
(Educational Research, 2011).
 Education in research is done to improve these practices. Education should
look at research as a way to develop new understanding about teaching,
learning and educational administration. This new knowledge will lead to the
improvement of educational practice (Gall and Barg, 2003).

Taflinger (1996-2011) cites two basic importance of research, to learn

something or to gather evidence. To learn something is for our benefit. It is almost
impossible for a person to stop learning. Research is organized learning looking for
specific things to add to our store of knowledge.

GOALS OF RESEARCH

Goals in Conducting Research as cited in Cristobal & Cristobal (2013) are as

follows:

1. To Produce Evidence-Based Practice

Every discipline or institution must provide the best practice of

management based on research studies. In education, for example, a
practitioner must ensure that he/she is able to provide the best teaching
practices as proven by research, to learning. The principles on which the tasks
and functions of educators are based on the results of research. The
administration and management of schools, guidelines on admission, assessment,
community service and others must be dealt with accordingly. The results of
research must be published in journals, articles, locally, and internationally for
benchmarking. Research findings can also be utilized in seminars, workshop, or
trainings so that the new knowledge can be shared.

2. To Establish Credibility on the Profession

A profession can be identified by the body of knowledge it utilizes. A

profession is distinct from other disciplines when there are practices and
peculiarity of service in each area of field. Effective and efficient practices are
products of research.

3. To Observe Accountability for the Profession

Every action conducted by a profession must have a rationale. There are

principles why a teacher has to prepare a curriculum/syllabus, why a manager
needs to plan, why a treasurer needs to conduct studies. All professionals must be
accountable for each task he/she performs.
 4. To Promote Cost-Effectiveness Through Documentation

The findings or research must be shared to individuals, groups, community,

organizations for which the study was intended. It is useless, if its results are not
made public. Results of research must satisfy to researcher's goals before he/she
can share it with other researchers and professionals to whom findings may be
beneficial. In this manner research becomes cost-effective.

PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is stated clearly and explicitly in a format

appropriate for the style of investigation. The purpose of research indicates the
focus and direction of the research (Denscombe, 2002).

The purpose of research may be organized into three groups based on

what the researcher is trying to accomplish, explain a new topic, describe a social
phenomenon, or explain why something occurs. Studies may have multiple
purpose (e.g. both to explore and to describe) but one purpose casually
dominates.

1. Exploratory/Formulative Research The researcher's goal is to formulate

more precise questions that future research can answer: Exploratory
research helps ensure that a more rigorous, more conclusive future study
will not begin with an inadequate understanding of the nature of the
problem.
2. Descriptive Research This research presents a picture of the specific details
of a situation, social setting or relationship. The major purpose of descriptive
research is to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon. It
seeks to determine the answer to who, what, where, and how questions.
3. Explanatory Research The desire to know "why" to explain, is the purpose
of exploratory research. It builds an exploratory and descriptive research
and goes on to identify the reasons for something that occurs. Exploratory
research looks for causes and reasons. For example, researchers are
interested in learning why some children bully other children.

OTHER PURPOSES OF RESEARCH

◦ Research provides a scientific basis for any practice or methodology in any

field. This is important since the interest of the entire operation and all the
members of the institution or organization is at stake.
 ◦ Research is undertaken for sustainable development of and further
productivity in any field like education, management, business, nursing,
and other areas.
◦ Research develops tools for assessing the effectiveness of any practice.
Research provides solutions to problems encountered in the different areas
of work. Research develops and evaluates alternative approaches to the
educational aspects of any discipline.
◦ Research advances the personal and professional qualifications of a
practitioner.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

To qualify as research, the proves must have certain characteristics; it must be

controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid, verifiable, empirical and critical. Research
is a process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information to answer
questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics
(Kumar, 2009).

What are the characteristics of a good research?

1. Controlled

There are many factors that affect an outcome. A particular event is

seldom the result of a one-to-one relationship. Some relationships are more
complex than others. In a study of cause-and-effect relationship, it is important to
be able to link the effects) with the cause(s) and vice versa. Control implies that,
in exploring causality in relation to two variables, the study is set up in a way that
minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. This can be
achieved in the physical sciences, as most of the research is done in a laboratory.
However, in social sciences it is difficult as research is carried out on issues relating
to human beings living in society where such controls are impossible.

2. Rigorous

This characteristic ensures that procedures followed to find answer to

questions are relevant, appropriate, and justified. The degree of rigor varies
between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences.

3. Systematic

The procedures adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain

logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way.
 4. Valid and Verifiable

This implies that whatever one can conclude on the basis of the findings is
correct and can be verified by others, too.

5. Empirical
Any conclusion drawn is based upon hard evidence gathered from
information collected from real life experience or observation.

6. Critical
Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is
important to a research inquiry. The process of investigation must be free from any
drawbacks. The process and the procedures used must be able to withstand
critical scrutiny.

Kerlinger, (1970) and Bridges, (2006) support the following characteristics of

a good research.

1. Critical

Educational research is critical in the sense that it actively seeks to question

its own claims, assumptions and methods. Where explanations are offered, the
research process seeks to verify them, generating and testing alternatives.

2. Systematic

Educational research is a deliberate, planned, and intentional activity. It

takes a specific question or questions which provides its focus and direction.

3. Transparent

Educational research is transparent. Its aims, methods, assumptions,

arguments, data and claims are stated explicitly and clearly. Results and their
supporting justifications are disclosed fully, taking care to minimize the danger of
his interpretations, and made widely available.

THE USE OF RESEARCH

Some researchers focus on using research to advance general knowledge,

whereas others use it to solve specific problems.

1. Basic Research
 Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about the human
world. It focuses on refuting or supporting theories that explain how this world
operates, what makes things happen, why social relations are a certain way, and
why society change.

2. Applied Research

Applied researchers try to solve problems or help practitioners accomplish

tasks. Applied research is frequently a descriptive research and its main strength
is its immediate practical use.

Basic and Applied Research Compared

The procedures and techniques utilized by basic and applied researchers

do not differ. Both employ scientific method to answer the questions at hand. The
community is the primary consumer of basic research. The consumers of applied
research findings are practitioners such as teachers, caseworkers, or decision
makers.

Applied researchers have an obligation to translate findings from scientific

technical language into the language of decision makers or practitioners.

TYPES OF APPLIED RESEARCH

1. Action Research

Action research is a disciplined process of inquiry conducted by and for

those taking the action. The primary reason for engaging in action research is to
assist the takin" in improving and/or refining his or her actions Practitioners no
engage in action research find it to be an empowering experience. Action
research has this positive effect for many reasons. The most important is that
action research is always relevant to the participants. Relevance is guaranteed
because the focus of each research project is determined by the researchers,
who are also the primary consumers of the findings.

2. Impact Assessment Research

To estimate the consequence of a planned change. Such assessment is

used for planning and making choices among alternative policies to make an
impact assessment. Ex. To determine changes in housing if a major/new highway
is built.

3. Evaluation Research
 The process of establishing value judgement based on evidence about the
achievement of the goals at a proper time. Evaluation research measures the
effectiveness of a program, policy or way of doing something.

Two types of evaluation research as a formative and summative. Formative

is built-in monitoring or continuous feedback on a program used for program
management. Summative evaluation looks at final program outcomes. Both are
usually necessary.

TIME DIMENSION IN RESEARCH

Treatment of time is another dimension in research. Some studies give us a

snapshot of a single, fixed time point and allow us to analyze in detail.
The two brand types are:

1. Cross-sectional Research

Researchers observe at one point in time. It is usually the simplest and least
costly alternative. Its disadvantage is that it cannot capture the change process.
It can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory, but is most consistent in the
descriptive approach.

2. Longitudinal Research

This research captures features of people or another unit at a more than

one time. It is usually more complex and costly than cross-sectional research but
is also more powerful, especially when the research such as answer to questions
about change. Three types of longitudinal research are time series, panel and
cohort.
 CHAPTER 2
Classification and Types of Research
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

• Classify research according to design and methodology.

• Identify the types of research.
• Point out the importance of e-research.

CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

According to design and methodology, research can be qualitative or

quantitative in nature. The first aims to describe, predict and explain. The second
aims to explore and describe. There is also a third type called the mixed-method
research (Types of Quantitative Research, n.d.).

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative research is a traditional, positivist, scientific method which

refers to a general set order by disciplined procedures to acquire information (de
Belen, 2015).

According to Cristobal & Cristobal (2013), quantitative research utilizes a

deductive reasoning to generate predictions that are tested in the real world.

It is "systematic". It means that the researcher progresses logically through

a series of steps according to a pre-specified plan of action.

Quantitative researchers gather empirical evidence - evidence that is

rooted in objective reality and gathered directly or indirectly through the senses.

Examples of empirical observations are:

1. checking for the presence or absence of skin inflammation.

2. determining the anxiety level of a patient; and
3. measuring the weight of the newborn infant.
 The evidence for a study is gathered according to the established plan
through structured instruments. Usually, the information gathered in such study is
quantitative, i.e., numeric information that results from some type of formal
measurement and is analyzed with statistical procedures.

To assess the quality of quantitative studies, the commonly used is the

degree to which research findings can be generalized to individuals other than
those who participated in the study (Referred to as the generality of the research).
It is based on the concepts of manipulation and control of phenomena and the
verification of results validating empirical data. It frequently uses a deductive or
theory-testing approach.

TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative Research is a type of empirical investigation. It means that the

research focuses on verifiable observation. Most often this type of research is
expressed in numbers.

A researcher will represent and manipulate certain observation that they

are studying.

There are four basic types of quantitative research, these are:

1. Survey Research

Survey research uses interviews, questionnaires, and sampling to get a

sense of behavior with intense precision. It allows researchers to judge behavior
and then present the findings in an accurate way. Survey research can be
conducted around one group specifically or used to compare several groups.

2. Correlational Research

Tests for the relationship between two variables. Performing correlational

research is done to establish what the effect of one on the other might be and
how that affects the relationship. The purpose is to use two or more variables to
better understand the conditions of events that we encounter; to predict future
conditions and events and correlation does not always mean causation.

3. Causal-Comparative Research

It looks to uncover a cause-and-effect relationship. This research is not

conducted between the two groups on each other. They look solely for a
statistical relationship between the two variables it tries to identify, specifically,
how the different groups are affected by the same circumstance. Causal-
comparative research involves comparison. The study of two or more groups is
done without focusing on their relations. The use of statistical analysis is engaged
to synthesize the data.

4. Experimental Research

Experimental research is guided specifically by a hypothesis. Sometimes it

can have several hypotheses. A hypothesis is a statement to be proven or
disproved.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

This is concerned with cause-and-effect relationships in which all

experimental studies involve manipulation or control of the independent variables
(causes) and measurement of the dependent variables (effects). Mill, cited in
Sevilla 2003 stated that this design utilizes the principles of research known as the
method of difference. This means that the effect of a single variable applied to
the situation can be assessed, and the difference likewise be determined.

In experimental research, the intervening or extraneous variables are not

part of the study but are believed to influence study outcomes. Campbell &
Stanley, cited in Nieswiadomy (2004) labeled these as threats to internal and
external validity.

The internal validity is the degree to which changes in the dependent

variable can be attributed to the independent variable. External validity,
however, is the degree to which the changes in the dependent variable can be
attributed to the extraneous variables.

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS.

◦ True experimental designs
◦ Pretest-posttest control design
◦ Posttest only control design
◦ Solomon four group

TYPES OF QUASI - EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

◦ Non-equivalent
◦ Time series
Pre-experimental designs
◦ One-shot case study
◦ One group pretest
◦ Posttest
 ◦
NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

This is research conducted without manipulation of the independent

variable and random assignment of the participants to group. De Belen (2015)
explained that non-experimental research put forward a lot of alternative
explanations for the relationship of the variables under study. It cannot simply
conclude the cause and effect of relationships but offer other explanations.
Johnson (2007) cited categories that cannot be manipulated such as gender,
parenting style, learning style, ethnicity, retention in grade and others.

TYPES OF NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS.

◦ Action studies
◦ Comparative studies
◦ Developmental studies
◦ Evaluation studies
◦ Meta-analysis studies
◦ Methodological studies
◦ Needs assessment studies
◦ Secondary analysis studies
◦ Survey studies

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research deals with understanding human behavior in a natural

setting. It is naturalistic in nature because it studies human behavior and the
reasons that govern it, (Sanchez, 2003). The emphasis is on the complexity of
humans and their ability to shape and create their own experience. Naturalistic
investigations place heavy emphasis on understanding the human experience as
if is lived, usually through collections and analysis of data that are narrative and
subjective.

Qualitative research focuses on:

1. Gaining insights on and an understanding of the individual's perception

of events.
2. Concerned with in-depth descriptions of people on events and their
interpretation of experiences.
3. Data are collected through unstructured interviews and participant
observation.
4. The research is to synthesize the patterns and the theories in the data.
 5. Not limited by existing theories but must be open to new ideas and
theories.
Qualitative research emphasizes the dynamic, holistic, and individual
aspects of human experience within the context of those who are experiencing
them.

The collection and analysis of information progresses as the researcher sifts

through the information. Insights are gained, new questions emerge, and further
evidence is sought to confirm the insights.

The limitations of this model are:

1. It is reductionist, it reduces human experience to just a few concepts under

investigation.
2. The subjective nature of naturalistic inquiry, which sometimes causes
concerns about the nature of conclusions, and
3. Most naturalistic studies involve a relatively small group of people.

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is designed to reveal a target audience's range of

behavior and the perceptions that drive it with reference to specific topics or
issues. It uses in-depth studies of small groups of people to guide and support the
construction of hypotheses. The result of qualitative research is descriptive rather
than predictive. Qualitative research aims to gain insight, explore the depth,
riches and complexity inherent in the phenomenon.

Specific qualitative approaches are:

1. Phenomenology

The purpose is to describe experiences as they are lived. It examines

uniqueness f individual's lived situations. Each person has its own reality, reality is
subjective. It has no clearly defined steps to avoid limiting creativity of
researchers.

2. Ethnography

The purpose is to describe a culture's characteristics. It identifies culture

variables for study, and review literature. In data collection, the researcher gains
entrance to culture, immerse self in culture, acquire informants, gather data
through direct observation and interaction with subject.
 It involves the collection and analysis of the data about cultural groups or
minorities. The researcher frequently lives with the people and becomes a part of
heir culture. During the immersion process, the researcher must talk to the key
persons and personalities called the key informants who can provide important
data.

3. Historical

The purpose of historical study is to describe and examine events of the past
to understand the present and anticipate potential further effects. The method
includes formatting idea, develop research outline to organize, investigate and
collect data.

it concerns with the identification, location, evaluation, and synthesis of

data from the past. It is locating facts and relating them to the present and to the
future The data are usually found in documents or in relics and artifacts. Data can
also be obtained through oral reports. These materials can be found in various
sources like libraries, archives and personal directions.

Sources are:

a. Primary Sources: Once histories, written records, diaries, eyewitnesses’

accounts pictures videos and other physical evidence.

b. Secondary Sources: Second-hand information, i.e. a person narrates

information heard from the original sources, or a material written as an abstract
of the diaries: and other original materials. Any source to be used for historical
research must pass the hallmarks of 1. Internal criticism (involves establishing
the authenticity or originality of the materials by looking at the consistency of
information:) and External criticism based on the analysis of the printed
materials: the ink and the type of paper used; the layout and physical
appearance; and age and texture

4. Case Study

The purpose of case study is to describe-in-depth experience of one

person, family, group, community or institution. It is a direct observation and
interaction with the subject. Data collection includes interview with audiotape
and videotape, direct, has participants ‘observation, field notes, journals, and
logs

The purposes are:

◦ To gain insights into a little-known problem

 ◦ Provide background data for broader studies; and
◦ Explain socio-psychological and socio-cultural processes
According to Sanchez (2002) a case study involves a comprehensive and
extensive examinations of a particular individual, group or situation over a period
of time. It provides information on where to draw conclusion, and about the
impact of a significant event on a person's life.

PHASES IN A QUALITATIVE STUDY

Polit (2006) cited three (3) phases of qualitative study. These are:

1. Orientation and Overview

The first phase is to determine what is salient about the phenomenon or

culture of interest.

2. Focused Exploration

It involves focused scrutiny and in-depth exploration of the aspects of the

phenomenon judged to be salient. The questions asked and the types of people
invited are shaped based on the outcome of the first phase.

3. Confirmation and Closure

The researcher undertakes efforts to prove that her/his findings are

trustworthy, often going back to the study and discussing her/his understanding
of it with the participants.

MIXED METHODS RESEARCH DESIGN

This third type of research is defined by Johnson & Onwuegbuzie (2004) as

the class of research where the researcher mixes or combines quantitative and
qualitative research techniques.

Researchers must know the characteristics of quantitative and qualitative

research techniques. It includes the use of induction (discovery of the problems),
deduction (testing of theories and hypothesis) and abduction (uncovering and
relying on the best of a set of explanations for understanding one's results. The
quoted authors recommend the mixed research in education because they
believe that "when two different approaches are used to study the same
phenomenon and produce the same result, the researchers have superior
evidence for the result."
The Two Common Types of Mixed Research Design are:
◦ Mixed method research in which "the researcher uses the qualitative
paradigm for one phase of the study and the quantitative paradigm for
another phase of the study."

◦ Mixed model research in which "the research mixes both qualitative and
quantitative research approaches within a stage of the study or across the
stages of the research process" (Johnson, 2007).

Five Major Purposes or Rationales for Conducting Mixed Methods

1. Triangulation

Katigbak (2006) cited that triangulation is seeking convergencies and

corroboration of results from different methods and designs studying the same
phenomenon.

2. Complementarity

Seeking collaboration, enhancement, illustration and clarification of the

results from one method with results from the other method.

3. Initiation

Discovering paradoxes and contradictions that lead to a re-framing of the

research question.

4. Development

Using the findings from one method to help inform the other method.

5. Expansion

Seeking to expand the breadth and range of research by using different

methods for different inquiry components.

INTRODUCTION TO E-RESEARCH

The concept of eResearch, is "linking people to resources," this could mean

putting people together to make use of high performing computers and to IT
professionals to make research easy.

Traditionally, central to research activities are the librarians, they make

resource materials available to researchers by storing, managing, preserving
scholarly materials. They create vertical files, classify materials for easy access. In
other words, librarians are trained to reduce research materials to facilitate
accessibility by having to form and collaborate to share published works. But
because of changes in digital landscape, browsing over with voluminous, dated,
and sometimes dusty reference materials take so much of the researchers' time.
It became an unlikely endeavor among them! While other institutions exerted
efforts to provide for materials in digital form through Open Personal Access
Catalog (OPA) system, the fast-changing digital landscape has now outrun the
responses of colleges and universities to meet specific research needs for
computing infrastructure in their libraries. The role of libraries has changed from
acquiring scholarly published materials to that of managing scholarship in
collaboration with researchers who develop and use these data (Lynch in
Goldenberg-Hart, 2004). The reason is obvious, they face the risk to fade from
existence if they do not respond to the changing environment!

The term, eResearch is the term applied to the use of advance information
and communication technologies (ICT's) to the practice of research. The activities
include collaboration, high performance computing, visualization, research data
management and tools (eResearch, n.d.).

The trend toward collaborative research enables individuals to accomplish

studies that are beyond the coverage of individual researchers. It made the
processing and sharing of data in greater quantities and of greater complexities
open to researcher which was never done before. The use of eResearch allows
researchers to conduct research activities beyond and across many institutions,
adopt various tools and methodologies through shared digital collections,
advanced data curation, annotation tools and high computing and visualization
(What is eResearch, n.d.).

E-research, (in another term format), is defined as a broader term that

includes nonscientific research but also refers to large-scale, distributed, national
or global collaboration in research. Practically, it entails harnessing the capacity
of information and communication technology (ICT) systems, particularly the
power of high-capacity distributed computing, and the vast distributed storage
capacity fueled by the reducing cost of memory, to study complex problems
across research landscape (ARC, 2005).

E-research has provided opportunities to see existing research in a new

light. The need to add field materials, new "finds" and stored in digitally
appropriate format is important in building rich data to be used for different types
of research. However, accessibility of these data could not be possible without
the capabilities offered through cyberinfrastructure. Now, let us explore on the
use of the new terms that the readers are likely to encounter with e-research in
(EDUCAUSE Review, November-December, 2005);
 Cyberinfrastructure refers to the computing and network infrastructure that
enables research environments such as the "Collaboratory, co-laboratory, grid
community network, virtual Science community, e-science community, while

Grid is a specific element of cyberinfrastructure that is crucial in the

development of e-research which enables the sharing of data in the form of
collection of data repositories specialized scientific equipment, computing power
and knowledge services (EDUCAUSE. 2005).

Middleware is essentially the software that provides standard community

tools and services for knowledge management and knowledge sharing.

Provisions for cyberinfrastructure requires multi-million pesos of investment,

in order to serve its purpose. Another concern would be putting together of
research data sets, the knowledge grid or intellectual infrastructure critical for
local and international collaboration. The use of the term, eResearch, according
to Appelbe and Bannon (2007).

Is concept or word which has come into vogue in academic research

circles since 2000. Fundamentally, it is a collaborative and interactive research
made possible by the Internet and data and computational grids. But like any
other new concept, it can and has been abused and misused by people keen to
"jump on the bandwagon". eResearch presents many challenges, both technical
and organizational-traditional academia rewards individual performance and
specialization, not collective and interdisciplinary efforts that characterized
eResearch. But eResearch is a paradigm shift that is changing the way that
institutions. research is conducted and organized in many academic disciplines
and research

As expounded by Appelbe and Bannon (2007), eResearch projects do not

just use li technology, rather they are reliant on IT technology and organizational
support to achieve the outcomes of research. The table that follows provides a
comparison between traditional and eResearch framework (Appelbe & Bannon,
2007).

CHARACTERISTICS ERESEARCH TRADITIONAL RESEARCH

Participants Diversely skilled, distributed Individual researcher or small
research teams local research team
Needed Data Generated, stored and Locally generated, stored and
accessible from distributed accessible
locations
Computation and Large-scale, or on-demand Batch compute jobs or jobs
Instrumentation computation or access to run on researcher's own
shared instruments
 computers or research
instruments
Networking Reliant on the internet and Not reliant on internet
middleware
Dissemination of Through Websites and Through print publications and
Research specialized web portals conference presentation
It can be gleaned from the above comparison that to generate data it
must need supporting infrastructure through hardware, software, networking and
of course human resources.

Thus, a researcher is presented with a choice to attain the goals of

research. The adoption of eResearch is highly dependent on online collaboration.
Its technologies can be applicable to wider range of domains. Its tools can
improve research outcomes through.

◦ Improved collaboration - through data sharing

◦ Utilization of local, national IT infrastructure - through data services, web
services, portals and systems
◦ Accessing data repositories and collections - base line data for
multidisciplinary needs
◦ Utilizing advanced computing facilities - for larger searches or perform
greater simulation practices
◦ Managing and reusing research data - store data and preserve data.

There are other internet information resources/Library E-resources that can be

utilized for researches (Research handouts, nd.):

WEBSITE/ INTERNET ADDRESS DESCRIPTION

EBSCO(Elton Bryson Stephens
http://www.escohost.com
Company)
http://www. clearinghouse.net Index of Library Resources
http://www.vlib.org/overview2html Virtual Library
http://www.brint.com/interest.html Business Researchers' Interest Website
http://www.bizwiz.com Access Business Online Websites
http://www.
sunsite.berkeley.edu/Libweb/ Gateway to United States Library
usa-acad.html
http://www.portico.bl.uk/gabriel/en/
Gateway to Europe National Library
welcome.html
Catalog of the Reference of the British
http://www.opac97.bluk/
Library
Access to Online Catalogs of Research
http://www. copac.ac.uk/copac
Libraries in the UK
http://www.niss.ac.uk/reference/ Catalogs of all UK Higher Education
opacs.html Libraries
Index of UK Higher Education and
http://www.ex.ac.uk/-ijtilsed/lib/
Research
uklibs.html
Libraries
Weblinks for Education*(Compilation
ADU
Reference Library, with permission)
http://www.atozteacherstuff.com A to Z Teacher Stuff
http://www.bloomfire.com Bloomfire
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Main_P
EDUCTECH WIKI
age
http://www.eric.ed.gov/ Education resources information center
Magportal.com:Magazine articles on
http://www.magportal.com/c/edu/
education
Knovel
Gale Virtual Reference library
 CHAPTER 3
Ethical Guidelines and Considerations in Research
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

• Explain the relationship between ethics and morality and the researcher's
ethical responsibility when doing research.
• Analyze their own practices while doing research and express their
realizations.
• Demonstrate full understanding of ethics norms and guidelines the through
correct application of concepts in given exercises.

BASIC RULES FOR ETHICAL RESEARCH

The professional integrity of the researcher becomes at stake when

research is carried out without considering moral issues on what ought to be done
and what ought not to be done. According to Denscombe (2002), the notion of
ethics is closely linked to the idea of morality; and that ethics concerns the system
of moral principles by which individuals can judge their actions as right or wrong,
good or bad. Ethics in research calls for a moral perspective rather than the
practical or logical perspective related to the research methodology.

Brinkmann (2012) lists some ethical questions as guide for the researcher at
the start of a research project:

→What are the beneficial consequences of the study?

→ How can informed consent of the participants be obtained?
→ How can confidentiality of the participants be protected?
→ What are the consequences of the study for the participants?
→ How will the researcher's role affect the study?

In the context of social science, Murphy and Dingwall (in Flick, 2011) have
developed an "ethical theory" based on four principles:

◦ Non-maleficence - researchers should avoid harming participants.

◦ Beneficence - research on human subjects should produce some positive
and identifiable benefit rather than simply be carried out for its own sake.
◦ Autonomy or self-determination - research participants' values and
decisions should be respected.
◦ Justice - all people should be treated equally.
 To expound more on these ethical concerns, the succeeding discussion
offers more succinct ideas pertaining to ethical considerations in research. First on
the list is the INTEGRITY OF THE RESEARCHER. Researchers must act professionally in
the pursuit of truth They should be committed to discovering and reporting things
as honestly as possible.

A very basic ethical rule is to acknowledge the sources of information or

data used throughout the text. Knowledge or information taken from another
source must be acknowledged by citing the name of the author /authors and the
reference material where such ideas were taken.

DECEPTION OR MISREPRESENTATION must be avoided. The researcher must

not be influenced by other considerations except only of what is the truth of the
matter. Sometimes misrepresentation or deception in research can occur among
social researches sponsored by various interest groups like political groups,
manufacturing companies, promotion companies, or even motivated by the
researcher's personal interests. In the field of educational research perhaps there's
a slim chance that this could happen. However, human frailty could lead to
temptations due to man's innate vulnerability.to it; hence faithfully observing and
committing one's self to ethical guidelines and reminders is truly proper.

As expected of every researcher, it is his or her duty to inform and discuss

with the participants the consequences of the study, both the positive and
negative consequences. - Luck may be on the researcher's side if all the intended
participants agree to take part in the study. But if there are some who refuse to
participate, the researcher cannot force them. It is therefore necessary to get the
consent of the participation prior to gathering of data.

INFORMED CONSENT is a principle that is fundamental to the notion of

human rights (Denscombe, 2002). This means that it is absolutely essential to seek
the voluntary consent of the human subject. The person involved should have the
legal capacity to give consent; should be able to exercise free power of choice
without any intervention or force; and must have sufficient knowledge and
comprehension of the subject of research to enable him to make an enlightened
decision. In the case of children participants or other vulnerable members of
society, consent must be given by the parents or legal guardian or another person
who has a direct, formal responsibility for the welfare of the child or other
vulnerable participant. Teacher-advisers in school, acting in loco parentis or in lieu
of parents, might take on this role.

PRIVACY, CONFIDENTIALITY NAD ANONYMITY. The researcher should take

measures to safeguard the confidentiality of information and ensure the non-
disclosure of identities of those participating in the research. As mentioned by
Hamersley and Traianou (2012), "in legal form, the issue of privacy was originally
framed as the protection of individual citizens against intrusions by others into their
lives, and against demands for the disclosure of information." Closely intertwined
under the heading of privacy are issues to do with the control of both territory and
information. The territory involved is not only physical space, but also virtual space
that exists on mobile phones, personal and institutional computers and internet.

Confidentiality serves to uphold the law that protects the privacy of

individuals. In research, information that is given by the participants to the
researcher during the gathering of data should be treated as confidential. It
should not be disclosed to anyone in any way that allows the information to be
traced back to the individual who provided it as it could prove embarrassing to
the informant and would constitute a breach of confidence against the
researcher. However, in some sensitive cases there are certain limitations to
confidentiality according to Denscombe (2002). The legal duty of a researcher or
citizen to disclose information that would redound to the protection of lives of the
majority, overrides other considerations about the ethical conduct of research
and prior commitment to confidentiality.

As an example, if an informant reveals a plot to kill some members of a rival

group, or minor respondents would tell about being victims of physical or sexual
abuse, or threats to one's safety made by members of a drug syndicate, etc.,
under any of these situations, the researcher may prioritize the disclosure of
information ahead of research-related commitments about confidentiality.

Another related concern is the protection of identities, or the issue of

anonymity. In research, truthfulness and objectivity are highly emphasized as
good qualities of a researcher, and as necessary ingredients to correct analysis
and validity of the research information.

However, being truthful about the names or identities of the participants

might, likewise, pose as a problem later on since not all participants may be willing
to have their names publicized. To get around the dilemma, researchers can use
codes in the research report on methodology rather than the real names of
people, places, or organizations like student 1,2,3....., teacher A,B,C..., school x
and .... and so on. But the researcher needs to record the true identities in his/her
own private file for purposes of verification, clarification, and evaluating the data
to support the validity of the findings. A valid and acceptable practice is for the
researcher to request a written approval from the informant students, parents,
school authorities, organizations, etc. to use their names in the research report.
Sample informed Consent Form
 SESSION 2

The Research Process: The

Scientific Approach
Section Intended Learning Outcome (SILO)

Students are expected to engage themselves in the scientific and systematic

approach of research conceptualizing, data gathering, analyzing and writing
 CHAPTER 4
Conceptualizing a Research Study
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

• Conceptualize a research study.

• Write a research title that describes what the study is all about.
• Write statement of the problem.
• Write an appropriate background of the study.
• Identify the independent and dependent variables.
• Formulate hypothesis.

One of the most difficult aspects of research is how to develop the idea for
the research project. The research process has three phases: the conceptual
phase, the empirical phase, and the interpretative phase. Chapter 4 focuses on
the conceptual phase - the process that determines which questions are to be
addressed by the research and how research procedures are to be used as tools
in finding the answers to these questions. Conceptualization involves bringing
together several considerations to identify a good research idea, i.e. an
answerable research question that is worth answering. Components of this
process include, 1) conducting a thorough search of the peer-reviewed literature;
2) finding a research mentor and other collaborator; 3) considering methodology
and study design; and 4) assessing feasibility (Jain, Lindley & Rosen, 2013).

Conceptualization is guided by the theoretical framework, research

perspectives or approach in the research study.

RESEARCH TOPICS

Research is a systematic process. The first step in research is identifying a

topic.
Research topic broadly defines the area of research. They are not the same as
the title of the research study. And there is need of further work to become
feasible research studies.

Conceptualizing research topic according to Moyer, (2011) would include:

1. Finding your focus

 ◦ Which aspects of your discipline interest you most?
◦ What have you observed that you have questions about?
◦ What articles have you read that have raised questions in your mind?

2. What are the gaps in the literature?

◦ By topic (what is not being looked at?)

◦ Methods (what is not being done?)
◦ Populations (who is not being studied?)
◦ Comparisons (who is not being compared?)

3. Where to start?

◦ Read
◦ Detailed literature searches
◦ Attend seminars, conferences and presentations
◦ Discuss subject area with peers
◦ Listen and ask questions

4. Refining research topics

◦ Discuss with fellow researchers

◦ Discuss with stakeholders
◦ Assess what is most critical to learn
◦ Assess research sources available

5. Questions to ask yourself

◦ Is this a good idea?

◦ Who cares?
◦ Can it be addressed using appropriate research methods?
◦ Will it stimulate interest by others and the sponsors?
◦ Is it feasible/practical/doable?
◦ Is it fundable?

INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM, PURPOSE, QUESTIONS AND

HYPOTHESIS

1. A research problem is considered a professional situation in need of

improvement, change or a solution. Houser (2012) considered research
problem to be the "why".
2. The research purpose is the goal or interest of the study. The purpose
statement also investigates how variables (qualities, properties,
 characteristics) are studied in a setting and population, (Housers, 2012).
Polit and Beck (2012) support that a problem statement represents and
indicates a situation to be studied.
3. Research questions are specific questions that researcher wants to know
the intent of the study. According to Polit and Beck (2012), research
questions direct the data to be collected for the study.
4. A hypothesis is a statement that makes a specific prediction between one
or two variables in a population then tested.

CONCEPT MAPPING

A structured approach that groups can use to map out organize their ideas
on any topic is called concept mapping. This can be used by research teams to
help them clarify and map out the key research issues in an area, to help them
operationalize the programs on interventions on the outcome measures for their
study. The concept mapping method isn't the only method around that might
help researchers formulate good research problems and projects. Some of the
methods that might be included in the toolkit for research formulation might be:
brainstorming, brain writing, nominal group techniques, focus groups, etc.
(Trochim, 2006).

According to Katsumoto, 2005 (cited in de Belen, 2015) concept mapping

is a general method with which you clarify and describe people's ideas about
some topic in a graphical form. By mapping out concepts in pictorial form you
can get a better understanding of the relationships among them. Concept
mapping encourages the participants rather than on the planner or evaluator:

WRITING THE RESEARCH TITLE

Here are basic questions asked about the research title.

◦ Does the title describe what the study is all about?

◦ Does the title contain high specificity level?
◦ Is the title academically phrased and is not verbose?
◦ Is the title within the twelve (12) substantive word requirement of the
American Psychological Association (APA)?

Read the following titles. Do they meet the basic questions asked?

1. Portfolios: A Tool for Reflective Thinking in Teacher Education

2. Impact of Parental Support on the Academic Performance and Self
Concept of the Students
3. Influence of Family and Socio-Demographic Variables on Students with Low
Academic Achievement
 4. Private Tutoring and Social Cohesion
5. Attachment and Socialization the Positive Side of Social Influence

WRITING AN INTRODUCTION

An introduction answers the following questions.

◦ What is the problem?

◦ Why is it a problem?
◦ How it should be solved?
◦ Why it should be solved?
What is the purpose of the study?

STATING THE PROBLEM

The problem statement is the researcher's guide during the research

process. It is the verbalization and articulation as well as the analysis of the
"questions" in which the researcher wants the research to answer.

The problem statement is divided into the major or main problem and the
minor or sub-problems. The major or main problem is the verbalization of the
specific "question" which the researcher wants to answer. It may be stated
declaratively of interrogatively.

Example:

Main problem (Interrogative)

What are the factors that affect the teaching skills of teachers?

Main problem (Declarative)

This study aims to design and develop an online course in Human Behavior in the
Organization at the Graduate Level.

WHAT IS A STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM?

A statement of the problem is a concise description of the issues that need

to be addressed by the researcher.

WRITING THE BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

A. What is the purpose of a background study?

 One of the preliminary steps to completing a thesis/dissertation is the
background study. The background study includes (1) a review of the area being
researched, (2) current information surrounding the issue, (3) previous studies on
the issue, (4) relevant history on the issue, and (5) effectively set forth the history
and background information on the problem. (The University of Sydney, n.d.)

The purpose of a background study is to help you to prove the relevance

of your research question and to further develop your thesis.

B. Why do a background study?

In addition to gaining general knowledge about your topic area, your

goals are to determine the current state of knowledge and to become familiar
with current research. Gravetter and Forzano (2006) pointed out that once you
have a general idea for a research study, the next step is to go to the library to
gather background that you have identified. Once you have done this, your task
is simply to extend the current research one more step.

C. How do you write a background study?

1. Conduct primary research at the beginning stages of formulating a thesis

when many issues are unclear. Visit your library, the internet to find primary
sources such as books and scholarly journals for your background study.
2. Read the information and develop a research question of thesis statement
that will guide your research. You will need to take notes and keep
accurate tract of the sources that you used up to this point. Use a method
of recording source of information that you are comfortable with. Be sure
to cite the source of the information or each note so you don't forget where
the piece of information came from, should you decide to use it in your
thesis.
3. Write a thesis statement or research question. Think about what you've read
and look to issues, problems or solutions that others have found and
determine your own opinion or stance on the issue.
4. Complete your research using your thesis statement and research question
as your guide.
5. Create five separate sections that cover the key issues, major findings and
controversies surrounding your thesis as well as sections that provide an
evaluation and conclusion.
6. Conclude by identifying and further study what needs to be done in the
area or provide possible solutions to the issue that haven't been considered
before.
7. Revise and edit your background study.
Answer the following questions in writing the background of the study.

1. What are some research results?

2. What are the research questions?
3. What are the research statements?
4. How do you complete your research?

FORMULATING THE HYPOTHESIS

What is a hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two

or more variables. A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you
expect to happen in your study, (Black & Champions, 1976, cited in Kumar, 1996).

A hypothesis must be empirically grounded and lead to the main

contributor of the investigation. A research hypothesis is the statement you
created when you speculate upon the outcome of a structure, as the aim of any
experiment. It is a statement that predicts the relationship between the
independent (casual) and dependent (outcome) variables.

A hypothesis (plural, hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a

phenomenon. Hypothesis consists of independent and dependent variables. The
dependent variables is the outcome you are interested in studying-the effect. The
independent variable is the variable that is producing a change in the
dependent variable-the cause.

Read and answer the examples below:

Ho,: There is no significant difference between performance of pupils and use of

manipulatives.

• What is the dependent variable (the effect)?

• What is the independent variable (the cause)?

A hypothesis is not a final answer, but rather a proposal to be tested and

evaluated. For example, a researcher might hypothesize that there is a
relationship between personality characteristics and cigarette smoking. Or
another researcher might hypothesize that a dark environment causes
depression.

Why hypothesize?
 A research hypothesis is a specific statement of expected outcomes of an
experiment. It includes who the subjects are, the experimental conditions, and
the statistical test to be applied.

Hypotheses are testable explanations of a problem, phenomenon, or

observation.

Quantitative research involves formulating a hypothesis to address the

research problem.

Hypotheses that suggest a causal relationship involve at least one

independent variable and at least one dependent variable; in other words, one
variable which is presumed to affect the other.

An independent variable is one whose value is manipulated by the

researcher or experiment. A dependent variable is a variable whose value are
presumed to change as a result of changes in the independent variable.

How to state a hypothesis

A hypothesis is a statement that researchers can empirically test. It is a

statement about how two variables are related: It is not a question and, to that
end, it is different from a research question that is usually broad and does not
specifically link two or more specific concepts.

Because the hypothesis identifies the specific variables and their

relationship, it forms the foundation for the future research study.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

1. Logical

A good hypothesis is usually founded on established theories or developed

from the results of previous research. Specifically, a good hypothesis should have
two logical conclusions of a logical argument. Example:

Premise 1: Academic success is highly valued and respected in society.

Premise 2: Being valued and respected by others contribute to high self-
esteem.

Conclusion or Hypothesis: Higher levels of academic success will be related

to higher levels of self-esteem.

2. Testable
 A good hypothesis must be testable. That is, it must be possible to observe
and measure all of the variables involved. The hypothesis must involve real
situations, real events and real individuals. You cannot test a hypothesis that refers
to imaginary terms or hypothetical situations.

3. Refutable
A testable hypothesis must be refutable. It must be possible to obtain
research results that are contrary to the prediction. For example, if the research
hypothesis predicts that the treatment will cause all increase in scores, it must be
possible for the data to show a decrease.

Which are not testable or refutable?

Hypothesis: Better knowledge and performance lead to better school

leadership.
Hypothesis: Better knowledge led to better performance.
Hypothesis: If people could fly, there were fewer cases of depression.

THE NULL HYPOTHESIS

The null hypothesis is a statement about the population or populations

being examined that always states that there is no effect, no change, or no
relationship. In general, the null hypothesis says that nothing happened.

In a study comparing two treatments, the null hypothesis states that there
is no difference between the treatments.

One characteristic of a good hypothesis is that it must make a positive

statement about the existence of a relationship or the existence of a treatment
effect.

The null hypothesis is exactly the opposite of the research hypothesis. The
research hypothesis says that the treatment does have an effect, and the null
hypothesis says that the treatment has no effect.

The goal of the research study is to gather enough evidence to

demonstrate convincingly that the treatment really does have an effect. The
purpose of the hypothesis test is to evaluate the evidence. The test determines
whether the results of the research study are sufficient to reject the null hypothesis
and justify to conclusion that the treatment has no effect.
 CHAPTER 5
Identifying Sources and Areas for Research Undertaking
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

• Identify sources for research.

• Identify researchable areas.

SOURCES FOR RESEARCH UNDERSTANDING

To write a research paper, you have to start well. Research is very broad
that can be broken into several categories (Hansen, n.d.).

1. Primary sources are published original writings, reflections, and reports that
can be found in periodicals, monographs, conference proceedings, books,
theses and dissertations.
2. Secondary sources are published writings and reports that analyze, critique,
or report on a primary source and can be found in periodicals and
reference books.
3. Tertiary sources are indexes, dictionaries, guides and bibliographies/
references that aid the researcher in using primary and secondary sources.
4. Nondocumentary sources are unpublished forms of communication and
information, which can include interviews, conversations with professionals,
students and other experts in the field.
5. Online searching. It is seen as information on the internet through major
search engines such as Google, Yahoo, and Bing.

Deciding Whether a Source is Reliable

Many sources of information are available. Knowing if the information can

be trusted can be difficult. The following are some criteria to consider the reliability
of the source.

• Where was the research published?

Researchers trust and use research published in credible peer-reviewed

scientific journals. Experts have reviewed studies published in these journals to
make sure they are of high quality.
• How does the new information fit with what is already known?
 Each research study contributes to an existing body of knowledge. More
weight can be given to findings that support and build on the findings of other
research. One study alone is never enough to make a case, it only gives direction
about what new research is needed.

• How does funding influence research?

The ability to report study results without personal bias, is an important

consideration when conducting research. When reading an article from a funded
research project, you must consider whether the funders of this research had
anything to gain by the results. When research is paid for by a source that does
not have an interest in the results, funder's expectations or preferences were less
likely to have influenced the results.

AREAS OF RESEARCH INTEREST

Selecting a researchable area is one of the most important aspects of

social research. There are processes considered at the start. Kumar (1996)
suggested a set of exercises in developing a research project:

Step 1: Select a broad area of study that interests you.

Example:
• School Environment
• Academic performance
• Parental involvement

Step 2: Having selected an area, analyze it to identify its sub-problem(s). Some

sub-areas are:

Example:
• Academic performance and school environment.
• Academic performance and parental involvement.

Select only a sub-area that would be possible to study within the constraints
of time resources and expertise. One way to select your sub-area is to start the
process of elimination. Select the sub-area you are very interested in.

Step 3: From the above sub-areas, select a sub-area in which you would like to
conduct your study.
Here are Some Areas of Research Interest (The Teaching Council, 2015)

1. The Continuum of Teachers Education

Examples of possible research topics under this heading:
• The professional portfolio
• The career entry phase, including induction and probation
• Continuing professional development including, individual, school, system
• Standards of teaching, knowledge, skill and competence across the
continuum

2. Teaching in a Changing Society

Examples of possible research topics under this heading:

• Teaching for diversity, inclusion and special educational needs
• Teaching for citizenship and moral development
• Developing, creative, lifelong learners
• Using ICT for teaching, learning, and assessment

3. Pedagogy

Examples of possible research topics under this heading:

• Effective teaching of literacy and numeracy
• School curriculum policy development and evaluation
• Assessing for learning/formative assessment
• Pedagogical approaches and perspective on learning

4. Teaching as a Profession

Examples of possible research topics under this heading:

• Perceptions of teacher professionalism
• Perceptions of the role of the teacher
• Collegiality in teaching
• The development of teaching as a profession (national and international
trends)

5. Core Education Principles and Policy Issues

Examples of possible research topics under this heading:
• Supply of and demand for teachers
• Partnership within education
• Reconceptualization of the education system towards an improved
teaching and learning experience

CHAPTER 6
 Review of Related Literature and Studies
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

• Organize the review of related literature and studies.

• Demonstrate skill in acknowledging sources of documentation or citation
of references.
• Distinguish the synoptic and argumentative parts of related literature and
studies.

ORGANIZING THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Organized related literature and studies inform the reader of what is a

known and conflicting area. The word "review" means that the research goes over
the materials, books, journals articles, theses, dissertations and internet
presentations. The purpose is to determine what has been written about the
problem. The word "related" means "similar" especially on the problem dimension.

The purpose of this review is to inform the reader about what already is
known what is not known or research blank spots (unexplored areas) and blind
spots (conflicting areas in the literature.

Here are the major steps in a literature review according to Gale, Gale and Borg.

STEP 1: Search preliminary sources such as books, articles, theses, etc.

STEP 2: Use secondary sources - a document written by someone who do
not actually do the research.
STEP 3: Read primary sources - obtain and study the original outputs of at
least those studies that are most central to your proposed investigation.
STEP 4: Synthesize the literature - synthesize what you have learned to write
a little literature review.
STEP 5: Identify recommendations for further research. Researchers often
conclude their reports with a discussion of issues raised by them and the
recommendations for another research that might be done. These issues and
recommendations should be considered carefully because they represent
insights gained by the researcher after considerable study of a given problem.
STEP 6: Seek support for grounded theory. Many research studies are
designed to test a new theory that has been developed to explain the learning
process or other educational phenomena. Glaser (1978), however proposed that
studies also can be designed such that data are collected first, and then a theory
is derived from these data. The resulting theory is called grounded theory because
it is "grounded" in a set of used data.

RELATED LITERATURE

Related literature is also called conceptual literature. The gathering of

literature related to the research clarifies the different variables being studied. The
related literature removes any vagueness in the concepts central to the study. As
the related literature and studies are gathered, the different variables of the study
are clarified, and the limitation of the study is determined. The indicators per
variable are clearly based on read articles from different published reference
books, textbooks, manuals, and other materials, (Cristobal & Cristobal, 2013).

By organizing, integrating, and evaluating such materials, the author of a

review article considers the progress of current research towards clarifying a
problem.

The different variables used in the study are the focus of the literature
search. The title, statement of the problem, scope and limitation, including the
paradigm of the study are the elements that give the research an idea of the
relevance of the thesis to his/her own investigation.

The number of materials to be gathered for the literature review depends

upon the researcher's judgement. The review of related literature is considered
sufficient if the researcher believes that important concepts and variables have
been adequately explained and established.

RELATED STUDIES

Determining whether the research is objective and empirically based

includes surveying previous studies that involve similar variables (Cristobal &
Cristobal, 2013). It is important to note that even if previous research used the
same variables as his or hers, the two studies may vary in the limitation in terms of
the sub-variables investigated or in terms of focus and purpose.

An adequate review of related studies is needed. This serves as the basis of

the analysis of results because it allows the researcher to compare his/her findings
with those of previous studies. The results of a study are verified by similar findings
or negated by different findings of previous researchers.

The studies are in the form of theses, dissertations, or journal articles. These
are collectively called research literature.
 The collected studies are related to the present study when the author uses
the same variables, sub-variables, concepts, or constructs; and have same
subject or topic of the study.

In the review of a related study, the following are indicated: 1. the name of
the author, the date and the setting the study was conducted; 2. the title; and 3.
the salient findings.

Sample Related Literature

Leadership Preparation Program

An important aspect of leadership expertise is to propel student learning

(Murphy & Vriesenga, 2006). However, reviews found that the effect of school
leaders without leadership preparation on student achievement is near zero
(Morris, 2010). Some authors like Grogan and Andrews (2002), Hess and Kelly
(2005) express that many preparation programmers have been relatively slow in
preparing future school leaders.

Question:

What are the blind spots/conflicting areas?

DOCUMENTATION STYLE

Throughout the research, the published research of other researchers are

cited to credit those who prepared the foundation for your work. To present
someone else's ideas or work as your own is to commit plagiarism. Plagiarism is a
serious breach of ethics. Reference citations (giving others credit when credit is
due) must be included in your paper wherever else's ideas or work has influenced
your thinking and writing, (Gravetter & Forzano, 2006).

The American Psychological Association (APA) is a popular style commonly

used by researchers in documentation or reference citation. The APA format is
also called the author-date method of parenthetical documentation or in-text
citation.

Documentation refers to the acknowledgement of sources. These sources

are cited as direct quotations or as indirect quotations (paraphrases).

Colleges, universities, and institutions make their own choice of documentation

style. This may be defined as style of citation or acknowledgement of authorities
or sources.
PARAPHRASING

Paraphrasing is using or putting in one's own words to restate the author's

ideas and acknowledging the source to give credit to the original author (de
Belen, 2015).

Paraphrasing…
◦ is used when we want to express someone else's idea in our own words.
uses different words to express the same idea.
◦ is rewriting the text in order to simplify focusing not only on what is said but
also on how it is said.
◦ makes the understanding of the source text less difficult by breaking down
the information into manageable units.
◦
Paraphrasing Techniques

◦ Replace a word with a synonym.

◦ Paraphrasing can be longer or shorter than the original. Concentrate on
the meaning not on the words.
◦ Verbs and adjectives have counterparts that are interchangeable with the
authors' original words.
◦ Not all synonyms have exact meanings (look at a thesaurus and double
check with a dictionary).
◦ Avoid using abstract words - they come as weak words.
◦ Use of synonyms is a problem in scientific writing because often there is only
one word to describe a certain action or object. It is better to keep the
important words and change the sentence structure.

APA SEVENTH EDITION

These guidelines follow the 2020 7th edition of the American Psychological
Association’s Publication Manual, which is widely used in the health and social
sciences. They focus on documentation, but the manual addresses issues from
abbreviations to layout and should be consulted for further information. In an
APA-style paper, you’ll identify the author and year of each source any time you
use it. That information directs readers to more detailed entries on a reference list
at the paper’s end.
Q

O
C

N
D

Narrative Citation Parenthetical Citation

R
E

T
I

Sendak (2015) contended that Clearly, “imagination is

One author “imagination is crucial” (p. 2). crucial” (Sendak, 2015, p.
2).
 According to Sendak and Wise It is true that “imagination
Two authors (2010), “Imagination is crucial” is crucial” (Sendak & Wise,
(pp. 112-113). 2010, pp. 112-113).
Three+ authors “Imagination is crucial,” “Imagination,” however, “is
Sendak et al. (2001) reflected crucial,” (Sendak et al.,
(para. 5). 2001, para. 5).
Group author, first The American Library Perhaps “imagination is
reference Association (ALA; 2005) has crucial” (American Library
insisted that “imagination is Association [ALA], 2005,
crucial” (para. 2). para. 2).
Group author, late The ALA (2005) has insisted that Perhaps “imagination is
rreference “imagination is crucial” (para. crucial” (ALA, 2005, para.
2). 2).
Author unknown The author of “Feeding Young One article (2010) claimed
Minds” (2010) noted that that “imagination is
“imagination is crucial” (p. 5). crucial” (“Feeding,” 2015,
p. 5).

Sendak (2015) argued that Children must develop

One author children must develop imagination (Sendak,
imagination. 2015).
Sendak and Wise (2015) believed Children must develop
Two authors that children must develop imagination (Sendak &
imagination. Wise, 2015).
Three+ Children must develop Children must develop
authors imagination, observed imagination (Sendak et al.,
Sendak et al. (2015). 2015).
PARAPHRASE

Group author, Children must develop Children must develop

first reference imagination, the imagination
American Library Association (American Library
(ALA, 2015) has explained. Association [ALA], 2015).
Author In “Feeding Young Minds” Children must develop
unknown (2015), the author suggested imagination (“Feeding,” 2015).
that children must develop
imagination.

SAMPLE REFERENCES

A. Book with subtitle

Fraser, C. (2017). Prairie fires: The American dreams of Laura Ingalls Wilder.
Metropolitan Books.

B. Book with two editors instead of author

Melendy, R., & Kincaid, C. (Eds.). (2018). Birth order and personality. Doubleday.

C. Essay, chapter, or section in edited work

Gale, D. (2008). Innocence abroad. In L.F. Baum (Ed.), The way home (pp. 27-43).
Cyclone Press.
 D. Journal article with DOI
Slethaug, G. E. (1986). The paradoxical double in Le Guin’s A Wizard of Earthsea.
Extrapolation, 27(4), 326-333. https://doi.org/10.3828/extr.1986.27.4.326

E. Magazine article, online, no volume issue or pages

Beck, J. (2015, May 3). Science’s love affair with The Lord of the Rings. The Atlantic.
https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/05/sciences-love-
affair-with- the-lord-of-the-rings/392216/

F. Unsigned entry in continuously updated, unarchived online dictionary

Merriam-Webster. (n.d). Literacy. In Merriam-Webster dictionary. Retrieved
January 10, 2020, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/literacy

G. Wikipedia entry
Stonehenge. (2020, January 16). In Wikipedia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge

H. Website article with author

Spritzler, F. (2017, January 29). 13 ways to prevent type 2 diabetes. Healthline.
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/prevent-diabetes

I. Website article without author or date

What are pulses? (n.d.). Half-Cup Habit. https://pulses.org/nap/what-are-pulses/
 CHAPTER 7
Developing a Conceptual
Framework/Theoretical Framework

Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

• Construct a conceptual framework model.

• Analyze a given theoretical framework.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Conceptual framework is the basic structure that serves as a mental

window of the researcher because it depicts the research design and the
relationships of the variables involved.

A conceptual framework is a written or visual presentation that explains

either geographically, or in narrative form, the main things to be studied, the key
factors, concepts or variables and the presumed relationship among them.

What specific forms might a conceptual framework take?

The possibilities include flowcharts, tree diagram, shape-based diagram,

triangles, concentric circles, overlapping circles, mind maps, and software
systems.

A "flow chart" of innovation decision making prior conditions.

1. Previous practice
2. Felt needs
3. Innovativeness
4. Norms of the social system communication channels

A conceptual framework provides direction for programs, courses,

teaching and others. Granatin (n.d.) states that "conceptual framework is the
researcher's own position on the problem and gives direction to the study." Aside
from showing the direction of the study, through the conceptual framework, the
researcher is able to show the relationships of the different constructs that he
wants to investigate.
 The conceptual framework utilizes the independent-dependent model
used in behavioral sciences. In the context of the study, the identified
independent variables-factors affecting the behavior of pupils within the public
school setting are: family, community, teachers and learning environment. The
dependent variables include the behavior problems within the public-school
setting-internalizing behavior (inattentive, uncooperative, inactive) and
externalizing behavior (aggression, disobedience, impulsiveness).

Study the conceptual framework.

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE Behavioral Problems Within

the Public School Setting
Factors Affecting the
Behavior of Pupils in the • Internalizing Behavior
Public School Setting - Inattentiveness
- Uncooperative
• Family - Inactive
• Community
• Teachers • Externalizing Behavior
• Learning Environment Aggression
Disobedience
Impulsiveness

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Theories are statements about the mechanism underlying a particular

behavior. Theories help organize and verify different observations related to the
behavior and good theories will generate predictions about the behavior:

A theory is constructed to explain, predict and master phenomenon (e.g.

relationship, events, or the behavior). In many instances, we are constructing
models of reality. A theory generalizes about observations and consists of an
interrelated, coherent set of ideas and models.
 A theoretical framework is similar to the frame of the house just as the
foundation supports a house, a theoretical framework provides a rationale for
predictions about the relationship among variables of a research study, (Mehta,
n.d.).

Theoretical framework identifies the variables investigated in the study. It

illustrates how the variables interact with each other as hypothesized in the
research by the aid of diagrams.

Theory provides patterns for the interpretation of data, links one study to
another. supplies framework within which concepts and variables acquire special
significance and allows us to interpret the larger meaning of our findings for
ourselves and others.

Theoretical framework states the central concepts) integral to the study.

Connecting the study to theory.

STUDY THE MODEL

Title: Leadership Preparation Program of School Principals in Private Schools

Demographic Profile

School Leadership Domain

• Facilitating the Vision

• School Culture
Attributes • Instructional Program
• Managing the
• Knowledge Organization
• Disposition • Community
• Performance Engagement
• Ethics and Integrity

Figure 1 Conceptual Framework

Explanation

To examine the extent and impact of leadership preparation program for

school principals and to investigate the knowledge, disposition, and performance
of school principals.
 The study below is anchored on three theories that help us understand the
behavior of children.

Title: Analysis of Behavioral Problems of Pupils in Public School Setting

The matrix presents a summary of the theories relevant to the study.

Theorist(s) Explanation of Theory

Theory of Constructivism The theory of constructing constructivism
by Jean Piaget (1920) emphasizes the learners social interaction with
knowledgeable members of society.

Theory of Behaviorism by Behaviorism is concerned with the behaviors that

John B. Watson (1913) are associated with feelings and thinking, imagining
or desiring.

Psycho-Social Theory by The theory states that successful completion of

Erik Erickson (1994) each stage results in a healthy personality and the
acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are
characteristic strengths which the ego can use to
resolve subsequent crises.
 CHAPTER 8
Understanding Research Methods and Designs
-Quantitative Research Methods/Designs
-Qualitative Research Methods/Designs
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

• Demonstrate thorough understanding of the concepts of research method,

approach, and design.
• Make the right choice of a research design and justify their choice.
• Conceptualize the appropriate research design for their chosen research
problem.

CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH METHOD AND DESIGN

In this chapter you are expected to actively engage yourself in

understanding method, approach and design and looking into the possibility of
making the right choice and decision regarding the design of your chosen
research problem.

Here are important concepts and definitions that you need to learn
(Edmonds & Kennedy, 2013).

RESEARCH METHOD

This refers to the philosophical, theoretical, conceptual, and analytic

perspective of research. It can be quantitative, qualitative, or mixed method.

APPROACH

Refers to the first step in creating structure to the design and it details a
conceptual model or framework of how the research will proceed, considering
the objectives and variables of the study.

DESIGN

This refers to the plan, structure, and strategy of investigation so conceived

as to obtain answer to research questions or problems. It is the complete scheme
or program of the research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do
from writing the hypothesis and their operational implications to the final analysis
of data (Kerlinger; in Kumar, 2011).

Meaning and Functions of a Research Design

According to Kerlinger (cited in Kumar, 2011), a research design is a plan,

structure and strategy of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to
research questions or problems. It is the complete scheme or programme of the
research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing the
hypotheses and their operational implications to the final analysis of data.
As implied in the statement above, after the research topic has been finalized,
the researcher has to plan the details of what design to use, what type of data
will provide answers to the problems of the study, and how the data will be
gathered, presented, analyzed, and interpreted.
procedures of research:

The research design guides the researcher in planning the following aspects of

• identifying the population of the study

• decision on whether to take the whole population or just select a sample
• how the sample of the study will be selected ethics in the selection of
samples and data gathering choice of method in data collection
• considerations in the use of questionnaires
• how interviews will be conducted

Research Designs in Quantitative Method

The choice of a study design would depend largely on the philosophical

perspective, objective of the study, the inquiry mode, and the applicability of
research findings.

In quantitative research, some of the commonly used designs are classified

by examining them from three different perspectives: 1) the number of contacts
with the study population; 2) the reference period of the study; and the nature of
the investigation, (Kumar, 2011).

1. Research Designs Based on the Number of Contacts

1.1. Cross-sectional studies are commonly used in the social sciences.

These studies aim to find out the prevalence of a phenomenon,
situation, problem, attitude or issue, by taking a cross-section of the
population.
 The cross-sectional study is simple in design. The researcher decides
what he wants to find out, identify the study population, select a sample
if needed, and contact the respondents to find out the required
information.

1.2. The before and after design (also known as the pre-test /post-test
design). This design can measure change in a situation, phenomenon,
issue, problem or attitude. The before and after design can be
described as two sets of cross-sectional data collection points on the
same population to find out the change in the phenomenon or variable
between two points in time. The change is measured by comparing the
difference in the phenomenon or variable before and after the
intervention. Depending upon how it is set up, a before-and-after study
may be either an experiment or non-experiment. It is a commonly used
design in evaluation studies. The difference between the two sets of
data collection points with respect to the dependent variable is the
impact of the program or process evaluated.

1.3. The longitudinal study design. This is useful to determine the pattern
of extent of change in a phenomenon, situation, problem or attitude in
relation to time. Under this design, the study population is visited several
times at regular intervals, usually over a longer period. Intervals may be
as short as a week or longer than a year. Irrespective of the size of the
interval, the type of information gathered each time is identical. The
data collected may come from the same study population, but it may
or may not be from the same respondents. A longitudinal study can be
characterized as a series of repetitive cross-sectional studies.

2. Research Designs Based on the Reference Period

The reference period refers to the time frame in which a study is exploring
a phenomenon, situation, event or problem and may be categorized as 1)
retrospective 2) prospective and 3) retrospective prospective.

2.1. The retrospective study design is used to investigate a phenomenon,

situation, problem or issue that has happened in the past. The study may
be conducted either on the basis of the data available for that period
or on the basis or respondents recall of the situation.

2.2. The prospective study design attempts to establish the outcome of

an event or what is likely to happen, such as the likely prevalence of a
phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude or outcome in the future.
Experiments are usually classified as prospective studies since the
 researcher must wait for an intervention to register its effect on the study
population.

2.3. The retrospective-prospective study design. This applies to a study

wherein available data are analyzed and used as bases of future
projections. It does not involve a control group. Trend studies fall under
this category.

3. Research Designs Based on the Nature of the Investigation

The following are classified under this category: 1) experimental 2) non-

experimental 3) quasi - or semi-experimental.

3.1. The experimental design has an assumption of a cause-and-effect

relationship. In this design, the researcher introduces the intervention
that is assumed to be the cause of change and waits until it has
produced the change.

3.2. In the non-experimental design, the researcher observes a

phenomenon and attempts to establish what caused it. In this instance,
the research starts from the effect or outcome and attempts to
determine causation.

3.3. A semi-experimental or quasi-experimental study has the properties

of both experimental and non-experimental studies; part of the study
may be experimental and the other part non-experimental.

RESEARCH DESIGNS IN QUALITATIVE METHOD

1. Case Study

This is a dominant qualitative study design but also prevalent in quantitative

research. A case could be an individual, a group, a community, an instance, an
episode, an event, a subgroup of a population, a town or a city. To be called a
case study, it is important to treat the total study population as one entity.

It is a very useful design when exploring an area where little is known or

where you want to have a holistic understanding of the situation, phenomenon,
episode, site, group, or community. This design is relevant when the focus of the
study is on extensively exploring and understanding rather than confirming and
quantifying, (Kumar, 2011).

2. Grounded Theory
 This is an approach to qualitative research data collection and analysis in
the social sciences. As cited by Hennink, Hutter and Bailey (2011), grounded
theory is not a theory itself; but a process for developing empirical theory from
qualitative research that consists of a set of tasks and underlying principles
through which theory can be built up through careful observation of the social
world.

3. Phenomenology

This is a qualitative research design which studies all possible appearances

in human experience using empirical methods i.e, asking, observing, analyzing
data, etc.) to make empirically grounded statements that can be generalized.
Various aims can be pursued such as describing a phenomenon, or to evaluate
an intervention or institution in the interest of knowledge production (Flick, 2011).

4. Ethnography

This is a research process which deals with the scientific description of

individual cultures involving the origins, development and characteristics of
human kind, including social customs, beliefs and cultural development (Wiersma
and Jurs, 2009).

5. Mixed Methods

Refers to the research design that uses both quantitative and qualitative
data to answer a particular question or sets of questions. In the mixed methods
design "words, pictures and narratives can be used to add meaning to numbers"
(in Biber, 2010).
 CHAPTER 9
Sampling Techniques/Strategies in Quantitative and
Qualitative Research Methods

Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

• Explain the concept and importance of sampling in research.

• Conform with correct procedures when determining the research sample.
• Show the correct sampling design or procedure for some given situations in
research.

THE CONCEPT OF SAMPLING

According to Kumar (2011), sampling is the process of selecting a few (a

sample) from a bigger group (the population) to become the basis for estimating
or predicting the prevalence of an unknown piece of information, situation or
outcome, regarding the bigger group.

Selecting a sample rather than the total population has advantages and
disadvantages. On the advantage side, it saves time, financial and human
resources. But on the disadvantage side, the researcher finds only an estimate or
a prediction of information about the population's characteristics or other data,
which are essential to the research study.

Two factors may influence the degree of certainty about the inferences
drawn from a sample:

1. Findings based upon larger samples have more certainty than those based
on smaller ones. As a rule, "the larger the sample size, the more accurate
the findings."
2. The greater the variation in the study population with respect to the
characteristics under study for a given sample size, the greater the
uncertainty.

Bias must be avoided in the selection of the sample in order to achieve

maximum precision in estimates within a given sample size.

Examples of bias in the selection of a sample:

 1. When sampling is done by a non-random method such as if the selection is
consciously or unconsciously influenced by human choice;
2. When the sampling frame (list, index or other population records) which
serves as the basis of selection, does not cover the sampling population
accurately and completely.
3. When a section of a sampling population is impossible to find or refuses to
cooperate.

Types of Sampling (Kumar, 2011)

There are three major types of sampling designs:

a. Probability Sampling
b. Non-probability Sampling
c. Mixed Methods Sampling

A. PROBABILITY SAMPLING

I. RANDOM/PROBABILITY SAMPLING DESIGN

This is a sampling design wherein each element in the population has an

equal and independent chance of selection in the sample. The concept of
independence means that the choice of one element is not dependent upon
the choice of another element in the sampling or the selection or rejection of the
element does not affect the inclusion or exclusion of another. For example, if one
of five close friends in a class was chosen but refuses to participate in the survey
if the other four are not chosen, and the researcher therefore is forced to select
either the five or none, then that sample will not be considered as independent
sample since the selection of one is dependent upon the selection of the others.

Main Advantages of the Random/Probability Samples

• As they represent the total sampling population, the inferences drawn from
such samples can be generalized to the total sampling population.
• Some statistical tests based upon the theory of probability can be applied
only to data collected from random samples. Some of these tests are
important for establishing conclusive correlations.

Steps in Selecting a Simple Random Sample

• Define the target population

• Identify an existing sampling frame of the target population or develop a
new one
 • Assign a unique number to each element in the frame.
• Determine the sampling size.
• Randomly select the targeted number of population elements.

Techniques in Drawing Random Samples (Daniel, 2012)

1. Lottery method (also known as fishbowl technique). The numbers

representing each element in the target population are placed on chips,
cards, rolled paper, etc. These are then placed in a container and
thoroughly mixed. Next, blindly select chips from the container until the
desired sample size has been obtained.
2. Table of random numbers. The numbers in a table of random numbers are
not arranged in any pattern. In using this technique, the researcher should
blindly select a starting point and then systematically proceed in the table.
The number of digits that are used should correspond to the total size of the
target population. Since this process is tedious and time consuming, a
statistical software may be used for large populations.
3. Random generated numbers using a computer program, (i.e random
numbers generator. Activate the computer program with random number
generator. Keep in a specific range of numbers from hundreds, thousands,
or millions and the random numbers will appear... from which you will pick
your choices.
II. STRATIFIED SAMPLING (SOMETIMES CALLED QUOTA RANDOM SAMPLING)

This is a probability sampling procedure in which the target population is

first separated into mutually exclusive, homogenous segments (strata, and then a
simple random sample is selected from each segment (stratum). The samples
selected from the various strata are then combined into a simple sample (Daniel,
2012).

III. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING (OR INTERVAL RANDOM SAMPLING)

In this sampling procedure, a random selection is made of the first element

for the sample, then subsequent elements are selected using a fixed or systematic
interval until the desired sample size is reached. For example, after a random start,
the researcher may systematically select from a group of 100 students every third
name appearing on the list of community volunteers from the school to be able
to get a targeted sample of thirty-three students.

IV. CLUSTER SAMPLING

This is a probability sampling procedure wherein elements of the population

are randomly selected in naturally occurring groupings or clusters. In this kind of
sampling, the selection of population elements is not individually but in
aggregates. The clustering of sampling units may be based on geographical
locations (i.e. regional groupings), type of organization or classes (i.e. school
districts, grade 10 classes, etc.).

B. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

The four major types of non-probability sampling designs are: availability

sampling, purposive sampling, quota sampling, and respondent-assisted
sampling (Daniel, 2012).

1. Availability Sampling

Under this sampling design, the sample elements are selected from the
target population based on their availability, on the convenience of the
researcher, and/ or voluntary self-selection. According to Daniel (2012),
availability sampling is the most frequently used sampling procedure in research.
Some reasons for this are: it is the least complicated sampling procedure.
However, availability sampling has its weaknesses, such as; it cant target specific
elements of the population. It is least reliable, it does not represent population
elements that are not readily accessible, that are uncooperative and are hidden.
Moreover, it underestimates the variability in the population.

2. Purposive Sampling

This is a non-probability sampling procedure in which the elements are

selected from the target population on the basis of their fit with the purposes of
the study and specific inclusion and exclusion criteria.

3. Quota Sampling

This is a type of non-probability sampling procedure in which the

population is divided into mutually exclusive subcategories, and the researcher
solicits participation in the study from members of the subcategories until a target
number of elements to be sampled from the subcategories have been met.

4. Respondent-Assisted Sampling

In this sampling procedure, the elements are selected from a target

population with the assistance of previously selected population elements. This
sampling procedure is often used in studying social networks, rare populations,
and hidden populations such as drug dealers and users and other criminals or
commercial sex workers, etc.
 C. MIXED-METHODS SAMPLING

This is a sampling method that combines different types of sampling

method into a single design. This is supported by the idea that the weaknesses of
one method may be compensated by the strengths of the other method that is
used. The use of mixed methods research designs was spurred by the application
of two key concepts. "multi method, multi-trait matrix and triangulation" which
were introduced by Campbell & Fiske in 1959 (multi-method-multi-trait) and the
four types of triangulation by Denzin (2009); "data triangulation, method logical
triangulation, investigator triangulation, and theory triangulation" (in Daniel, 2012).

Through the years, researchers have adjusted in their sampling procedure

as a response to change in technology, lifestyles, the legal environment, and
nonresponse rates.

1. Telephone-Based Sampling

This is a sampling procedure that utilizes telephone numbers as sampling

units.
According to research, telephone surveys were the dominant survey
methodology since the 1980s. There are two subtypes of telephone-based
sampling, list-based sampling taken from telephone directories, lists of employees,
customers, etc. and random digit dialing (RDD). The random sampling procedures
previously discussed can also be applied in the telephone-based sampling
procedure.

2. Web-based Sampling

In this sampling procedure, email addresses, website visits, and recruite

users of the internet are utilized as sampling units. There are three categories of
web-based sampling, namely: list-based sampling, sampling of website visits, and
sampling from recruited panels of potential participants in research projects.

3. Address-based Sampling (ABS)

In this kind of sampling procedure, postal addresses are utilized as sampling

units. The ABS sampling is used mostly in national surveys.

4. Time-based Sampling

Units of time are used as sampling units in this type of sampling. This is used
in studying repeated outcomes that vary a great deal over time. The units of time
may be time of the day, days of the week, months of the year, or some other time
unit. The time intervals may be the sampling units. The length of the interval would
depend in part on the rate of occurrence of what is to be observed. Preparation
for this type of sampling typically involves visits to the locations where the data will
be collected, observing the density of the target population over time and
gathering information from informants. Using the information obtained, a
sampling frame of time units is developed. Data might be collected several times
per day at time periods selected using simple random sampling or systematic
sampling, upon the occurrence of a specific event, or at specifically scheduled
time intervals.

Subtypes of time-based sampling according to Daniel (2012) are

experience sampling method; events sampling methodology; and the use of time
by employees, equipment, and facilities, known as work sampling. The variables
that may be studied are social interactions, mood swings, level of stress, or factors
that have impact on work experiences and productivity.

5. Space-based Sampling

This refers to a set of sampling procedures that utilize space as a sampling

unit. This type of sampling is also referred to as area sampling, spatial sampling,
location-based sampling, venue-based sampling and facility-based sampling.
The space may be geographical units or various locations or venues. It is the
principal mode of sampling utilized in nationwide personal interview surveys,
environmental sampling, and ecological sampling. (Daniel, 2012).
 CHAPTER 10

Instrumentation/Data Gathering Tools and Techniques

in Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

• Discuss the different tools and techniques used in data gathering.

• Choose correctly and wisely the types of data gathering tools to use in
one's research.
• Write samples of questionnaire items for his/her research.

APPROACHES TO DATA GATHERING

In research, the required information could be taken from either

primary or secondary sources, or both. The information from primary sources are
called primary data, while those coming from secondary sources are referred to
as secondary data.

PRIMARY DATA

Primary data can be gathered through observation, interview process

or questionnaire,

1. OBSERVATION

As Kumar (2011) defines it, observation is a "purposeful, systematic and

selective way of watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it
takes place." In many situations, observation is a very appropriate method of data
collection, especially when respondents are not cooperative or are unaware of
the answer as they could not detach themselves from the interaction. In short,
when the researcher is more interested in the behavior than in the perceptions of
individuals; observation is the best approach to collect the required information.
There are two types of observation:

a. Participant Observation - when the researcher participates in the activities

of the group being observed in the same manner as its members whether
they know that they are being observed or not.
 b. Non-participant Observation - this is the kind of observation wherein the
researcher does not get involved in the activities of the group but remains
a passive observer, watching and listening to the group's activities and
drawing conclusions from these.

2. THE INTERVIEW

This refers to any person-to-person interaction, either face-to-face or

otherwise, between two or more individuals with a specific purpose in mind
(Kumar, 2011). When interviewing a respondent, the researcher has the freedom
to decide the format and content of questions to be asked from the respondents.
Two different categories of interview:

a. Unstructured Interview. This is dominantly used in qualitative research. Under

this category the researcher has complete freedom to use the words,
content, and structure of the interview, and the order or sequence of
questions according to the context of the study.
b. Structured Interview. In this category, the researcher asks a predetermined
set of questions as specified in the interview schedule prepared by the
researcher/ interviewer for a person-to-person interaction which may be
done face-to-face, through telephone, or by other electronic media. The
main advantage of the structured interview is that it provides uniform
information which assures the comparability of data.

3. THE QUESTIONNAIRE

This is a written list of questions intended to provide answers to the problems

of the study. Most surveys are based on questionnaires. The respondents read and
interpret what are expected in the questions then write down the answers. It is
important that questions in the questionnaire are clear and easy to understand. It
has to undergo content and construct validation before it is administered to
respondents. Likewise, the layout of the questionnaire should be such that it is easy
to read and pleasant to the eye. Also, a good questionnaire is one which is
developed in an interactive style. According to Flick (2011), questionnaire studies
aim at receiving comparable answers from all participants. Therefore, the
questions, as well as the interview situation, are designed in an identical way for
all participants.

Choosing between an Interview and a Questionnaire

The following criteria may be observed in the choice between using the
interview or the questionnaire:
 1. The nature of the investigation. Since questionnaire ensures anonymity, it is
preferred for studies that involve issues which respondents may feel
reluctant to discuss with an investigator, such as drug use, sexuality, criminal
activities, personal finances, etc. However, depending on the type of study
population and the skills of the interviewer, there are situations wherein
better information about sensitive issues can be obtained by interviewing
respondents. Hence, in this situation, both questionnaire and interview may
be utilized.

2. The geographical distribution of the study population. In cases wherein the

potential respondents are scattered over a wide geographical area, using
the questionnaire is a better choice since interviewing would entail high
costs.

3. The type of study population. For study populations that are illiterate, very
young, very old, or handicapped, the interview or observation is the best
option.

Advantages of the Questionnaire

• It is less expensive.
• It offers greater anonymity since there is no face-to-face interaction
between the researcher and the respondent.

Advantages of the Interview

• It is more appropriate for complex situations as the interviewer has the

opportunity to prepare a respondent before asking sensitive questions and
to explain complex ones to respondents in person.
• It is useful for collecting in-depth information by probing.
• It can supplement information obtained from responses gathered through
observation of non-verbal reactions.
• The interviewer can explain the questions or put them in a form that is
understood by the respondent.
• Interviewing has a wider application since it can be used with almost any
type of population: children, the handicapped, illiterate, or very old.

Guidelines in Constructing a Research Instrument

To ensure the validity of the instrument, make sure that the questions relate
to the objectives of the study.
 1. Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives, research
questions or hypothesis, if any, to be tested.

2. List all the relevant questions or hypothesis that need to be answered

through your study.

3. For each question identified in Step 2, list the information required to answer
it.

4. Construct the questions that you want to ask of your respondents to obtain
the required information.

5. Use simple language to be easily understood.

6. Do not use ambiguous questions, or those that contain more than one
meaning and which can be interpreted differently by different
respondents.

Validation of the Research Instrument

In order to establish the content validity and reliability of a non-

standardized questionnaire, certain procedures and techniques need to be
carried out.

1. Consultation with experts is one, in order to ensure that theoretical

constructs directly related to the major concepts of the study are fully
established. Comments and suggestions from the experts are closely
observed and considered in improving the questionnaire and making it a
valid tool for data collection.

2. Pre-testing of the revised questionnaire to thirty (30) individuals who

resemble the characteristics of the intended respondents of the study but
who will not be the actual respondents. The purposes of this trial run are to
determine the language suitability and comprehensibility of the items, ease
in following directions from the point of view of the respondents, the
average length of time required to finish answering the questionnaires, as
well as to determine other problems relevant to the activity. These purposes
have to be explained to the "try-out" respondents before they are given the
questionnaire. They will also be instructed to underline words and/or
encircle the item numbers which are not clear to them, and finally, to write
their suggestions, if any.

3. Item-analysis is done after the pre-testing. The accomplished questionnaires

are scored and subjected to a test of reliability. Reliability is one very
 important criterion against which the merits of a research instrument is
judged. It refers to the degree of consistency and precision or accuracy
that a measuring instrument demonstrates. According to Coakes (2013) the
test for reliability has several different models, but the one most commonly
used is the Cronbach's Alpha, a test for internal consistency, which is based
on the average correlation of items within a test. Since Cronbach's Alpha
can be interpreted as a correlation coefficient, it ranges in value from 0 to
1. Alpha values ranging from 0.70 or higher are considered acceptable;
hence those items in the questionnaire with acceptable alpha values may
be retained. Those items that do not meet acceptable standards have to
be revised to fit into the context of the study before the questionnaire is
administered in its final form.

SECONDARY DATA

• Demographic information, census, surveys on labor force, health reports,

and economic forecasts are examples of data found in government or
semi-government publications.

• Preview of research done by others could also provide some required

information.

• Historical and personal records and diaries could also provide some
needed information.

• Published reports in newspaper, magazines or in the internet could also be

sources of secondary data.
 CHAPTER 11

Data Analysis in Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Methods

Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

• Discuss the value of knowing how to analyze both quantitative and

qualitative data.
• Show thorough understanding of the process of data analyses by giving
correct computations in quantitative data or illustrations asked for in the
problem.
• Solve given problems as directed.

QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Several authors sound off the idea that research is a scientific process to
verify ideas and theories by gathering information in order to answer the research
questions. Statistical analysis is relevant for research projects wherein numbers
represent the information gathered. The numerical information gathered to
describe age, income, or levels of agreement or disagreement are referred to as
data. According to Healey (2010), statistics are mathematical techniques used to
examine data in order to answer questions and test theories. For any researcher,
data can be the most trustworthy information which, if properly collected and
thoroughly analyzed, become the most objective foundation about the topic of
research.

Statistics must be applied effectively to organize, evaluate, and analyze

the research data in order to come up with meaningful information that serves to
answer the research problems. The two classes of statistical techniques are
descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

According to Coakes (2013), descriptive statistics are used to explore the

data collected and to summarize and describe those data.
 Research results may be represented in terms of percentages, proportions,
ratios and rates. The following statement which is a research finding may be
considered:

There were 300 students in the school who were surveyed regarding their
opinions about the effects of prohibited drugs. Of this number, 200 said that
prohibited drugs are dangerous; 55 said that drugs have some good
effects in the body; while 45 said they had no idea. There seems to be
nothing wrong with the statement, but the same finding could be better
conveyed in terms of percentages; i.e, almost 67% of the 300 total
respondents said that prohibited drugs are dangerous; 18% said that drugs
have some good effects in the body; while 15% said they have no idea.

As pointed out by Healey (2010), percentage and proportion provide a

frame of reference for reporting research results by standardizing the raw data,
that is, percentage to

the base 100 and proportion to the base 1.00. The mathematical definitions of
percentage and proportion are:

Proportion: P = f/n
Percentage : % = (f/n) x 100

Where:

f = frequency or the number of cases in any category

n = the number of cases in all categories

Table A

Opinions of 300 Students on the Effects of Prohibited Drugs

Opinions of Respondents Frequency (f) Proportion (p) Percentage (%)
1. Prohibited drugs are
198 66%
dangerous to the health of 0.66
a person
2. Drugs have some good 60 0.20 20%
effects in the body
42 0.14 14 %
3. No idea
300 1.00
Total 100%
 Research results may also be summarized simply and clearly through ratios
and rates. Ratios are useful for comparing the number of cases in the categories
of a variable. In this statistic, the frequency of one category is divided by the
frequency in another category, instead of standardizing the distribution of the
variable to the base 100 or 1.00 as what is done in computing percentages and
proportions. Below is the mathematical definition of a ratio:

Ratio = f1/f2

where: f1 = the number of cases in the first category

f2 = the number of cases in the second category

To Illustrate: Suppose the researcher wants to know the relative sizes of the
various elementary schools in a district, and he found that there are 130 public
elementary schools and 85 private elementary schools. To determine the ratio of
the public schools (f1) to private schools (f2), we divide 130 by 85, thus:

Ratio = f1/f2 = 130/85 = 1.529 or 1.53

The computation shows that the ratio is 1.53 which means that for every
private elementary school, there are 1.53 public schools in the district covered by
the study. This result can be expressed thus: based on a unit or ones, the ratio of
public elementary schools to private elementary schools is 1.53:1.

On the other hand, rates provide yet another way of summarizing the
distribution of a single variable. Rates are defined as "the number of actual
occurrences of some phenomenon divided by the number of possible
occurrences per some unit of time" (Healey, 2010). For example, the percentage
of passing rate of board passers in a university refers to the number of passers in
that university (actual occurrences) divided by the number of takers or graduates
who took the board exam (possible occurrence). This quantity is then multiplied
by 100.

Formula:

number of passers (95)

Percentage of Passing Rate = x 100
number of takers (120)

= 95/120=0.7916 × 100 = 79.16%

 Thus, based on the results of these computations, it is observed that the
subject university obtained a 79.16% (percent) rate of passing in the board
examination.

Another technique of presenting large sets of data is through the frequency

distribution. As discussed by Johnson and Kuby (2013), a frequency distribution is
a listing, often expressed in chart form, that pairs values of a variable with their
frequency, or the number of times the value (x) occurs in the sample. For instance,
a study concerns the number of females with varying ages in a group of twenty
contestants in a song contest. The data may be presented as follows:

Table B

Frequency Distribution of 20 Female Contestants According to Age

AGE (x) FREQUENCY (f)

10 - 1
15 - 2
17 - 5
20 - 7
25 - 2
27 - 2
30 - 1
Total = 20

At a glance, the data in Table B gives a picture of the number of female

contestants in every age category. However, when dealing with a larger set of
data, the grouped frequency distribution is more practical. For example, the
research is about determining the number of male evacuees in a relocation
center, categorized according to their ages. Table C is shown as a sample.

Table C

Grouped Frequency Distribution of 100 Males in a Relocation Center

AGE (x) FREQUENCY (f)

0-5 - 20
6-11 - 15
12-17 - 15
18-23 - 10
24-29 - 5
30-35 - 3
36-41 - 3
 42-47 - 2
48-53 - 3
54-59 - 10
60 and above - 14
Total = 100

In this grouped frequency distribution, the arrangement of data makes it

easier to detect how many males have been relocated according to their age
groupings.

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

According to Johnson and Kuby (2013), these are numerical values that
locate, in some sense, the center of a set of data. Measures of central tendency
are expressed as the mean, median, mode and midrange.

1. THE MEAN, which is also called arithmetic mean, is represented by & (or
"x-bar"). This is computed by adding all the values of the variable x, (The
sum of the x values is symbolized by x or summation of Σx) and dividing
the sum by the total number of samples, represented by n. The formula
for this is expressed as:

𝚺𝐱
𝑥=
𝑛
Example:

𝚺𝐱 𝟏𝟒𝟒
X= =10+15+17+20+25+27+30 = =20.57
𝑛 𝑛

The example shows the ages of seven students enrolled in an alternative

class. After computing the mean value, it is determined that the
average age of the seven students in that class is 20.57. Another
description for the mean value is that it represents the middle point of a
group of values according to weight.

2. THE MEDIAN. When the data are ranked in proper order according to
size, the value of the data that occupies the middle position is the
median. The sample median is represented by x͂ & (or "x-tilde") or sample
median. To find the median, three steps have to be followed: (1) rank
the data (2) determine the depth of the median (or number of positions
from either end): depth of median d( 7 ) = sample size + 1, divided by 2.
In our given example, the depth of the median is d( x ) = 4. (3) Determine
 the value of the median by counting the ranked data, locating the data
in the d(X) position.

To illustrate, the median of the given data, (10,15,17,20,25,27,30) is the

fourth value from the lowest rank and likewise from the highest rank.
Therefore, in this case the sample median age is 20(X =20).

3. THE MODE. This refers to the value of x that occurs most frequently in a
set of data. If there is no number that occurs more than once, the
sample has no mode.

4. MIDRANGE. This refers to the number which is found exactly midway

between a lowest data value) and a highest data value (H). To find the
midrange, get the average of the low and the high value. In our given
example, the lowest value is 10 and the highest
10+30 40
value is 30, thus L = 10 and H = 30 = = = 20. In this example, the
2 2
midrange is 20.

The values representing the four measures of central tendency may be

similar, but more likely they will be different. However, the four values
can be used to describe the center in a set of data.

MEASURES OF DISPERSION

Another way of analyzing quantitative data is to look at the spread, or

variability, of the set of data, and we are referring to the measures of dispersion,
which include the range, variance, and standard deviation. The simplest measure
of dispersion is the range, which is the difference in value between the highest
value (H) and the lowest value (L) in a set of data. For example: 5,4,6,7,9 has a
range of H-L = 9-4 = 5. The range of 5 means that these data all fall within a 5-unit
interval. In computing the sample variance or s', we need to understand the
deviation from the mean which simply refers to the difference between the value
of x and the mean, i.e. (x-x̄). When the deviations from the mean are squared and
𝚺(x−x̄ )2
added, the formula for sample variance can be applied as: s2=
𝑛−1
Example: Calculating the Sample Variance

Step 1 find Σx Step 2 find x̄ Step 3 find Step 4 Find Step 5 find s2
(x − x̄ ) 𝚺(x − x̄ )2
𝚺x 𝚺(x−x̄ )2
3 Mean = 3-5= -2 (-2)2= 4 s2=
𝑛 𝑛−1

8 8-5= 3 (3)2= 9
𝟐𝟓
Mean =
5
6 6-5= 1 (1)2= 1

3 3-5= -2 (-2)2= 4
𝟏𝟖
5 5-5= 0 (0)2= 0 s2=
4

Σx= 25 Mean= 5 𝚺(x − x̄ )= 0 𝚺(x − x̄ )2= 18 s2= 4.5

Source: Johnson & Kuby (2013)

The standard deviation of a sample is the positive square root of the

variance:

√𝑺= s2
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

This type of statistics makes use of the information contained in the sample
data to increase the researcher's knowledge about the sampled population.
Through the Sampling Distribution of Sample Means (SDSM), two types of
inferences can be made: 1. estimating the value of a population parameter and
2. testing a hypothesis, (Johnson & Kuby, 2013).

A hypothesis is a tentative statement that something is true, which needs to

be proven through statistical information. In research, the researcher pursues a
belief or concern that an idea is true; however, for the purpose of objectivity, a
scientific testing process has to be done.

The null hypothesis, expressed as H0, is the hypothesis subjected to testing.

The alternative hypothesis, written as H1 is also known as the research hypothesis
since it represents the idea that the researcher theorizes in his study. An example
for the t-test of difference is shown below:
 H0: There is no significant difference between the math scores obtained by
students enrolled in the science section and those enrolled in the regular section.

H1: Students enrolled in the science section will have higher math scores
than those enrolled in the regular section.

Decision Rule: (Johnson & Kuby, 2013)

a. If the p-value is less than or equal to the level of significance (a5.05), the
decision must be to reject Ho
b. If the p-value is greater than the level of significance (a>.05), then the
decision must be to fail to reject H

Results: calculated p-value = 0.035

Decision about H0: Reject H0

Conclusion about H1: There is a probability at the .05 level of significance that the
students under the science section will have higher math scores than those
enrolled in the regular section.

A study which calls for a measurement of relationship may utilize the statistic
of correlation which looks at the relationship between two variables in a linear
fashion. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient or Pearson's r
describes the relationship between two continuous variables (Coakes, 2013). A
hypothesis which calls for a test of relationship may be presented and treated in
a similar pattern as the test for differences; however, the Pearson's r is the statistic
to be computed.

QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

As stressed in social science research, the two pillars of science are logic and
observation (Babbie, 2013). This means that in trying to understand a
phenomenon, or occurrence, the researcher must apply sense of logic as it
corresponds to what is observed.

This calls for analyzing data by looking for patterns of thought or action, and
comparing what is logically expected with what is actually observed.

Qualitative data represent the information gathered in qualitative

researches. These are data that come in words rather than numbers. The concern
in qualitative research is on meanings; hence context and experience are
treated as important. The researcher values subjectivity, and qualitative data are
analyzed backed by philosophical assumptions which could be ontological,
epistemological, or axiological assumptions.

As research is a form of culture, doing qualitative research involves thinking

qualitatively. As mentioned earlier, "the purpose of qualitative research is to
understand or explore meaning and the ways people make meaning, rather than
to prove a theory or determine a relationship between factors" (Braun & Clarke,
2013). Therefore, when a qualitative researcher gathers different sets of
information from the participants, he would arrange them into a particular
pattern, find themes, and from them he can tell a particular story and develop a
theory to explain various aspects of social life.

The analysis of qualitative data could involve several approaches such as

discourse analysis, content analysis, thematic analysis, biographical or narrative
analysis and grounded theory. Hennink, Hutter, & Bailey (2011) pursue the
grounded theory approach wherein they reflect the circular nature of qualitative
data analysis in the analytic cycle but add deductive strategies to their approach
such as deductive code development, deductive comparison, and how
deductive reasoning influences the inductive conceptualizing and theory
building.

As cited by Hennink, Hutter, & Bailey (2011), grounded theory is not a theory
itself, but a process for developing empirical theory from qualitative research that
consists of a set of tasks and underlying principles. It provides an approach
through which theory can be built up through careful observation of the social
world.

The broad process of grounded theory analysis is summarized by Hennink,

Hutter & Bailey (2011) in the following ten tasks which are used to structure the
description of the data analysis process:

1. Researcher prepares verbatim transcripts

2. Anonymize data
3. Develop codes
4. Define codes in a codebook
5. Code data
6. Describe
7. Compare
8. Categorize
9. Conceptualize
10. Develop theory
DATA PREPARATION FOR ANALYSIS

In this process, three main tasks are involved: producing a verbatim

transcript of the interview or group discussion, translating the transcript if
necessary, and removing identifiers from the data to preserve participant
anonymity (Hennink, Hutter & Bailey, 2011).

In verbatim transcription, the researcher makes a written record of an

interview or group discussion for data analysis. A verbatim transcript is essential for
grounded theory analysis as it captures information in participants' own words,
phrases and expressions, allowing researchers to uncover cultural meanings. It is
suggested that a verbatim transcript includes everything that is said in the
interview and that the researcher makes his own decision about any level of
detail that is needed in relation to the purpose of the study. Since verbatim
transcripts become data for analysis, each transcript must be checked for
accuracy and completeness by listening to segments of the recorded interview
while reading the Written transcript to identify any errors or inaccuracies, and
check if something has been omitted. The speakers must also be identified in the
transcript to distinguish the words of the interviewer from those of the participant.
Each transcript must be labeled with an appropriate file name as this is needed
during the analysis.

ANONYMIZING DATA

This is important to preserve the participant's anonymity as part of ethical

consideration. This involves removing the names of people, locations, or specific
information that may reveal the identity of a participant in the study. These
identifiers may simply be left blank in the transcript or replaced with a code or a
pseudonym.

DEVELOPING CODES

This is one of the central activities in qualitative data analysis. A code refers
to an issue, topic, idea, opinion, etc. that is evident in the data. Some of these
codes are raised by the participants themselves and they are called "inductive
codes." Other codes may be prompted by the interviewer using topics in an
interview guide that were defined from literature and theory, and these are called
"deductive codes." Two important purposes of identifying codes are: First, It allows
the researcher to identify the range of issues raised in the data, and for the
participants to understand the meanings attached to these issues. Second, codes
are used as topical markers to index the entire set of data, making it easy to
locate every place in the data where a specific issue is discussed.
MAKING A CODEBOOK

This is important since it is essential in providing a central reference for all

codes in the study. Each code in the codebook should have a name and a
concise definition or description (e.g. 'empowerment, 'pride, 'happiness',
'confidence', etc.)

The process of coding the data involves reading the data carefully and
identifying what has been said by the participants, assessing the context of the
discussion, and then deciding which codes are appropriate.

The foundation for subsequent data analysis in qualitative research is

formed through quality data preparation and code development; hence, there
is a need to ensure the quality of data preparation. Code development should
be well-grounded in the data, conducted systematically and validated for
consistency. (Hennink, Hutter & Bailey, 2011).

To summarize, the researcher prepares a verbatim transcript of the

interview or group discussion to capture the participant's own words, phrases and
expressions and to see their cultural meaning. From the data gathered, the
researcher identifies "codes" which can be an issue, topic, idea, opinion or
behavior that are evident, and which could be linked to the main topic of
research. It is from these codes that specific concepts may be formed by
identifying those with similar characteristics or attributes and grouping them
together into meaningful categories. Considering the relationships between the
categories, and viewing the data as a whole, the researcher then develops a
conceptual understanding of the issues. The final output of these analytical
processes is the theory developed. According to Strauss and Corbin, (in Hennink,
et.al., 2011) "theory is a set of well-developed categories that are systematically
interrelated through statements of relationship to form a theoretical framework
that explains some relevant social, psychological, educational, nursing or other
phenomenon."
 CHAPTER 12

Research Data Organization, Interpretation,

and Discussion
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

• Show the correct way of organizing research data.

• Analyze and interpret the meaning of the results.
• Apply the skill of integrating documentations to generate meaningful
discussions on the data gathered.

ORGANIZING QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DATA

The purpose of this Chapter is to explain the meanings of the results

generated in your study. It rationalizes strongly held concepts prior to the conduct
of the study. In the previous section, the results generated by the employed
research instruments were then organized, presented, and analyzed based on
the specific problems of the study. The organized data that were presented in
tabular or graphical form were then ready for analysis and interpretation. It should
be noted that findings that are not analyzed have no meaning; moreover,
analysis of data without interpretation will have no meaning to the readers.

The interpretation phase involves working with the data, searching for
patterns, organizing them, breaking them into manageable units, coding,
organizing, synthesizing, classifying and have them closely examined for their
meanings. (Gall, et. Al. 2007 and Best, 1990) It will test the researchers' ability and
knowledge of the topic being undertaken. The researcher must be discerning of
the characteristic, patterns, relationships, differences that the data from the
findings might reveal. The researcher may speculate or elaborate further factual
information about the data source. One's range of knowledge about the topic
chosen for the study and the volume of related literature reviewed will be put to
a test.

There are many questions coming from different perspectives that one
might have about the data collected. The data collected were to answer
questions posed earlier. The bases in the examination of data involve decision to
be made on specific problems and objectives of the study as well the hypotheses.
The purpose here is to interpret the meaning of these data represented
numerically or narratively from the table. The analysis and interpretation will show
to the reader the type of information these data communicate.

INTERPRETATION OF QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DATA

The purpose of basic research is to develop solid foundation of reliable

knowledge from. which researches can be built by students doing it the first time.
The data gathered from the findings should be reduced, meaning, it should be
broken into smaller units or categories.

The appropriate method for analyzing data will depend on whether you
are conducting a qualitative or quantitative research. According to Johnson and
Christensen (2000), qualitative data are non-numerical data such as words and
pictures, while quantitative data are numerical data. These are straightforward
definitions. The researcher following these approaches tends to view research
differently. Although different, both approaches will be employed in this chapter
to generate meanings to important knowledge.

1. Interpreting Quantitative Data

Discussions will focus on the explanations of the collected numerical data.

The approach involves deductive method as it focuses on theory testing and
hypothesis testing (Johnson & Christensen, 2000). Quantitative measure reduces
measurement to numbers. In quantitative survey results, variables are set of
categories or codes of data with assigned numerical values relating to one
information. Thus, in a questionnaire that asks (male or female), the variable being
sought is gender variable. The different variables associated with quantitative
measures are the nominal, interval, ordinal and ratio. Each can be used with
different techniques in different ways. As a researcher, you will act as a go
between the data you have gathered and the public who will be interested in
your work. Your role is to present a summarized data to facilitate understanding.
The data will be meaningful to them if they were counted, compared,
differentiated or summarized. That's why, aside from ensuring that you have basic
knowledge of statistics, it is also important that you have a way with words to
describe collected data. It is easy to gather data from respondents when
questionnaires are provided with questions or statements and response choices
with instruction to make judgment about each item. These response choices
(Matthews, et. al. 2007), summated rating scales (Johnson, 2000) or rating scales
are also called Likert scales. The Likert scale is composed of multiple items that
are designed to measure the same idea or construct. Research may use four
points to eleven rating scale. Indicated below are examples of response
categories for rating scales (Johnson, 2000), using 4 point (see Column B) and 5
point rating scale (shown in Column A, C and D). These are just few of the
commonly used rating categories for adjectival interpretation.
 A. C.
B. BELIEF D. PROBABILITY
AGREEMENT FREQUENCY
5 Strongly 4 Definitely 5 Very Often 5 A lot more likely
Agree true
4 Agree 3 Probably 4 Fairly often 4 Somewhat
true more likely
3 Neutral 2 Probably 3 Seldom 3 No difference
false
2 Disagree 1 Definitely 2 Hardly ever 2 Somewhat less
false likely
1 Strongly 1 Never 1 A lot less likely
Disagree

Take note of the above examples, particularly Column B. It shows a

balanced distribution of rating scales where distribution of two positive scales and
two negative scales are evenly distributed. Same pattern could be done, with a
five-point scale, where the researcher may just eliminate the middle or third scale
in a row. Hence, Column A will appear like this.

4 = Strongly Agree
3 = Agree
2 = Disagree
1 = Strongly Disagree

Or if a choice is for three-point scale, from a five-point scale, eliminate the

topmost positive and the bottom most negative scale, that leaves you the middle
three. For example, in Column A, where the researcher decides to use the three-
point scale, the scale categories should be:

1 = Agree
2 = Neutral
3 = Disagree

The use of multiple ratings provide more reliable scores to a bigger

participants for one time collection. The results/answers derived quantitatively will
attempt to "confirm" the questions/problems sought early on in the study. With the
use of adjectival/rating scales, finding in statistical reports are given appropriate
meanings.

For example, a teacher would like to find out how many students in her
class frequent the library, we could use the information in dividing the class into
three or four groups ranging from "frequent user" to "hardly ever user". The teacher
could use this variable to explore whether there are differences in academic
performance among students who are "frequent users", "seldom users" or "hardly
ever users"! If "seldom users" turned out to have 67% above average performing
students, that would be an interesting finding indeed!

2. INTERPRETING QUALITATIVE DATA

In qualitative research, data are non-numerical, meaning they are either in

words or pictures. The data that were collected from observations, interviews,
documents, pictures, and forms are voluminous. It requires data to be reduced to
certain patterns, categories or themes, which are then interpreted using some
schema. This means that data will have to be broken down into smaller pieces so
that a larger and consolidated picture can emerge (Johnson, 2000). To do this, a
researcher will have to focus at the many dimensions, behaviors or phenomena
being observed. The researcher is operating in the exploratory mode of research,
because little is known about the phenomenon being studied. In qualitative
approach, data from respondents or co-researcher or informants are treated in
somehow unique way. The researcher should always "think with the data being
gathered," because analysis of qualitative data largely depends on the
interpretation of the raw data (Matthews & Ross, 2010). In most qualitative
approach, data collection and data analysis occur at the same time. It is then
advisable for the researcher to keep an index card handy (field notes) to record
ideas and concept that crop up during data collection. Here, the researcher uses
induction method to explore why certain phenomenon operates or look into
specifics or insights in order to develop "big picture". From field notes, data are
organized, coded and ideas are pieced together to work with key ideas. At this
point, the researcher is processing the data known as thematic analysis. Thematic
analysis, according to Grbich (2007), is "a process of segmentation,
categorization and relinking of aspects of data prior to final interpretation."

Interpreting qualitative data is facilitated by researcher's ability to capture

in words, stories, accounts, explanations of co-researchers. That is why, besides
notebooks, diaries, gadgets like tape recorder and now cell phones, are excellent
tools to record informant's accounts. Transcription of recorded interviews are put
alongside with other co-researchers or in some case documents are put
alongside each other to describe, get meaning and explore data for meanings.
In interpreting data gathered through interview, the researcher should have
direct contact with and close to people, and phenomenon under study says
Patton (1990, in Johnson & Christensen, 2000).

Excerpt from the research of Fr. Domdom (2006), illustrates one of the many
themes developed in the study. One of the themes, "poverty" emerged from the
researcher's interpretation of the "live experience of student-assistants". The former
student-assistants of the Universities "life stories" were explored. Their life stories
were culled out from repeated interviews. Encoded transcriptions of the
interviews from each of the seventeen co-researchers were coded for similarities
while consequently resorting to the field notes the researcher jotted down during
interviews. This process attended to by the researcher could be laborious but
once the links between pieces of information (from interview, documented
events, observation) were established, common theme(s) emerged. The
researcher will now work out with key ideas or themes to identify meanings that
emerge as basis for further interpretation.

Example of a Discussion of one Common Theme: Poverty

The co-researchers narrated memories of poverty. (a) Benjie

remembered his father selling slippers in Caloocan in order to have some
money for the family. (n) Rem, (g) Anthony and (e) Che narrated incidents
wherein the experience of poverty was real. Their situation might have been
brought about by natural occurrences like the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo as told
by (m) Lala or the experience of typhoon that brought hunger for several days
to the family (o) Joan. Poverty was also described in unfortunate events, the fire
that ruined the livelihood for (a) Benjie, the untimely death of a father for (d)
Adie or with parents losing job or having no permanent income to support the
needs of the family. Another face of poverty as a number of co-researchers
describe it is the size of the family. Brothers and sisters were going to college at
the same time with limited or no resources at all as what happened with (b)
Malou and (f) Cecille. (c) Ogie and (1) Maricel tried to describe poverty with
staying at home having no income and (h) Arnold with his losing his permanent
work. Separation from family at a young age is perceived as an abnormal
situation as described by (j) Henry or the need to do summer job in a beach
resort as experienced by (k) Pando. Poverty was also narrated in the things that
they had and had been deprived of. For (i) Marianne the advent of her mother's
sickness was the beginning of the disintegration of her family. Her father had
foregone his job as a seaman to attend to her ailing mother. She had relatives
who accepted her and her siblings but that is the last resort one would like to
happen to him or her- to be distributed to the care of relatives. (d) Adie had a
strong mother, one can just imagine the agony she went through, but he missed
her motherly warmth at night to comply with the policy of orphanage that took
them. The poverty was real; it has stuck into the consciousness and has affected
families.

In the a forecited excerpt, the concept of "poverty" was built from the
experiences of the co-researchers. It describes what the word "poverty" means to
them. During data-gathering, while the researcher is on a face-to-face interview,
the researcher must stay focused to note key concepts that unfolds naturally. In
other words, the researcher is already interpreting the data while gathering it! As
the researcher became immersed in the experiences narrated by each of his
subject-respondents, researcher can already interpret the meanings of the data
through genuine exploration of details and specifics. The interview guide, the
follow-up questions, then probing questions give cue to the key concept to be
formed. A researcher's personal insights are also part of the inquiry and are critical
to understanding of the phenomenon. The in-depth analysis of the narration in an
interview derived new meanings to the study.

Interpretation Related to the Statement of the Problem

To interpret the data generated by a survey questionnaire, let us cite from

an actual study conducted to demonstrate interpretation of data related to one
of the specific problems in the study. An excerpt from the study conducted by
Bohan (2013) illustrates this concern.

Table 1 presents answer to the problem:

What is the level of writing proficiency of students?

Now peruse Table 1 and read what the table conveys. It identifies the level
of proficiency among students learning Chinese language. The writer of the
paper discussed each context and not merely stating it but is analyzing and
interpreting it as well.

Presented in Table 1 is the result of the writing test given to the students in
a Chinese class.
Table 1
Students' Writing Proficiencies

Contexts Mean Standard Adjectival Rating

Deviation
Content 3.39 0.49 Level 3
Good to Average
Organization 2.15 0.79 Level 2
Fair to poor
Vocabulary 1.54 0.50 Level 1
Very poor
Language Use 1.72 0.45 Level 1
Very Poor

Contexts Mean Standard Adjectival Rating

Deviation

Mechanics 1.54 0.50 Level 1

 Very poor
Composite Mean 2.06 0.68 Level 2
Fair to Poor

Legend:

4 Excellent to Very Good Level 4

3 Good to Average Level 3
2 Fair to Poor Level 2
1 Very Poor Level 1

Table 1 shows the students' writing proficiencies in five areas.

In terms of Content, (X=3.39), it shows that the students are Good to

Average in the area of content, which means that they have some knowledge
of the subject and their knowledge of the subject matter is in the adequate
range.

In terms of Organization (X=2.15), the students are Fair to Poor in the area
of organization which means that they are non-fluent and their ideas are
confusing and disconnected.

In terms of Vocabulary (X=1.54), The students are Very Poor in the area of
vocabulary which means that what they are doing is essentially translation; they
have little knowledge of Chinese vocabulary.

Language Use (X=1.72), the students are Very Poor in the area of
language use which means that they virtually have no mastery of sentence
construction rules, and

Lastly, in terms of Mechanics (X=1.54, the students are very poor in the
area of mechanics which means that they have no mastery of conventions of
the Chinese language.

The composite mean of 2.06 with its corresponding standard deviation of

0.68, indicates that students' writing proficiency is at "fair to poor". It identifies the
level of proficiency of Chinese students in English language at Level 2.
The standard deviations are small which implies that the students have
homogenous abilities in each of the five areas.

The data in the table showed five proficiencies. Take the case of the result
of English proficiency in terms of Content with mean value equivalent to 3.39 and
the corresponding standard deviation at 0.49. The researcher interpreted the
result as indicated below, based on the Legend provided in interpreting the
results.

"it shows that the students are Good to Average in the area of content"...

The statement above shows the researcher's analysis of the numerical data
presented in Table 1. The succeeding statement shows the interpretation of the
findings.

"which means that they have some knowledge of the subject and their
knowledge of the subject matter is in the adequate range."

It shows the meanings of the result of the study. As can be gleaned from
the sample analysis and interpretation cited earlier, you can determine now that
design of your study and the way in which the data are analyzed are closely
related.

The findings of the whole table conveyed (What is the level of students'
writing proficiency?) is indicated in the last two paragraphs of Bohan's (2013)
study. Take for emphasis the item that was stated in the findings on;

"The composite mean of 2.06 with its corresponding standard deviation of

0.68, indicates that students' writing proficiency is at "fair to poor". It identifies the
level of proficiency of students in writing the Chinese language at Level 2. The
standard deviations are small which implies that the students have homogenous
abilities in each of the five areas."

Therefore, the interpretation of the meanings of the findings is found in the

way the findings are specified in the composite mean or overall mean. There is a
need for the researcher to be inquisitive and to ask questions and seek out
information about data. And since data are in numerical form, it is important that
you should have knowledge of statistics.

Now, there are other issues that you, as a researcher, must be aware of to
be considered as a researcher. The findings in your study may not produce
conclusive findings that you can depend on, this means that you need to seek
out information from other sources. It means that there could be written literature
or studies conducted on the same topic, conducted in a different way.

To find meanings to the result of the study, you will merge your findings with
the information obtained from cited literature with the intention of forming a new
body of knowledge (Mathews & Ross, 2010). In this section, relate your findings to
other similar studies you have reviewed. This is the interpretation part of the study.
At this point you can tell the reader about some points raised in the previous
literature that may support your findings and this will show how important your
study is and by doing so, it will strengthen further your study.

Now, let us look at another study, that of Umagat (2014) showing

interpretation of the findings from the study supported by literature searched.
Noteworthy is the inclusion of an authority referred to in the study.

Table 2 shows the perception of pupil-respondents on the effect of

teacher/school expectation on their academic performance.

Table 2

Extent of Factors Influencing Academic Performance in Terms of

Teacher/School Expectation

Teacher/School Expectation Mean SD Verbal

Interpretation
Teacher sets high expectation 2.936 1.219 Great Extent
Teacher adjusts standards to level 2.744 1.032 Great Extent
of pupils
Teacher ensures that pupils know 2.650 1.092 Great Extent
their expectations
Teacher does not set standard 2.654 1.268 Great Extent
Teacher believes in the potential 2.733 1.181 Great Extent
of pupils
Composite Mean 2.781 0.684 Great Extent
Legend: Very Great Extent = 3.50 - 4.00; Great Extent = 2.50 - 3.49;
Slight Extent = 1.50 - 2.49; None at all = 1.00 - 1.49

The table is revealing the fact that teacher/school expectations greatly

influence the academic performance of the students, based on the composite
mean value of 2.781 with corresponding standard deviation of 684. Pupil
respondents are close in their perception on teachers' high expectations. This
result affirms Lynch's expectation theory (2011) focusing on how teacher treat
students. Teachers often expect less from students of certain, ethnic, and
cultural backgrounds. When teachers expect students to perform poorly, they
approach teaching in ways that align with their low levels of expectations.
The findings generated meaningful interpretation as the study unfolds
about the impact of ethnic differences on the academic performance in a
Muslim-dominated school environment. It necessitated that researcher must
clearly present information that other researchers have contributed to the subject
and attributed to others through documented citations and reference, thus,
making the findings more meaningful.
 In some studies, findings may contradict an established literature. When this
happens the researcher is presenting a new concept that could be opened for
further validation.

Excerpt from the study of Cruz (2013) showed the researcher's discussion on
the findings on students at risk for EBD in terms of affective strength. She cited
literature review that was not supportive of her findings. Let us look at Table 3.

Table 3
Descriptives: Behavioral Strengths of Students at Risk for Emotional or
Behavioral
Disorder in Terms of Affective Strength

Affective Strength Mean SD Verbal

Interpretation
It's okay when people hug me. 2.423 .757 Much like you
let someone know when my feelings are hurt 1.884 .032 Much like you
I ask for help when I needed it 2.625 .992 Very much like
you
I care about how others feel 2.230 .651 Much like you
When I have a problem, I talk with others 1.146 1.066 Not Much like
about it. you
I feel close to others 1.760 .827 Much like you
I let people know when like them 2.076 .844 Much like you
Composite Mean 2.967 .508 Much like you

Legend: Very much like you = 2.50 - 3.00; Much like you = 1.50 - 249;
Not much like you = .50 - 1.49; Not at all like you =0. - .49

Table 3 shows assessment of affective strength reveals an overall mean value

of 2.967 with corresponding standard deviation of .508 and interpreted to mean
"Much Like you". This could mean that a possibility is there that students at risk
for EBD may have affective strength but for reasons, are hindered in manifesting
proper expression and regulation of their emotions. The low standard deviation
scores reveal commonality of assessment among respondents.

Most of the respondents had expressed that they "ask for help when they need
it" from which we may infer the existence of meaningful relationships between
them and a significant somebody. In the same way, the item, "It's okay when
people hug me" which majority of the respondents have chosen, indicates that
 subjects are emotionally receptive to concern, and affection given them and
possibly are also ready to reciprocate with a positive expression if they could
see or feel that respect and sincere appreciation are given them as individuals.
The findings did not corroborate with those of Schoner-Reichl cited in Heward
(2001) which says that students with EBD, as compared to peers without
disabilities, have low levels of empathy towards others and have lower quality
relationships. A person's affective quality enables him/her to accept affection
and express feelings toward others. This ability is related to empathy or ability to
detect emotions, to take another's perspective and to feel with that person or
respond emotionally in a similar way.

The respondents are not yet identified as students with EBD considering the
limited assessments that had been done to them. In view of this fact, the
probability of affective strength is not remote.

The findings revealed that subject students at risk for EBD showed affective
strength and it was found that it is common to all the subject students as indicated
by low standard deviation scores.

"..This could mean that a possibility is there that students at risk for EBD may
have affective strength but for reasons, are hindered in manifesting proper
expression and regulation of their emotions. The low standard deviation scores
reveal commonality of assessment among respondents..."

Based on this analysis and interpretation EBD, through affective strength

provided a new meaning. The researcher went to cite other characteristics that
affirm the presence of affective strength.

Most of the respondents had expressed that they "ask for help when they
need it... "It's okay when people hug me" which majority of the respondents have
chosen, indicates that subjects are emotionally receptive to concern and
affection given them and possibly are also ready to reciprocate.....

It necessitates that researcher must clearly present information that other

researchers have contributed to the subject and attributed to others through
documented citations and reference. Let us take a second look at discussion of
Table 3, the findings turned out to be opposed with the findings in a previous
study. It is to prove the researcher's strongly held points.

..The findings did not corroborate with those of Schoner-Reichl cited in

Heward(2001) which says that students with EBD, as compared to peers without
disabilities, have low levels of empathy towards others and have lower quality
relationships..."
 Here, the materials used by the researcher from other source was not
supported by the findings of the current study. It shows that new knowledge
emerged. The emergence of new knowledge when pitted against an established
knowledge, provides an avenue for further validations, speculations, until
synthesis of old and new concept would result in new meaning then new body of
knowledge is created.

INTERPRETING DATA GATHERED THROUGH TESTING HYPOTHESIS

In previous discussion of this section, interpretation of research findings was

based on the researchers' attempt to describe numerical characteristics of their
data with regard to the problem of the study. It is important that researcher must
be familiar with basic statistical procedures to shed light and meanings to the
findings.

Educational research deals with two kinds of statistical data, descriptive

data and statistical data (Matthews & Ross, 2010). In the previous sections,
descriptive data in tabular form were presented. Now, you need to become
familiar with some symbols that are used to represent in several commonly used
statistical presentations. We have introduced statistical analysis as a series of
techniques in presenting the findings for analysis and interpretation in a forecited
study in this unit. This was done to explore and address the research questions that
have been posed for interpretation. In case of tabular presentations, that actively
assist the readers of this book, they were pointed out and were considered
noteworthy. However, there are readers who may welcome certain amount of
interpretative elaboration, particularly when reading a student's thesis. Readers
may want to find out relationship that exists among variables investigated. Since
specific statements have been cited, it follows that investigation be made to
illustrate some expectations or predictions of relationship between variables.

A hypothesis is a prediction or guess of the relation that exists among

variables being investigated (Wonnacott & Wonnacott, 1990). A hypothesis must
be stated so that it is capable of being either refuted or confirmed. The result will
answer relationships that exist among variables.

In our previously cited example, on students who would frequent the library,
a perception may be formed. A study wanted to find out whether students who
are "frequent library user" or "seldom library user" will differ in their academic
performances. According to Wonnacott (1990) we usually settle this argument by
constructing a 95% confidence interval. In general, any hypothesis that lies
outside the confidence may be judged implausible, that is, it can be rejected.
On the other hand any hypothesis that lies within the confidence interval maybe
judged plausible or acceptable. In conforming to the tradition, we usually speak
of testing at an error level of 5%.

The hypothesis, according to the author (Wonnacott & Wonnacott, 1990),

is of particular interest, it is called null hypothesis since it represents no difference
whatsoever. In rejecting it because it lies outside of the confidence level, we
establish the important claim that there was indeed a difference between
students who are "frequent user" and those who are "seldom users". The result is
traditionally called statistically significant at the 5% significance level.

There is problem with the term "statistically significant". It is a technical

phrase that simply means enough data has been collected to establish that
differences do exist. It does not mean that the difference is necessarily important.
Wonnacott and associate went on to explain that,

Statistically significant at the 5% significance level is the traditional phrase

typically encountered in the scientific literature. It means exactly the same thing
as our statistically discernible at the 5% error level.

If a 5% level of significance is being used, it would be natural to speak of

the hypothesis being tested at a 5% confidence level. Now, to return to our
example, let us formally conclude that with 5% level of significance, we can reject
the hypothesis of no difference. In other words, we have collected enough
evidence so that we can see a difference in academic performance between
"frequent library users' and "seldom library users". This means that the result is
statistically different.

In print out data of commonly used statistical package, the decision criteria
for accepting or rejecting hypothesis is on the computed p-value (significance
value). The p-value summarizes clearly how much agreement there is between
the data and null hypothesis (H,). The p-value is an excellent way to summarize
what data says about the credibility of H.

Culled out to illustrate the hypothesis testing was from another research
conducted by Dumrong (2013).

Table 4
Differences Based on Monthly Income: Extent of the Quality of Work Life of
Administrators in the Area: Development of the Ability of the Individual
 Indicators Income Mean SD MD T- P-
Value Value
There is freedom to <10,000 3.50 0.577 0.437
-0.500 -0.845
express creativity at work >10,000 4.00 1.000
There is opportunity to
<10,000 3.50 0.577
learn or be taught
-0.167 -0.255 0.809
innovation and new
>10,000 3.67 1.155
technology at work
Provide financial <10,000 3.75 0.500
assistance to personnel to -0.583 -0.924 0.398
pursue higher education >10,000 4.33 1.155
Delegate responsibilities to <10,000 3.25 0.500
personnel with capabilities -1.083 -2.665 0.045*
for the job >10,000 4.33 1.155
Recognize and award
<10,000 3.75 0.500
outstanding
accomplishment of -0.250 -0.441 0.667
teaching personnel >10,000 4.00 1.000
Over-all <10,000 3.55 0.341
-0.516 -1.500 0.022*
>10,000 4.066 0.577
(* Significant at alpha=0.05)

As gleaned from the table, there is significant difference in the assessment

between two groups of administrators who have monthly income of more than
10,000.00 baht per month and those who have less than or equal to 10,000.00
baht per month on the variable, development of the ability of the individual.
The overall t-value of -1.500 with the corresponding probability value of 0.022 is
significant at Alpha 0.05. This means that there is sufficient evidence to prove
that the difference in monthly income among administrators with regards to
QWL's development of the ability of the individual could vary. This may seem to
indicate that the respondents with lower monthly income may have been in
favor of the manner in which management of the school recognizes and
rewards employees who have capabilities to do the job.

In the above cited study, the null hypothesis was stated that administrators,
based on their monthly income, assessed differently the QWL's development of
the ability of the individual. Take note of the overall numerical data in the column
with the heading " t-value" in the table and the column with "p-value" heading. It
was read,
 The overall t-value(t-test) of -1.500 with a computed p-value of 0.022,
rejects the null hypothesis. Indicating significant difference in the assessment of
significance of two groups of respondents at 0.05 level of significance.

Besides the statistical analysis, additional explanation on the findings was

expressed by the researcher, where,

...This means that there are sufficient evidence to prove that the difference
in monthly income among administrators with regards to QWL's development of
the ability of the individual could vary...

It showed enough data to reject the hypothesis. In addition to the

interpretation of the findings, the researcher speculated further, that;

"This may seem to indicate that the respondents with lower monthly income
may have been in favor of the manner in which management of the school
recognizes and rewards employees who have capabilities to do the job."

This part of the discussion presented by the researcher is "what the data
says".

This means that there are other information that the researcher could have
explored and gave further meaning to the difference in the two groups'
perceptions. By citing, the confidence interval in a hypothesis testing, the finding
is interpreted and given new meaning.
 CHAPTER 13

Writing the Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation

Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

• Determine the objective and rationale of drawing conclusions and stating

the recommendations.
• Show samples of conclusions and recommendations drawn from a study.
• State and realize the importance of coming up with correct and well-
formulated conclusions and recommendations.

In this part of the study, the researcher will describe his/her insights of the
overall strength/weakness of his/her study. Depending on the type of research
conducted, quantitative research use statistical criteria to form conclusions. While
qualitative measure draws conclusions from themes and holistic meanings
derived context of behavior studied. According to Russey, et, al. (2006) it is the
part of the thesis where you can make comment on the overall significance of
major findings of your study. However, presentation of findings should be limited
in the sense that there is no need to display the entire study, however it should
possess some quality of an overview but with a glimpse of the past and a focus
towards the future (Russey, 2006). According to Tan (n.d.) conclusions are the
logical outgrowth of the summary of findings as a result of conceptualizations and
generalizations in response to the problems used in the study. The same process
can be observed between quantitative and qualitative approaches to research.

DRAWING CONCLUSIONS FROM QUANTITATIVE STUDIES

Now, let us consider the sample analysis and interpretation from the study
of De Guzman (2013), on the researcher's explanation of the respondent's
justification on deviation from Montessori teaching strategies.

In Table 61, the teacher justifies that the lecture-discussion method which
she employed is still interactive because the students get to answer her questions.
This is still unacceptable because the students could have been more actively
engaged in their learning if they are the ones reading the new material and
discovering learning by themselves.
The cited paragraph presents the teacher-respondents' justification on the
deviation from Montessori teaching strategies in science. Now, in the Conclusion,
a portion of this analysis was mentioned, thus;
forward:

... It is very conspicuous that the teachers could not yet deviate from the
traditional methodology of doing the lecture-discussion. They are still worried that
the students might not be able to understand the new lesson if they do not lecture.
They still have the false belief that the lecture-discussion engages active learning
because the students participate in the question-and-answer portion. They have
not yet incorporated in their system that allowing students to discover new
knowledge by themselves is a better teaching methodology.

The conclusion as cited by the researcher illustrated the conceptualization

and generalizations in response to the problems raised in the study about the
teacher-respondents deviation from Montessori teaching strategies. The logical
outgrowth of the summary of findings cited above demonstrate how conclusion
could be stated. Here, we offer a few more examples (Russey, 2006) of findings
from a hypothetical set-up that would illustrate Conclusions from quantitative
studies:

" For this reason the new method should lend itself well to routine analytical
applications specially since every aspect is subject to straightforward
automation...

Or perhaps one could head their "bottom line" to a more speculative

direction, when the researcher would express in her conclusions:

".. that the yield in the process could probably be increased further by...
which would in turn reduce the reliance on ..."

In summary, conclusions should focus on the answers to major problems

raised in the study more particularly on the results of hypotheses testing (Tan, n.d)
or for the researcher to demonstrate his creative best and savor a bit of
intellectual stimulus (Russey, 2006), or in a sense related in some way to
implications with consequences that might be perhaps anticipated.

DRAWING CONCLUSIONS FROM A QUALITATIVE STUDY

The discussion that follows should confirm that there are similarities in
crafting a conclusion. Like those conclusions cited in quantitative studies, the
manner in which they are presented are somewhat related to implications,
elaborations or generalization.

Excerpt from a qualitative study conducted by Yap (2010), the study

described the out-of-school adolescents' life stories, perception of life and how
they envision their future. To deal with the conclusions, the researcher's analysis
and interpretation of the findings is herein presented:

...The co-researchers' life stories are one of struggle; specifically portraying

the ways how the out-of-school adolescents, in their extremely inadequate
capacities, attempt to uplift the family from the bondage of poverty...

From the above perspective, a conclusion represents a culmination effort

on the discussion of the results. The researcher is explaining and encouraging the
reader to give significance to his efforts by the meaning of his work conveyed.
Thus, the conclusion runs as follows:

In the light of this scenario it is safe to make a general statement that some
Filipino out-of-school youth, even if they are not attending school for one reason
or another, have the desire to help alleviate their family's economic conditions. In
the same manner they have the aspiration to relieve the yoke off their parents'
shoulders by throwing in a share in the latter's obligation.

CONTENTS OF THE CONCLUSIONS

Writing your conclusion is more than simply summarizing the findings. You
need to write what finding means and how it can be applied. According to
Russey (2006), you may start writing your conclusions with the following phrases :

It therefore stands to reason out.......

This development would presumably lend itself to such application as.......
Only further study will resolve whether.........
In the light of the a forecited findings, it is safe to conclude that...

It is not enough that you have stated your conclusion with the suggested
abovementioned phrases, your conclusion must be unique and the content must
reflect your research paper.

The following are suggested:

1. It should remind the reader of what you have done, what has been
answered and summarized what has been learned and discovered. An
excerpt from Gonzales' ( 2011) study illustrates conclusion in this regard:

It can be deduced that even if a learning structure is organized around the

principles of greater efficiency, effectiveness and relevance, there are still
conditions that exist limiting today's learning needs.
2. It is a good practice for the researcher to evaluate her/his study as a whole
and discuss its strengths and weaknesses. Recall or consider all the things in
 your research that went well and those that turned out less well. This could
lead to a discussion on how future researchers might refine or redesign the
methodology (Matthews & Ross, 2010). An excerpt from Monsalve's (2007)
conclusion, illustrates this concern:

There was resistance on the part of the shipping companies to holistically

deal with concerns for assessment, this imply that an indepth analysis through
marketing research stands as an offshoot of organizational plans on customer
satisfaction.

3. If the research has practical application, the researcher might want to

make suggestions for future practice or policy.

4. Personal reflections may not be appropriate for some types of research, but
it can be useful in reflecting on an impact on specific individual in the
research. As cited by Galvan (1999) drawing conclusions may need
assertions made by the researcher and findings presented.

There is no one formula for writing research conclusions. You may derive a
general conclusion for the whole study and draw minor ones, or you may cite
conclusions for every problem answered in the study. No matter what, the end
point is that, conclusions provide meaning to the findings of the study in the
context of the research problems.

FORMULATING RECOMMENDATIONS

Considering the summarized findings and conclusions, recommendations

are formulated to improve a particular field specified in the research report. It is
addressed to particular sectors concerned or the intended beneficiaries of the
research study such as the general public and the government among others, for
their adoption and or implementation.

One of the greatest challenges in preparing recommendation is organizing

the content as effectively as possible. It should convey the tangible
accomplishments of your thesis/ dissertation or research project bearing some
constraints. Thoughts along this line would lead us to further scrutiny and
evaluations. Thus, devoting attention for further suggestions and comments
delineated clearly, the true value of a research output can only be properly
appreciated in the face of some inherent limitations (Russey, 2006).

Recommendation should bear an introductory statement or paragraph

that link them back to the findings and conclusion, outlining the areas needing
attention or immediate course of action. Recommendation should be clear,
concise and correct. It is "usually longer than conclusion but shorter than findings"
(Baugh, 1999). The recommendation is also the proper place to address
academic reports that suggest, propose or recommend decisive actions for
immediate solutions, phrases pointing in this direction could take the forms like:

In the light of ...t.... we should ensure that....

In view of ...
Given that...
Due to the fact...
In view of the fact that ..

Recommendations should be stated like objectives. It should be specifically

stated, measurable, achievable or doable, result oriented, and time-bound or
SMART. The recommendation is also the proper place to address academic
reports after findings and conclusions and these are usually grouped into topics
following the sequence of the findings of the stated problems in the study.
Recommendation, like objectives may be stated following the "SMART" acronym:
Illustrated examples are as follows:

1. Recommendations that are Specific may be expressed in the following

manner:

"Increase sales through marketing campaign".

It shows specific actions to be done to execute the recommended task for

whom the recommendation is addressed.
Culled out from another sample study, it illustrates a recommendation that specify
method of implementation.

... The researcher further recommends some interventions like, rest pauses
between classes, flexile time for those with young school age children, shorter
working days, special lunch periods, special lounging room for teaching staff
(Dumrong, 2013).

2. Recommendations that are Measurable may be stated as follows (culled

out from hypothetical study);

Improve training by increasing pay increment for each additional year of

service. This would prevent the staff from leaving. In the long run, it will save the
company from recruiting and training new staff.

3. Recommendation can be Achievable. Indicated below are samples of

recommendations from hypothetical studies and from a defended thesis
that express achievability:
 We should retrain staff who consistently do not meet targets. Periodic
inventory of library holdings and laboratory equipment must be conducted to
update, calibrate, repair, replenish and procure materials immediately needed.
Establish sharing of resources with other institutions to solve the problem on
maintenance of expensive equipment and services. (Gonzales, 2011)

...The researchers have thought of a scheme for the co-researchers which

would be presented to the CM Provincial Superior and Adamson University
President in due time: (1) the co-researchers would study at Adamson University;
(2) they would serve as student assistants in any of the CM Rectory because
Adamson University is not accessible to someone coming from Sucat. Further they
would receive all benefits accorded to student assistants, i.e. free education at
Adamson University, free board and lodging at the CM Rectory, and allowance
for school related activities/projects (Yap, n.d.).

4. Recommendation should be Result-oriented. Recommendation should

provide good results for stakeholders. Excerpt from research studies illustrate this
characteristic:

That Montessori instructional materials are implemented by the teachers

and that the department head should conduct regular visits to the class to
determine if the teachers are following strictly the procedure and strategies of
teaching (De Guzman, 2013).

This paper recommends a Theory-Generating Research Framework for

Poverty Reduction. The findings and conclusions in the study served as baseline
data in the evolution of this framework (Yap, n.d.).

5. Recommendation that is Time-bound is illustrated through a sample from

a hypothetical study shown below:

The findings suggest that procedure should be set-up so that newly hired
librarians are not allowed to serve users, until they have finished with training. A
new librarian who will be on duty for the first time should always be accompanied
by a senior librarian or its library coordinator for a certain period.

Recommendations, as gleaned from the aforecited samples, should be

clear, concise, and correct. The same is true when making academic and
business recommendation reports. Moreover, depending on the nature of study
conducted, the researcher should be aware of certain concerns in making
suggestions. Thus, business report recommendations are expected to be ethical
and legal. Style and tone depending on culture with regard to the use of
language should be properly observed.
 SESSION 3

Writing and Communicating

the Research Paper
Section Intended Learning Outcome (SILO)

Deliberately gain knowledge and skill in communicating research procedure

and report clearly.
 CHAPTER 14

Writing and Communicating the Research Paper

Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

• Recognize the important considerations, elements attended to in

preparing research reports.
• Observe technical suggestions in writing manuscript of a thesis or
dissertation.

Research report preparation vary with the kind of study and for whom the
report is to be presented. Quantitative research and qualitative research are two
kinds of paper that differ in their presentation. Research prepared for publication
should meet its association/ membership's requirements. In other words, what
really matters is that the results are communicated clearly and that the main
concern now of the researcher would be the appropriateness of the presentation
with consideration on the format, style and language used.

WRITING TECHNIQUES: FORMS AND STYLE

Preparation of the research report requires clarity of expression and orderly

presentation of ideas (Johnson & Christensen, 2000). This means that the
language to be used should avoid jargon, verbosity, free from biased
assumptions, and grammatically correct.

The style mostly utilized in writing research reports specify or recommend

the American Psychological Association (APA) format. Depending on the type of
research reports, major parts vary. Johnson and Christensen (2000) enumerated
seven major parts, these include the following: Title Page, Abstract, Introduction,
Methods, Results, Discussion, and References.

Moreover, Russey, et. al (2006) mentioned "standard structure" of a fairly

common thesis structure, namely: Title Page, Preface/Acknowledgements,
Contents, Abstract, List of Symbols, Introduction, Results, Discussions, Conclusions,
Experimental Section, Bibliography, Appendices, Remarks, and Vita.

There are certain parts mentioned that are merged with other elements or
may not be present at all. Take the format and style highlighted in the work of
Slade (2003), where most part of the discussion were patterned in the preparation
of thesis and dissertation content. The format and structure of thesis and
dissertation are categorized into three parts:

Part 1. Preliminaries or Front matter

Part II. Text (Body)
Part III. Back Matter (End matter)

Now let us discuss each of these:

PART I. PRELIMINARIES (FRONT MATTER)

The preliminaries consist of the following (in sequence); title page, approval
sheet, copyright page, acknowledgment, abstract, table of contents, list of
figures and list of appendices. In some institutions, abstract is mentioned first. While
majority follows the a forecited sequence. It is important that the researcher
should be aware of the institution format. All elements in the preliminaries take the
lower case of Roman numerals, for its pagination, except the title page. The
placement of pagination depends on the specific institutional format or on a
special stationery utilized by the institution for the purpose.

1. TITLE PAGE

This is the cover page of a bound copy and the first true page you see
when you open the cover. The title page contains the working title of the study,
addressed to whom it is intended, a declaration of the context of the work, and
a formal explanatory statement accompanied by the discipline or program and
the author of the research work, spelled out in full.

The working title (means a work in progress before binding) should convey
the theme of your research work and must reflect the discipline related to your
research work. It should be precise and comprehensive. The APA recommends
that the working title should be equivalent to 12 substantive words and about four
lines although it may also depend on the institutional format and technical
specifications followed by the college /university.

It should incorporate the keywords, techniques employed and

combination of noteworthy accomplishment. In short, it must contain the, "what",
"how" and perhaps the "why".

Format rules for title page carry no provision for creativity. It should be
followed to the letter as devised by the college or by the university. It should be
centered. The pagination does not start on the title page but on the next page.
 2. APPROVAL SHEET

The approval sheet follows the title page. It carries the names and signature
of the adviser, the panel members, the graduate school dean, indicating the
approval and acceptance of the study. In some institutions, the reader's name is
included.

3. COPYRIGHT PAGE

This element of the front matter safeguards your own paper and ensures
that the use of other works cited in your paper are in accordance with legal
requirements. Whether you put a copyright page or not in your thesis or
dissertation, you are protected from unauthorized use of your paper. The
submitted copy of your work, or in CD form to the library are equivalent to
publication (Slade, 2003).

4. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This part contains the appreciation of the researcher for the assistance and
support accorded to the researcher during the research process. It is suggested
to write a short and simple acknowledgment. You may dedicate a page for this
in the front matter.

5. ABSTRACT

This refers to the brief summary of the thesis and dissertation. It should
contain the conclusion and the findings and a short discussion of the statement
of the problem, method and design. An abstract is limited to at least one page
or 120 words. The presentation of the abstract vary with institutional requirements.
This section presents two variations of model sample culled out from the same
study of Abogado-Monsalve (2007). The first sample was patterned after
Dissertation International Abstract (DAI) format. The second sample of abstract,
illustrates a common abstract format observed in most educational institutions.
Variants in the presentation of the abstracts are shown in Attachment 4 and 5,
respectively.

6. TABLE OF CONTENTS

This lists all the contents of the front matter, body, and back matter. The
numbering of the chapters and the wordings, capitalization of titles and heading
should be the same as those in the paper. In most institutions, the lists of tables
and figures are included in this section. A sample format of Table of Contents is
shown in Attachment 6, taken from Onsamang's (2014) dissertation. Other
institutions may vary in their presentation.

7. CLEARANCE FORMS

This seldom appears in most front matters. It commonly appears in an

experimental reports study. It refers to the information as the ethical standards for
selecting participants, or use of animals in an experiment. If information are short,
the preliminaries carry this element, otherwise this is placed in the appendix
(Matthews and Ross, 2010).

PART II. THE TEXT (BODY)

The text consists of the standard format delineating the various chapters
that immediately follows preliminaries. The main concern here is how institutions
adopt divisions of the text into titles and sub-titles, formatting of documentations
and citations, and the positioning of tables and figures.

The body of thesis/dissertation differs in elements/format (Slade, 2003).

Thesis and dissertation follow a standard format containing five chapters,
however though some has four elements, where Chapter 5 is part of Chapter 4
that bears the headings, "Findings and Interpretation". Each chapter begins on a
new page. There can be multilevel headings in each chapter of the paper: Level
sub-headings range from three to five levels. The first level is centered, set in
boldface, and capitalized. The succeeding levels may be flushed to the left, using
sentence style capitalization.

With regard to pagination in the text, the Arabic numerals are used for
numbering pages, wherein first page of the first chapter bear page number 1,
however, page numbers do not appear on chapter pages.

CHAPTER 1

Introductory chapter that contains introduction of the topic, and

importance of the subject chosen for the study, an explanation of need for
research. Statement of the problem (SOP), accompanied by one or more
hypotheses together with the significance of the study, scope and delimitation. In
this chapter, the theoretical/conceptual framework of the study is indicated and
the terms that need to be defined. In some institutions, theoretical framework and
definition of terms may not appear in this chapter.
CHAPTER I. PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

A. Introduction.

1. An introduction answers the questions:

• What is the identified research problem?
• Why is there a need to do the study about the said problem?
• What made the researcher decide to do the study?
• How does the study relate to previous investigations?

A good introduction contains a paragraph or two, by summarizing the

relevant arguments and the data. It gives the reader a firm sense of what and
why the research is being made.

B. Statement of the Problem

• Give the general objectives (general research question) of the study

• Provide the specific question of the study

C. Conceptual Framework

A cognitive map of the research, clarifying the relationships between and

among the variables of the study and further illustrated in a conceptual
paradigm. It shows the relationship of the variables in IPO format.

D. Hypothesis (when applicable)

The theoretical implications of the study and how the research design and
the hypothesis relate to the problem should be stated Theoretical propositions
must be presented in the null form.
Explains the rationale of the research/study
Alpha level of significance to be used should be indicated.

E. Significance of the Study

What will the results of the study contribute to concerned individuals,

administrators, agencies, service providers, clients/beneficiaries, general society,
science, practice of profession, etc.

F. Scope and Delimitations

• Scope: The boundaries in terms of time samples, location

 • Delimitations: The weaknesses of the study which are beyond the control of
the researchers

G. Definition of Terms

• Either lexical or operational definition or a combination of both

• Arranged in alphabetical order

CHAPTER 2
It contains the related research and literature that are organized according
to themes or topic. The thematic presentation of the related literature searched
provide context for the study. The cited literature and studies should be
synthesized at the end of the chapter to become easily accessible to the
researcher for literature support of the findings in Chapter 4.

CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Review of the Related Literature and Studies. This contains literatures related
to the research topics taken from foreign or local sources. Includes research
findings, published or unpublished, theories and principles formulated by experts
or authorities in some fields or discipline, ideas or opinions of experts contained in
books, pamphlets, magazines, periodicals, etc. It should be classified as:

A. Theoretical Framework

A study makes use of a theory or theories to prove and support its

acceptability. Presented in topical form, can be local or foreign and presented
in any order.

B. Related Literature

An RRL reviews as much of the literature possible around a particular

research problem. This literature can include various article types, including
theoretical articles, reviews, protocol papers, opinions, and policy statements.

C. Related Studies

An RRS is a review of all the studies around a particular research problem. An

RRS helps justify the need for studying the problem in the first place. Studies involve
actual experiments and/or data collection and analysis. Therefore, an RRS only
includes empirical studies, experiments, and research findings.
CHAPTER 3

This chapter contains elements involved in the methods of investigation. It

identifies the research design/method used, whether experimental, descriptive,
historical method, etc. It discusses the techniques used in drawing samples from
population. In this part, the population of the study must be identified first, then
state how the population was reduced by stating the sampling techniques
utilized. The research locale identifies area where data was collected, it may be
stated in paragraph form. The research instruments identify the tools employed in
gathering data. This is followed by data gathering procedures and by data
analysis tools and procedure.

CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY

It contains research design, research locale/setting of the study,

respondents, sample and sampling techniques when applicable, instrumentation,
data gathering procedures, materials and methods employed for experimental
research and the statistical treatment of data.

A. Research Design

• Brief description of the research method used

• Justification of the method used for the study

B. Research Locale
• Brief description of the place where the respondents are obtained

C. Respondents and Sampling Techniques

• Brief description of the population

• Type of sampling and the specific technique used in selecting the samples

D. Research Instrument

Description of the instrument, indicating whether it is original, adapted or

standardized test; explanation of the content, how norms are developed and
interpreted; and may include the validity and the reliability of the test.

E. Data Gathering Procedures

• Details on the data gathering of data, duration and the time frame

F. Materials and Methods Employed (for experimental research)

 • List of materials used in the experiment
• Step by step procedure of the experiment o Pilot testing

G. Data Processing ang Statistical Treatment

• Descriptive or inferential statistics and in consonance with specific

problem/hypothesis to be tested.

H. Ethical Consideration

These are a set of principles that guide your research designs and practices.
These principles include voluntary participation, informed consent, anonymity,
confidentiality, potential for harm, and results communication.

CHAPTER 4

This part constitutes the presentation and the result of the investigation. The
analysis and interpretation are comprehensively discussed, supported by previous
findings of the research. Textual discussion is usually accompanied by either
tables, figures or graphs. The preparation has been thoroughly discussed in the
previous unit of this book. Presentation of the result is according to the sequence
of the statement of the problem (SOP) in Chapter 1.

CHAPTER IV. PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA.

Contains the climax of the study, answering all the questions raised
according to the chronological sequence of the problems accompanied by a
presentation of the data in tables.

• Tables present quantitative analysis starting with the highest order of

interaction.
• Tables should be numbered consecutively including those that appear in the
appendix

CHAPTER 5

This is devoted to the summary, conclusions, recommendations/

implications of the findings for further research. The summary should state as briefly
as possible the statement/purpose of the study and the research methodologies
undertaken by the researcher: Conclusions and recommendations should be
based on the findings. In stating the conclusion, care should be observed by the
researcher as he/ she has full understanding of his or her work. It should not appear
like restatement of findings. Integrate scholarly ideas to enrich and expand data-
based findings. This is an important feature to look for in your conclusions. The
researcher should organize and integrate salient findings and link with objectives
of the study. Implications, so stated, communicates the meanings of the results.
The subsequent recommendations should be based on the findings.

CHAPTER V. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A. Summary Synopsis of objectives, hypothesis, methodology and findings

The summary of findings should briefly reflect the significant results of the
study, how the findings are important based on the research aims and compare
the findings to previous related studies. The findings should be presented factually
without interpretation.

B. Conclusions

Inferred from the results, answer hypothesis Give the strength and weakness
of the study. Use present tense, to allow the reader to join the researcher in
deliberating what conclusion and theoretical implications are drawn from the
study.

C. Recommendations

Recommendations in research are suggestions/solutions that address certain

problems based on your study results. Discuss the importance of your research
study and the difference it makes. Lists specific actions to be taken with regard to
policy, practice, theory, or subsequent research.

MANUSCRIPT FORMAT

The manuscript's font style is Arial with 12 inch font size, double space in a 8
½" x 11" paper size. Each page has original school logo and letterhead. Margin
right is 1" margin left is 1.5". It is hardbound in 3 copies with dark blue cover.

THE PRELIMINARIES

It contains the title page, Endorsement letter, approval sheet,

acknowledgement, abstract of three hundred (300) words only and to include at
least five key words, table of content, list of tables, list of figures and list of
appendices.
MAIN BODY OF THE THESIS

It contains 5 chapters covering, the problem and its background, theoretical

framework, methodology, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data and
lastly, the summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations.

END MATTER

It contains bibliography, appendices which include raw data, survey

questionnaire, request letter and the curriculum vitae of the researchers.

PART III. REFERENCE MATERIALS (BACK MATTER OR END MATTER)

This is also referred to as supplementary pages (Ary, et. al, 2002). Depending
on the thesis/dissertation categories, this part contains bibliographies, list of works
cited, references, appendices, indices, glossary, endnotes, and vitae of the
researcher:

1. References, Bibliography, List of Works Cited

At the back matter of your research paper, the sources of materials are
presented in alphabetical listings, thus;

• For the notes-bibliography format (Chicago Style), the lists carry

"Bibliography" as heading.
• With the parenthetical documentation format, the lists carry the heading,
"Works Cited" is used with (MLA style).
• "References" is the heading for the lists with APA style format. This section of
the book utilizes APA format for its "References."

BASIC RULES:

List references alphabetically by author. When there are multiple works by

the same author, list references by date, the most recent last.

• Single spacing is used for references but double-spaced between

references.
• Titles of Works. All titles require sentence caps (all words lower case except
for the first word, after a colon, and proper nouns). Italicize titles of books,
reports, working papers, thesis, dissertations, and similar documents.
• Character spacing. Space once after all punctuation.
 • Date. Use the month-day-year format for full dates.

2. APPENDICES

Contain materials that supplement the text of the study but should not be
appropriately included in the text (Slade, 2003). It contains original data,
computer printouts, legal documents, illustrative materials, transcriptions,
supporting documents, Mathematical formula and tabulations.
Appendices use single letter of the alphabet in sequence on top of the page, as:
Appendix A, Appendix B, and so forth.

3. GLOSSARY
List terms and abbreviations that occur frequently. In some institutions this is
integrated in the definition of terms.

REFERENCE CITATIONS

In the beginning of your research, you should have selected the format for
documenting your sources. Reference forms vary with formats adopted by the
institutions although most institutions adopt the APA format nowadays. The format
adopted is also dependent on the suggestions made by your adviser or the field
of study.

References vary from wide range of sources from books to articles, to

electronic sources. There are so many sources to choose from and you can
construct your citation entry based on the standard of the format.
There are two basic types of citation formats for documenting materials obtained
from other sources: These are the notes-bibliography format and the
parenthetical-reference list format.

1. Notes - Bibliography Format

It presents bibliographical information in footnotes or endnotes which may

use either author's name and page number, as in the case of Modern Language
Association (MLA) format. In a bibliography of the MLA format, this list is entitled
"Works Cited."

In using the notes-bibliography format, a superscript number is indicated at

the end of the sentence. (Turabian, 2007) Thus:

He stressed that "the concept of organizational culture is important because

the components of culture are linked to organizational performance."
 "The concept of organizational culture is important because the
components of culture are linked to organizational performance," according to
Wendell L French.”1

Then, the notes at the bottom of the page known as footnote is indicated.
The source of the quotation (author, title, and facts of publication and page
number) is cited with the corresponding number.

1 Wendell L. French, Human Resources Management [Boston: Houghton

Mifflin Company, 2003], 367.

In some instances there could be several citations that could have been
cited in the same page, if that is the case, the same should be indicated as well
using the same format. Endnotes and footnotes are numbered consecutively
within the chapter or throughout the entire research paper. The lists will be
collected at the end of the paper, known as endnotes.

2. Parenthetical - Reference List Format

The author's name and date of the work cited within parentheses (APA),
includes documentation in parentheses within the text and in the list of works cited
in APA format, it is entitled, "References."

In the reference list format documentation, the use of the parenthetical

citation is written at the end of the source. Next to the referenced source,
enclosed in the parenthesis are the author's last name, date and relevant pages.
Example shown below illustrates this type of documentation:

He stressed that "the concept of organizational culture is important because

the components of culture are linked to organizational per-formance" (French,
2003, p 367).

In the APA documentation, parenthetical citations are basically the same

for print and electronic sources. The main consideration in using the text citations
are placement and content of source materials. Cited below are illustrations of
APA documentation (The Writing center, retrieved, July 23, 2014).

PLACEMENT AND CONTENT OF CITATIONS:

Example 1: Place the author(s) and date(s) within parentheses at an

appropriate place within or at the end of a sentence.
 The family factors could support individuals in his attempt to be part of his
environment (Epstein, 2004), and these factors can be close family ties, supportive
parents and siblings....

Example 2: Place only the date within parentheses.

According to Epstein (2004) there are factors that could support individuals
in his attempt to be part of his environment and these factors can be close family
ties, supportive parents and siblings...

Example 3: Integrate both the author and date into the system.

In 2004, Epstein stated that there are factors that could support individuals
in his attempt to be part of his environment and these factors can be close family
ties, supportive parents and siblings....
Writing your research is bringing the gap between your field notes and the
more public documents like your thesis or journal. This process relies on field notes
and literature collection. As expected, these are prepared with the considerable
care of using computers and a high quality of letter sized bond paper. The text
should probably be in double space, with prominent heading, identifying the
author, containing a general title characterizing the overall research project and
a date for submission.

Reasons for Citation and some Ethical Considerations

It is important among researchers to present facts accurately and cite its

source. With the knowledge of the different formats to choose from, researchers
can present details of information from wide array of sources including books,
published or unpublished articles, online sources and other written materials.

According to Slade (2003), documentation, using notes or through

parenthetical references and an accompanying bibliography or list of works
cited serve to acknowledge the sources of ideas and information in your paper.
Documenting sources is a way of informing the consumers of research the sources
where information, ideas, language which was used in the paper was taken from.
It is giving credit for whom credit is due. In doing so, the researcher could establish
the validity of his paper by getting support, or by correcting, or by contradicting
information from another source. The authority from which citation was taken
could be from a direct or indirect form of primary or secondary data.
 APA SEVENTH EDITION

These guidelines follow the 2020 7th edition of the American Psychological
Association’s Publication Manual, which is widely used in the health and social
sciences. They focus on documentation, but the manual addresses issues from
abbreviations to layout and should be consulted for further information. In an
APA-style paper, you’ll identify the author and year of each source any time you
use it. That information directs readers to more detailed entries on a reference list
at the paper’s end.

Narrative Citation Parenthetical Citation

Sendak (2015) contended that Clearly, “imagination is

One author
“imagination is crucial” (p. 2). crucial” (Sendak, 2015, p.
2).
According to Sendak and Wise It is true that “imagination
Two authors
(2010), “Imagination is crucial” is crucial” (Sendak & Wise,
(pp. 112-113). 2010, pp. 112-113).
Three+ authors “Imagination is crucial,” “Imagination,” however, “is
Sendak et al. (2001) reflected crucial,” (Sendak et al.,
(para. 5). 2001, para. 5).
DIRECT QUOTATION

The American Library Perhaps “imagination is

Group author, first
Association (ALA; 2005) has crucial” (American Library
reference
insisted that “imagination is Association [ALA], 2005,
crucial” (para. 2). para. 2).
Group author, late The ALA (2005) has insisted that Perhaps “imagination is
rreference “imagination is crucial” (para. crucial” (ALA, 2005, para.
2). 2).
The author of “Feeding Young One article (2010) claimed
Author unknown
Minds” (2010) noted that that “imagination is
“imagination is crucial” (p. 5). crucial” (“Feeding,” 2015,
p. 5).

Sendak (2015) argued that Children must develop

One author
children must develop imagination (Sendak,
imagination. 2015).
Sendak and Wise (2015) believed Children must develop
Two authors
PARAPHRASE

that children must develop imagination (Sendak &

imagination. Wise, 2015).
Three+ Children must develop Children must develop
authors imagination, observed imagination (Sendak et al.,
Sendak et al. (2015). 2015).
Children must develop Children must develop
Group author,
imagination, the imagination
first reference
American Library Association (American Library
 (ALA, 2015) has explained. Association [ALA], 2015).

In “Feeding Young Minds”

Author Children must develop
(2015), the author suggested
unknown imagination (“Feeding,” 2015).
that children must develop
imagination.

SAMPLE REFERENCES

A. Book with subtitle

Fraser, C. (2017). Prairie fires: The American dreams of Laura Ingalls Wilder.
Metropolitan Books.
B. Book with two editors instead of author
Melendy, R., & Kincaid, C. (Eds.). (2018). Birth order and personality. Doubleday.
C. Essay, chapter, or section in edited work
Gale, D. (2008). Innocence abroad. In L.F. Baum (Ed.), The way home (pp. 27-43).
Cyclone Press.
D. Journal article with DOI
Slethaug, G. E. (1986). The paradoxical double in Le Guin’s A Wizard of Earthsea.
Extrapolation, 27(4), 326-333. https://doi.org/10.3828/extr.1986.27.4.326
E. Magazine article, online, no volume issue or pages
Beck, J. (2015, May 3). Science’s love affair with The Lord of the Rings. The Atlantic.
https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/05/sciences-love-
affair-with- the-lord-of-the-rings/392216/
F. Unsigned entry in continuously updated, unarchived online dictionary
Merriam-Webster. (n.d). Literacy. In Merriam-Webster dictionary. Retrieved
January 10,
2020, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/literacy
G. Wikipedia entry
Stonehenge. (2020, January 16). In Wikipedia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge
H. Website article with author
Spritzler, F. (2017, January 29). 13 ways to prevent type 2 diabetes. Healthline.
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/prevent-diabetes
I. Website article without author or date
What are pulses? (n.d.). Half-Cup Habit. https://pulses.org/nap/what-are-pulses/
APA TABLE SETUP

APA FIGURE SETUP

 CLIP ART OR STOCK IMAGE REFERENCES

Image with no attribution Image with attribution

Figurerequired
1 Figure 1 required
A Striped Cat Sits With Paws Crossed A Striped Cat Sits With Paws Crossed

Note. Participants assigned to the Note. Participants assigned to the

cute pets condition saw this image of cute pets condition saw this image of
a cat. a cat.
 CHAPTER 15

Research Dissemination
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

• Describe for whom the research results is intended for

• Devise an optimal strategy for developing a draft of research for immediate
utilization.

This chapter contains discussions with some challenges to facilitate

dissemination of relevant information for immediate utilization. As this portion of
the book is discussed, it is assumed that format and logical steps have been
followed in the research output presented earlier. In presenting the results of the
study, you should aim to present a straight forward and orderly presentation of
the findings of your study. Quantitative data - in tabular or graphic presentation
representing statistical results may be highly technical to some and could present
difficulty and boredom among readers. Thus, it is necessary to use simple words in
simple sentences to clearly communicate the findings to warrant comprehension
and understanding. Hence, you should make an interesting report to hold the
attention of the consumers of research.

A research report may be presented as:

A. Thesis or dissertation
B. Journal article
C. Conference/convention paper

1. The thesis/dissertation style format has been described in details earlier in this
book. It depends on the institutional format requirement, therefore the entire
report should be in accordance with the recommendation of the head of the
department requiring research output.

2. Conference or convention paper is prepared in much the same way as journal

article (Ary et. al, 2002). Paper presented is read and therefore must be
developed and geared to its audience. Since reading of paper in the
conference should take no more than 30 minutes, researcher should organize
the paper that should focus on the salient points of the study. In some cases,
researchers/speakers distribute copies of their text after the paper is
 presented. In some cases, during conventions, poster session presentations
are included. In this instant, the presenter should be present at a designated
place and time and stand beside his/her displayed poster which contain a
brief review of the study. The presenter must be available to answer some
queries that interested parties may ask.

3. Journal article. Most academic work is published in academic journal or

article, book or thesis form. Most established academic disciplines have their
own academic journal and outlets of publications, while others may be
somewhat interdisciplinary, and this may be divided into specialized section.
However, with the advent of technology or electronic environment,
publication of article undergoes so many changes.

Publishing a research paper in a journal or presenting paper in a

conference is an important activity within the academic community. It will allow
others to benefit from your work, or provide greater opportunity for refinement of
ideas. Scholarly journals are based on peer reviews or editorial refereeing to
qualify text for publication.

Peer review, according to Ellison (2011), is a central concept for most

academic publishing and other scholarly work in a field that demands research
output sufficiently in high quality to meet publication. This process is a guard
against plagiarism. A paper may undergo a series of review, revisions and re-
submission before finally being rejected or accepted for publication. This process
may take several weeks or months. Selectivity standards vary among professional
journals and publishers. That is why researchers who want their work published
must seek to find out the suitable journal for their topic. A researcher wanting
his/her work published must find out the preferred writing styles of the
organization/agencies so that he/she can customize his/her research paper
easily and increase the chance of being published.

FORMAT OF RESEARCH ARTICLE

Research articles present original research findings based on clearly stated

hypothesis or stated questions. The use of passive voice is suggested to be used
in scholarly paper. Papers should provide new approaches and insights into the
problems previously cited. All manuscripts should be word-processed and may be
sent to publisher by e-mail in PDF format.

The manuscript may be presented using the IMRaD format, I for

Introduction, M for Methods, R for Results, and D for Discussion, besides the title
page, background, abstracts and references. The information that follows were
taken in part from biotechnology article. (retrieved 10/22/2014)
 The Title page should contain the full title of the paper and full name of the
author or authors. Key words do not part of the title must be provided with at least
6 keywords.

The Abstract should not exceed 350 words and must contain the sections
structured separately. Integrated are the Background, which includes the context
and purpose of the study; Results, the main findings; Conclusions, a brief summary
and potential implications. The use of abbreviations and references should be
avoided in the Abstract.

The Introduction should be brief, the aims and purposes of the research in
relation with other studies and the working hypothesis should be clearly stated.

Methods and Methodology should include relevant details of the

methodology so that it can be verified through repetition.

Results should be clearly presented. Tables and figures could only be

included if it is required to fully understand the study.

Discussions. The aim of this section is the interpretation of the result and in
relation to the existing knowledge.

References should follow previously discussed format.

A formal procedure has been developed for preparing thesis, dissertation,

journal articles and papers. Researchers need to familiarize themselves with the
style required at a university or professional journal association and should be
followed in the final preparation of the final manuscript.
 SESSION 4

Evaluation of Research Output

Section Intended Learning Outcome (SILO)

Provide basic information needed for practical evaluation of research output.

 CHAPTER 16

Evaluation of Research Output

Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

• Present the purpose of evaluation.

• Identify what is to be evaluated.
• Determine research article format.

Evaluation, according to Trochim (2006) is the systematic acquisition of and

assessment of information to provide useful feedback about some object. In this
part of the book, the evaluation of research output places how one might have
integrated the acquired information in the results based on the pre-determined
statement of purpose/ goals at the start of the research study. Depending on the
perspectives/methodologies adopted by the evaluating entity, especially in
social science, they prioritize on the aspect of desirability of impartiality,
accuracy, objectivity and validity of information generated (Trochim, 2006).
Research output is defined as textual output where research is understood as
original systematic investigation undertaken in order to gain new knowledge and
understanding. (Pretoria: Policy for measurement of research output, 2003).

Research outputs presented as theses or dissertations, or emanating as

commissioned research are evaluated for useful feedback to variety of
audiences by different evaluators that use different methods to evaluate the
output.

Research outputs presented as theses or dissertations are evaluated by

panel of examiners designated by the department or organization based on
following pre-determined criteria to come up with a 100% total rating. Typically,
defense rating sheet may come up with two criteria clusters or three clusters, such
that a two-cluster may include:

A. Description of Written Output - This includes quality of content of written

report, depth of analysis, clear statement of findings, conclusions and
recommendations, etc.
 B. Quality of Oral Presentation - Mastery, ability to answer questions posed by
panel, personal attributes, preparation, etc.
Sample Evaluation Form
A. Simplified: (Two-cluster criteria)

Criteria Accepted Not Remarks

Accepted
1. Topic
Relevance
Aligned with Program
2. Content
Organization of Content
Completeness
Appropriateness of Reference
Appropriateness of Instruments
Appropriateness of Statistical Tools

This format may be used by the head of department in evaluating research

proposals or by panel of examiners during proposal defense presentation or in a
colloquium. "Remark" is intended for the reason(s) for accepting or rejecting a
paper.
This column is further utilized for comments and suggestions during panel review
for the researcher to improve/enhance the paper presented.

B. Detailed Format (Two-cluster criteria)

Name of Institution
Defense Rating Sheet

Name of Researcher: _________________________ Date of Defense: ____________

Degree: ______________________________________
Adviser:_______________________________________
Research Title: ________________________________

Criteria Weight Rating

A. Quality of the Research Paper
1. Relevance
2. Organization and format of the paper (with
reference to institutional format)
3. Appropriateness of conceptual framework,
theories, principles, etc.
4. Appropriateness of research instruments)
5. Appropriateness/adequacy of population and
samples
6. Supported findings with literature and statistical
results
7. Clear presentation of findings, appropriate
tables, figures
8. In-depth analysis and interpretation
9. Clear statement of findings, conclusions and
recommendations
10. Appropriate Outcome/Output of the study is
presented
B. Oral Presentation
1. Quality of Presentation
1.1 Evidence of careful planning and
preparation
1.2 Quality of communicated presentation
2. Ability to defend/answer question
2.1 Evidence of mastery of the paper
2.2 Proficiency in articulating the result of the
study
2.3 Consistency and reliability of the
information
3. Personal attributes of the presenter/candidate
TOTAL

Legend: Grade Equivalent

Grade Point Interpretation

97-100% 1.0 High Pass
93-96% 1.25 Pass
89-92% 1.5 Low Pass
85-88% 1.75 Deferred

Rated by:

______________________
Chair/Member

This two-cluster detailed format is recommended for use by the institution

during final oral presentation/oral defense of thesis/dissertation. The
institution/department may decide on the weight for quality of research paper
and oral presentation as 60%-40%, 40%-60%, or 70%-30%, 30%-70%, or on an equal
weight, 50%-50% respectively. However, the institution may adopt flexibility in
assigning weight to be decided upon by the Chair of the Panel of Examiners
before the defense exercise.
Another variation for defense rating sheet may employ the use of three-
cluster rating sheet. The sheet may include a third cluster with referrence to the
above detailed format, where "Personal attributes of the Presenter/Candidate"
may assume the third cluster in a three-cluster format. Thus, decision on weights
may take the form of 60%-20%-20%, or 50%-25%-25%, etc. as decided upon by the
institution or by the department.

Normally, evaluation of research output as a completion to degree

requirement is to be decided upon by panel of examiners, taking into
consideration the range of weight assigned to the above cited criteria.

Research output presented as journal for publication or presenting a paper

in a conference are important activity within the academic community. It will
allow others to benefit from your work or provide greater opportunity for
refinement of ideas. Scholarly research journal outputs are evaluated based on
peer reviews or editorial refereeing to qualify text for publication.

Peer review, according to Ellison (2011), is a central concept for most

academic publishing and other scholarly work in a field that demands research
output sufficiently in high quality to meet publication. This process is a guard
against plagiarism. A paper may undergo a series of review, revisions and re-
submission before finally being rejected or accepted for publication. This process
may take several weeks or months. Peer reviewers are often well established in
their field may therefore be more inclined to a particular view of which research
fields are fruitful (National Academies, 2005). However, complaint against peer
review surfaced as the process turned out to be biased against interdisciplinary
research.

For editorial refereeing, selectivity standards vary among professional

journals and publishers. That is why researchers who want their work published
must seek to find out the suitable journal for their topic. A researcher wanting
his/her work published must find out the preferred writing styles of the
organization/agencies so that he/she can customize his/her research paper
easily and increase the chance of being published.