Fluid Dynamics (Hydrodynamics)

The study of fluids in motion is called Fluid dynamics. When a fluid is in motion, for example when water
is flowing from a tap, the motion of each drop of water is governed by Newton’s laws of motion. But the
equations of motion are complex when the flow of the entire liquid is considered. In order to simplify the
study of motion of fluids we make the following assumptions.
(i) When the fluid is in motion, there are no internal forces of friction between the adjacent layers of the
fluid.
(ii) The fluid is incompressible i.e., the density of the fluid is constant
We will now confine our discussion to the flow of liquids in general and water in particular.

Types of Liquid Flow

There are two types of liquid flow.
1. Stream line flow or Steady flow
2. Turbulent flow

Stream Line Flow

The flow of a liquid is said to be stream line flow or steady flow if all the liquid particles that pass any
given point follow the same path at the same speed, (i.e., they have the same velocity)

c
b V3
a
V1 V2

For example consider a liquid flowing through a pipe as shown in the figure. The flowing liquid will have
a certain velocity v1 at the point a, v2 at the point b and v3 at the point c . If after some time the velocity

of some other particle of the liquid at a is still v1, the velocity of some other particle at b is still v2 and the

velocity of some other particle at c is still v3 , then the flow is said to be stream line flow. Every particle

starting at a will follow the path abc. The line abc is called stream line. At each point, the direction of
velocity is tangent to the stream line.

Stream Line
A stream line is a curve whose tangent at any point is along the direction of the velocity of the liquid
particle at that point. A bundle of stream lines is called a tube of flow

‘
Properties of Stream Lines
Stream lines do not cross each other. If they were to do so, the point of intersection would have two
directions. Since stream lines represent paths of particle, a liquid can flow into or flow out of a tube of flow.
In a steady flow, the velocity, density and pressure at each point in the liquid do not change with time,
Critical speed of a liquid is that speed of liquid upto which the flow is stream line.

Turbulent flow
If the velocity of the liquid is greater than the critical velocity, the flow becomes turbulent.
Ex: whirlpool, eddies.. etc. When a jet of air strikes a flat plate placed perpendicular to it a turbulent flow is
produced.

Equation of Continuity
Consider a tube AB of varying cross-section. Let a1 and a2 be the cross-sectional areas of the pipe at A

and B respectively. Let the liquid enter the end A normally with velocity V1 and leave the end B normally

with velocity V2 let  be the density of the liquid which is assumed to be constant throughout.

In 1 second the liquid travels a distance v1 when it enters at A . Volume of the liquid entering per second

at A B
V2
 a1v1 A

Mass of the liquid entering per second at A

V1
 volume  density

 a1 v1 

Similarly mass of the liquid flowing out through B normally in 1 second

 a2 v2 
In stream line flow mass of the liquid crossing any section of the pipe per second is constant.
 a1 v1   a2 v2 

 a1 v1  a2 v2 or av  constant

This equation is called the equation of continuity which is valid for stream line flow of an incompressible
liquid.

Note
(1) At points where the area is more velocity will be less and vice versa.

(2) In the case of a pipe, cross-sectional area is proportional to R 2  where R is the radius of the pipe
1 1
v  , but a   R 2 v 
a R2
(3) The cross sectional area of a river decreases as it approaches narrow gorge. When the area decreases, velocity
increases.

Energies Possessed by a Liquid

A liquid in motion possesses the following forms of energy.
1. Potential energy by virtue of its height
2. Kinetic energy by virtue of its motion
3. Pressure energy associated with liquid pressure

Potential Energy
Consider a certain mass m of the liquid at a certain height ' h ' above the surface of the earth. Let V be the

m
volume of the liquid. Let  be the density of the liquid.  
V
P.E of the liquid  mgh

mgh
P.E per unit mass of the liquid   gh
m
mgh m
P.E per unit volume of the liquid    gh    gh
V V

1. Kinetic energy
It is the energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its motion
1 2
K .E of the liquid mv
2
 1 2
mv
1
K .E per unit mass of the liquid  2  v2
m 2
1 2
mv
1m 1
K .E per unit volume of the liquid  2    v2   v2
V 2V  2

2. Pressure Energy
Consider a liquid of density  contained in a tank T having a side tube near the bottom of the tank as

shown in the figure. A frictionless piston of cross-section area ' a ' is fitted in the side tube. Pressure
exerted by the liquid on the piston  P   gh where ' h ' is the height of free surface of the liquid above

the axis of the side tube. Let the piston be moved through a distance x.

h T

Volume of the liquid pushed into the tank  ax

Mass of the liquid pushed into the tank  ax 

Force acting on the piston  pressure  area  Pa

Workdone in pushing the liquid through a distance x

 force  distance

 P  ax   PV

This work done is stored in the form of potential energy. It is called pressure energy.
PV
Pressure energy per unit volume  P
V

Bernoulli’s Theorem
“For an ideal non-compressible and non-viscous liquid in stream line motion the total energy per unit mass
is always constant.”
Explanation
We know that a liquid in motion has three different forms of energy
1. Potential energy  mgh

1 2
2. Kinetic energy  mv
2
3. Pressure energy  PV
4. Total energy  P.E  K .E  pressure energy
1
E  mgh  mv 2  PV
2
Divide throughout by m

E 1 2 PV
   gh  v 
m 2 m

1 P
 gh  v 2 
2  
m
 
V 

E 1 P m
  gh  v 2  (where    density of the liquid)
m 2  V
According to Bernoulli’s theorem,

E
 constant
m
1 P
 gh  v 2   Constant
2 
1 2 P
If h is kept constant, v   Constant
2 
If v increases, P decreases. If v decreases, P increases. Hence at points where the pressure is high in a
liquid flow v becomes less At points where the pressure is low. v will be more.
Bernoulli’s theorem is based on the law of conservation of energy.

Proof of Bernoulli’s theorem

B P2
V2
A
a2
P1
V1
a1
h2
h1

Consider a pipe AB of varying area of cross-

section Let a1 and a2 be the cross sectional areas of the pipe at the ends A and B . Let V1 be the velocity

with which the liquid enters the pipe normally at A . Let V2 be the velocity with which the liquid leaves

the pipe normally at the end B . According to the equation of continuity a1v1  a2 v2  1

 a2  a1 , v2  v1
So the liquid has to pushed from A to B .It accelerates against gravity. In otherwords the liquid has to be
pumped from A to B
Let a very small mass of the liquid ' m ' enter the end A in time t. In this time the liquid has covered a
distance v1t .

Force driving the liquid at A  Pressure  Area  P1a1

Work done on the liquid at A   Force  distance

  P1 a1  v1t 
W1  P1a1  v1t 

Similarly the work done by the liquid at B is W2  P2 a2 v2 t

Let W be the work done by the pressure forces in driving a mass ' m ' of the liquid.
W  W2  W1

W  P1a1v1t  p2 a2 v2t ... 1

This work done on the liquid is used to increase the potential energy and kinetic energy of the liquid.
Increase of potential energy  mgh2  mgh1

 mg  h2  h1 

1 2 1 2
Increase of kinetic energy  mv2  mv1
2 2


1
2

m v22  v12 
1

Total increase of mechanical energy of the liquid E  mg  h2  h1   m v22  v12
2
 ...  2 

According to work –energy theorem W  E

1
P1a1v1t  P2 a2 v2t  mg  h2  h1   m v22  v12
2
  ...  3

Volume of the liquid entering at A  volume of the liquid flowing out at B

a1v1t  a2 v2 t

mass m
But volume  
density 

m
 a1v1t  a2 v2t 

Substituting this in (3)

P1
m

 P2
m

1

 mg  h2  h1   m v22  v12
2

Divide through by m
P1


P2

 g  h2  h1  
2

1 2 2
v2  v1 
P1 P2 1 1
  gh2  gh1  v22  v12
  2 2

P1 1 P 1
  gh1  v12  2  gh2  v22
 2  2

P 1
or  gh  v 2  constant ...  4 
 2
This proves Bernoulli’s theorem. i.e., the total energy per unit mass of an ideal liquid in stream line flow is
always a constant
Note
Bernoulli’s theorem can also be expressed as follows; Multiplying (4) by 

1
P   gh   v 2  constant ...  5 
2

Blood Fow and Heart Attack

Bernoulli’s principle helps in explaining blood flow in artery. The artery may get constricteddue to the
accumulation of plaque on its inner walls. In order to drive the blood through this constriction a greater
demand is placed on the activity of the heart. The speed of the flow of the blood in this region is raised
which lowers the pressure inside and the artery may collapse due to the external pressure. The heart exerts
further pressure to open this artery and forces the blood through. As the blood rushes through the opening,
the internal pressure once again drops due to same reasons leading to a repeated collapse. This may result
in heart attack.

Dynamic Lift
Dynamic lift is the force that acts on a body, such as airplane wing, a hydrofoil or a spinning ball, by virtue
of its motion through a fluid. In many games such as cricket, tennis, baseball, or golf, we notice that a
spinning ball deviates from its parabolic trajectory as it moves through air. This deviation can be partly
explained on the basis of Bernoulli’s principle.
(i) Ball moving without spin
Figure shows the streamlines around a nonspinning ball moving relative to a
fluid. From the symmetry of streamlines it is clear that the velocity of fluid
(air) above and below the ball at corresponding points is the same resulting in
zero pressure difference. The air therefore, exerts no upward or downward
force on the ball.
(ii) Ball moving with spin
A ball which is spinning drags air along with it. If the surface is rough more
air will be dragged. The figure shows the streamlines of air for a ball which
is moving and spinning at the same time. The ball is moving forward and
relative to it the air is moving backwards. Therefore, the velocity of air
above the ball relative to it is larger and below it is smaller. The stream lines
thus get crowded above and rarified below. This difference in the velocities of air results in the pressure
difference between the lower and upper faces and there is a net upward force on the ball. This dynamic
lift due to spining is called Magnus effect.

Aerofoil or Lift on Aircraft Wing

Figure shows an aerofoil, which is a solid piece shaped to provide an
upward dynamic lift when it moves horizontally through air. The
crosssection of the wings of an aeroplane looks somewhat like the aerofoil
shown in Figure with streamlines around it. When the aerofoil moves
against the wind, the orientation of the wing relative to flow direction
causes the streamlines to crowd together above the wing more than those below it. The flow speed on top
is higher than that below it. There is an upward force resulting in a dynamic lift of the wings and this
balances the weight of the plane.

Venturimeter
It is named after G.R venture, who invented it. It is a device used to measure the speed of flow rate of a
liquid. The working of this device is based on Bernoulli’s theorem.

Construction

P1
h P2

v1 v2
1 2
area A1
area A2
A B
A and B are two identical wide tubes connected by a narrow tube C . The small tube C is called
construction or throat. The flowing liquid enters the tube at A , flows through the constriction and flows
out through the tube B . The entire arrangement is horizontal so that the flow of liquid is horizontal. Two
vertical tubes are connected to A and C to measure the pressure of the liquid at A and C respectively.
Working let A1 be the area of the liquid at the wider tube A where its velocity is v1 . When the liquid flows

into the constriction, the area of cross section of the flow reduces to A2 . The velocity of the liquid increases

from v1 to v2

A1v1  A2 v2 … (1) (by the equation of continuity)

Since A2  A1 , v2 is greater than v1

Since velocity has increased, there must be a fall in pressure.

Let P1 be the pressure of the liquid at the point and P2 the pressure of the liquid at the point 2

According to Bernoulli’s theorem.

1 2 1
P1   v1  P2   v22
2 2
1 2 1 2
P1  P2   v2   v1 … (2)
2 2
Av
From (1) v2  1 1
A2

2 2
1 A v 1
  P1  P2    . 1 21   v12
2 A2 2

1 2  A12 
  v1  2  1
2  A2 

But  P1  P2   Difference in pressure between the tubes

  gh where h  difference in height the liquid in the two tubes

1 2  A12  A22 
  gh   v1  
2 2
 A2 

 gh 
2

v12 A1  A2
2

2 A22

A22
v12  2 gh 
A12  A12

2gh
v1  A2
A12  A22

Thus the velocity of the liquid can be measured.

Rate of flow of the liquid  }  A1v1

2 gh
  A1 A2
A12  A22

Applications of Bernoulli’s theorem

According to Bernoulli’s theorem
1 2 P
gh   v   constant
2 

When the liquid is flowing under a constant head  h 

1 2 P
 v   constant
2 
This would mean that at points where the pressure is high, velocity decreases. At points where the
pressure is less velocity increases. We now discuss some practical applications based on this principle.
(i) Perfume sprayer
air
G a u ss ia n
In a perfume sprayer or a spray gun, when pressure is applied su rfa c e
rubber
velocity of air increases and a low pressure region in created at
balloon
the nozzle. Pressure of air inside being greater forces the liquid to
come out through the nozzle.
Note
A carburettor also works on the same principle

(ii) Bunsen burner

In a Bunsen burner the gas comes out of the nozzle with high velocity.
air air
According to Bernoulli’s principle, the pressure in the stem of the burner
decreases. So air from the atmosphere rushes into the burner. The mixture gas

of air and gas moves up the burner. It burns at the top.

Velocity of Efflux : Torricelli’s Theorem

This theorem applies to a liquid flowing from a drum with a
1
horizontal opening v1  0

2 v2
When a liquid in a tube is allowed to fall down from a height, through an orifice at the bottom , the speed
with which it flows out is called the speed of efflux.

Torricelli’s Theorem
The velocity of efflux of a liquid through an orifice is equal to
that which a body would attain in falling from the free surface
1
of the liquid to the orifice. Consider an ideal liquid of density  h O

contained in a vessel having an orifice O near its bottom. The H

vessel is assumed to be sufficiently wide and the opening O
h
sufficiently narrow. So the velocity of the liquid at the free
surface is zero. The pressure of the liquid at any point on the
surface is the atmospheric pressure P . Let H and the height of the free surface of the liquid from the
bottom of the vessel. Let h be the height of the orifice from the bottom of the vessel. Let  be the height of
the orifice from the free surface of the liquid. Let v be the velocity of efflux with which the liquid is flowing
out of the surface.
Applying Bernoulli’s theorem
Total energy per unit mass at the free surface} = total energy per unit mass at the orifice
1 2
P   gh  O  P   gh ' v
2
1 2
 v   gH   gh '
2
1 2
 v   g  H  h '
2

 v 2  2 g  H  h '

From the figure,  H  h '  h

 v 2  2 gh

v  2 gh  1

Now, let a body be allowed to fall freely the level of the free surface of the liquid. Let V be the velocity with
which the body falls from a height h .

Now V 2  u 2  2 as

V 2  u 2  2 gh

Fro free fall, u  0

V 2  2 gh

V  2 gh   2 
From (1) and (2) v  V
So the velocity of efflux of a liquid is equal to the velocity acquired by the body in falling freely from the
free surface of the liquid to the orifice.
Homework Questions
One mark Questions
1. Define stream line flow
2. Define critical velocity of a liquid
3. Define turbulent flow
4. Give an example for turbulent flow
5. What is a tube of flow?

Two marks Questions

6. Explain what is meant by a stream line as referred to a liquid flow?
7. Two stream lines in liquid flow do not intersect. Explain

Three marks Questions

8. What are the different forms of energy in a liquid flow. Write expressions for each.
9. Explain what is meant by pressure energy
10. State and explain Bernoulli’s theorem
11. What is heart attack? Explain
12. What is an aerofoil? Explain

Five marks Questions

13. Derive Bernoulli’s theorem