GE 2 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF excellence) as closely linked to

Midterm Reviewer understanding oneself. He believed that by

Name knowing one’s own ignorance and
 It is only a signifier limitations, once could strive toward
 The self is something that a person wisdom and ethical behaviors
perennially molds, shapes, and develops  Knowing Thyself: it emphasizes the
 A name is not the person itself no matter importance of self-awareness, self-
how intimately bound it is with the bearer examination, and understanding the true
 Greeks were the earliest thinkers of the nature of one’s self
inquiry on the self and history of Philosophy  Socratic Method: a method of inquiry by
answering questions with another question
 To Socrates, true knowledge is virtue and
LESSON 1
virtue is courage- that courage is virtue and
SELF ACCORDING TO VARIOUS virtue is reason
PHILOSOPHERS  For Socrates, the Soul is the intellectual and
Philosophy: moral personality of humans
 “The Soul is the essence of the human
 Philosophy comes from the Greek word person,” it is the essence of humans to think
Philos meaning “love of” and the Latin word and will
Sofia meaning “wisdom”  The “Soul or The Self” is the responsible
Philosophy= Love of Wisdom agent in knowing and acting rightly or
Love= strong desire for a particular object wrongly
Wisdom= correct application of knowledge  The Soul is the Person’s true self
 Philosophy as the Love of Wisdom, is the  Good life is the ultimate goal of Socrates’
strong desire of a human person to possess Philosophy
knowledge and apply it accurately  The Good life is attained through the
 Philosophy is a science that studies beings acquisition of Knowledge, Wisdom, and
in their ultimate causes, reasons, and Virtue.
principles through human reason alone  To attempt a Good Life: we need to examine
Being/Beings- all things that exist Material our life
or Immaterial  Once a human discovers the truth then a
 Philosophy is concerned with the reason person does what she/he thinks is the right
and Principle that account for everything thing to do
that exists  One’s True Self should not be identified with
 Philosophy helps us to better understand what:
the self as a human person 1. One owns
 The early Philosophers has the idea that the 2. Social Status
proper ways to solve the problem of the 3. Reputation
man- the Self, is to first inquire and discover 4. Even with one’s body
the true nature of man  It is the state of the soul, the person’s inner
being which determines the quality of one’s
SOCRATES
life
 The first Philosopher who ever engaged in a  Knowledge, Wisdom, and Virtue that
systematic questioning about the self. makes life meaningful
 Concerned about the problem of the self  Therefore the True Self is the one who lived
 For Socrates every man is composed of in accordance with knowledge and virtue
body and soul- dualistic
Plato
a. Body (Imperfect and impermanent)
b. Soul (Perfect and permanent)  Man in his original state was pure soul
 The Soul as the True Self: Socrates argued which is not tied to the body. A soul exists
that the most important task for any and could exist apart from the body
individual is to know themselves, as this is  The soul 3 components, according to Plato
the foundation for wisdom and virtuous 1. Rational Soul- reason and intellect
living. Understanding oneself leads to better  This is the highest part of the soul,
choices and more fulfilling life responsible for reasoning, thinking
 Virtue and Wisdom are Intertwined: and seeking truth. Plato believed
Socrates saw the pursuit virtue (moral
 that this part of the soul is what  Immanuel Kant’s concept of the “Self” is
differentiates humans from animals. central to his Philosophy, particularly in his
 It governs the pursuit of wisdom, Critique of Pure Reasons. Kant viewed the
knowledge and the ability to make self as composed of 2 key aspects
rational decisions. Its proper a. Empirical Self
function is to rule over the other  This is the self that we experience in the
parts of the soul, ensuring that a Physical world. It’s how we perceive
person acts according to reason and ourselves through sensory experience and
virtue. introspection, consisting of our thoughts,
2. Spirited Soul- emotion feelings and bodily experiences
 this part of the soul deals with  The Empirical Self is subject to time and
emotions such as courage, honor, space, and it is shaped by our interactions
and indignation. It is responsible for with the world around us
a person’s sense of justice and the b. Transcendental Self
drive to achieve and defend noble  This is the deeper underlying self that
causes. The Spirited part supports enables us to have experiences and to
the rational soul by aligning with organize them in a coherent way
reason when properly educated.  It is that underlying, unobservable self
3. Appetitive Soul- desires that makes experience and knowledge
 This part governs desire and possible. It is the self that exists beyond
appetites, such as hunger, thirst, and sensory experience and empirical
other physical needs. While it is observation
essential for survival, Plato believed - Man can create for himself, the good
it must be controlled by the rational and rational being
soul to avoid indulgence and excess. - Human reason gives the person the
 When the ideal state is attained, then the capacity to make judgement regarding
human person’s soul becomes just and the good
virtuous.
CONFUCIOUS
 Man’s body belongs to the world of senses,
a world of things (subject) perishable and  The self is understood not as an isolated,
temporal, dependent on the soul which independent entity but as a relational and
leads, commands, and opposes it ethical being that is deeply embedded
 Soul is the essence of man. What makes a within a network of social relationships and
man, a man. moral responsibilities
 To Plato, the soul can exist without a body.  In Confucian thought, the self is shaped and
 What makes a man perfect is the perfection defined through its relationship with others,
of his soul. particularly through the practice of virtues
 Human nature is essentially good.
RENE DESCARTES
 Man can be honest, trustworthy, and
 The Father of Modern Philosophy/ cogito humane to others
ego sum “I think therefore I am”  Kindness, uprightness, decency, wisdom and
 ‘The cogito “the thing that thinks- MIND, faithfulness
the extension of the mind is the Body,  The Golden Rule: ”Do unto others what you
 Conceive that a human person has a body would want others to do unto you”
and mind.  The self is not a static or solitary entity but a
 Descartes’ view that the body is like a dynamic, evolving being that is defined and
machine that is attached to the mind refined through moral practice, social
 He claimed that there is so much that we engagement, and the pursuit of virtue.
should doubt
JOHN LOCKE
 The only thing that cannot be doubted is
the existence of the Self  The human mind at birth is a blank paper or
 The mind is superior to the body for it is the Tabula Rasa
mind that mental states occur  In the blank paper, experience makes its
 The Mind is the Real Self imprint
 Locke emphasized that it is our ability to be
Immanuel Kant
aware of ourselves as thinking, rational
beings that define our sense of self. It’s the
 awareness of thoughts, feelings, and actions o Separate: The self is distinct and
that create personal identity unique from others, with its own
 John Locke’s view of the self emphasizes identity (e.g., even twins are
consciousness, memory, and the continuous distinct).
link between past and present experiences.
o Self-contained and Independent:
For him, personal identity and self are
The self exists independently with its
shaped by the ability to remember and
own thoughts, characteristics, and
reflect on those experiences over time.
volition, not requiring others to
 Locke argued that consciousness is what
exist.
defines personal identity. The self is not
based on the substance of the soul or the o Consistent: The self has an enduring
body but on the continuity of consciousness personality, traits, and
over time. This means that a person is the characteristics that persist over time,
same self as long as they are aware of their allowing it to be studied and
thoughts, actions, and experiences. measured.
 This concept is sometimes referred to as the
memory of personal identity, meaning that o Unitary: The self is the center of all
the continuity of the self depends on the thoughts and experiences, like a
individual’s ability to remember past command post where emotions,
experiences. processes, and thoughts converge.

The Body and Soul Do Not Define the Self o Private: The self processes feelings,
emotions, and thoughts privately,
 He argued that the self is independent of isolated from the external world.
both the body and the soul, as personal
identity is tied to memory and The Self in Relation to Itself
consciousness, not to the physical or  Self-reflection enables individuals to
metaphysical soul understand themselves, their relationships
 Unlike earlier Philosophers such as Plato with others, and their place in the world by
and Descartes, Locke rejected the idea that asking questions like:
the self is rooted in a soul or an immaterial
substance. o "Who am I?"
o "What do I believe?"
o "What are my goals and
aspirations?"
o "What are my strengths and
weaknesses?"
o "How do I relate to others?"
The Self in Families
 Sociological perspectives focus on how
institutions, particularly the family,
influence the self and its relationship to
society.
 Gender is personally discovered and
asserted, though culture and society heavily
influence it.
Gender and the Self
 Gender is a key aspect of the self, subject to
LESSON 2 SELF, SOCIETY & CULTURE change and development.
WHAT IS SELF?  Society often imposes gender identities
 In contemporary literature, the self is often based on sex, which impacts how
defined by the following characteristics: individuals perceive themselves.
  Vygotsky and Mead emphasize that the self 2. Reciprocal Awareness: Awareness of
is shaped by language and social mutual likeness leads to differentiation from
interactions, such as dialogues with family others.
and friends.
3. Differences: Diversity exists alongside
Social Constructivist Perspective of the Self likeness, necessary for social organization.
 Social constructionism views the self as 4. Interdependence: Society functions through
fluid, constantly interacting with external the interdependence of its members.
reality.
5. Cooperation: Essential for the functioning
 The self is seen as malleable, adapting to of society and avoiding mutual destruction.
different social roles (e.g., father, friend,
6. Conflict: Conflict is present in all societies
teacher) and changing behavior, language,
and necessary for change and development.
and actions based on the social context.
Charles Horton Cooley's Theory: Sociological
 The self morphs according to circumstances,
Theory of Self
which is both normal and expected.
 The self is developed through social
The Self and Culture
interactions and the perceptions of others.
 Marcel Mauss explains that the self has two
 Looking-glass self: A concept where
faces:
individuals shape their identity based on
o Moi: The person’s basic identity, and how others perceive them.
biological aspects.
o Three principal elements:
o Personne: The social concepts and
 Our perception of how we
roles, influenced by culture, family,
appear to others.
religion, and nationality.
 Our perception of others'
The Self and Development of the Social World
judgments about us.
 Language is central to the self’s
 Our feelings about those
development, as both a shared public and
judgments.
private system of symbols.
The Self and Development of the Social World
 Society and the individual shape each other
through language and interaction.  The self’s development is a continuous
process, mediated by language.
George Herbert Mead and Lev Semyonovich
Vygotsky  Language is the bridge where the individual
and society shape each other.
 Both theorists believe that humans develop
through language acquisition and George Herbert Mead’s Three Stages of
interactions with others. Development of Self
 Cognitive and emotional processes are 1. Stage One – Preparatory (0-2 years): Child
influenced by internal dialogues and mimics actions without understanding the
external social reality. meaning.
Society 2. Stage Two – Play (2-6 years): Child pretends
to take roles, such as being a parent, but
 A society is a group of individuals engaged
without understanding rules.
in social interaction, typically within a
shared geographical or cultural space. 3. Stage Three – Game (7+ years): Child begins
to understand rules and takes on roles in
 Society is influenced by mutuality,
organized games, becoming more
reciprocity, differences, interdependence,
independent.
cooperation, and conflict.
Mead's Sociological Analysis of Self-Development
Elements of Society
 The self develops through communicative
1. Likeness: Shared attributes and mutual
interaction, starting with the infant's
recognition within a group.
dependence on the mother for basic needs.
  The child internalizes the roles of others  MassKara Festival (Bacolod City)
(e.g., mother, father), leading to self-
 Dinagyang Festival (Iloilo City)
development.
 Panagbenga Festival (Baguio City)
 Self-reflection is achieved by assuming the
roles of others and imagining their Exotic Cuisines in the World
perspective.
Balut (Philippines)
What is Culture?
 A fertilized duck egg with a partially
 Culture is the characteristics and knowledge developed embryo, typically boiled and
of a particular group of people, including served with spices and vinegar.
language.
Stargazy Pie (United Kingdom)
Examples of Culture
 A traditional Cornish dish made with fish
 Festivals: (usually sardines) whose heads stick out of
the pastry, representing a unique coastal
o Ati-Atihan Festival, Sinulog Festival,
flavor.
MassKara Festival, Dinagyang
Festival. Fruit Bat Soup (Palau)
 Cuisine:  A traditional dish made from fruit bats,
typically slow-cooked in a soup with various
o Balut, Stargazy Pie, Fruit Bat Soup.
herbs and spices.
 Clothing:
Different Clothing in Asia
o Armenia: Taraz
Sari (India)
o Bangladesh: Sari (women), Panjabi
 A long piece of fabric, typically around 5 to
(men)
9 yards, wrapped around the body and
o Bhutan: Kira (women), Gho (men) worn by women, often paired with a blouse
and petticoat.
o Brunei: Baju Kurung (women), Baju
Melayu (men) Kimono (Japan)
o Cambodia: Sampot, Krama  A traditional Japanese garment
characterized by long sleeves and a
o China: Qipao (women), Tangzhuang
wraparound design, often made of silk and
(men)
tied with an obi belt.
o Hong Kong: Qipao, Western fusion
Kilt (Scotland)
o India: Sari, Salwar Kameez (women),
 A knee-length skirt-like garment with pleats,
Dhoti, Sherwani (men)
traditionally worn by men, usually made of
o Indonesia: Batik, Kebaya, Sarong woolen cloth with a tartan pattern.

 Architecture: Architectures Around the World

o Eiffel Tower, Pyramid of Egypt, Taj Eiffel Tower (France)

Mahal, St. Basil’s Cathedral.
 A wrought-iron lattice tower located in
 Arts: Paris, designed by Gustave Eiffel. It was
initially a temporary structure for the 1889
o Paintings: Mona Lisa World's Fair and is now a global cultural icon
o Musical Theatre: Opera - Le nozze di of France.
Figaro (The Marriage of Figaro) Taj Mahal (India)
o Dances: Tinikling  A white marble mausoleum in Agra, built by
Festivals in the Philippines Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of
his wife Mumtaz Mahal. It is a symbol of
 Ati-Atihan Festival (Kalibo, Aklan) love and a UNESCO World Heritage site.
 Sinulog Festival (Cebu City) Pyramids of Giza (Egypt)
  Ancient structures located near Cairo, with o Life involves suffering, pain, and
the Great Pyramid being one of the Seven frustration.
Wonders of the Ancient World. These
o Suffering can be overcome through
pyramids were built as tombs for the
meditation and deeper
Pharaohs and are iconic symbols of ancient
understanding.
Egyptian civilization.
 Christianity:
Different Arts Forms
o Belief in a Trinitarian God: God the
Painting
Father (Creator), God the Son
 Example: Mona Lisa (Italy) - A famous oil (Savior), and God the Holy Spirit
painting by Leonardo da Vinci, known for its (Sustainer).
realistic portrayal and enigmatic smile.
o Eternal life through faith in Jesus
Sculpture Christ, who died for humanity's sins
and was resurrected.
 Example: David (Italy) - A marble statue
created by Michelangelo, depicting the  Hinduism:
biblical hero David, celebrated for its
o Belief in reincarnation, governed by
detailed and realistic anatomy.
karma (past actions affect future
Music lives).
 Example: Opera (Italy) - A theatrical art o Vedas and epics like Mahabharata
form combining music, singing, and drama. and Ramayana are sacred texts.
Famous operas include La Traviata and The
 Islam:
Marriage of Figaro.
o Belief in one God and Muhammad
Dance
as the last prophet.
 Example: Ballet (France/Russia) - A highly
o The Quran is the sacred text,
technical form of dance, often performed to
considered the final and complete
classical music. Famous ballets include Swan
revelation from God.
Lake and The Nutcracker.
 Judaism:
Theater
o Belief in God as the liberator of the
 Example: Kabuki (Japan) - A traditional form
Hebrews from Egypt.
of Japanese drama known for its elaborate
costumes, singing, and dancing, often o The Torah is the sacred text, guiding
involving historical themes and social issues. Jewish law and life.
What is Religion? What is Cultural Relativism?
 Religion is the belief in or worship of a  The idea that no culture can be judged by
supernatural power or powers considered the standards of another, and all cultural
to be divine or have control of human values and beliefs should be understood
destiny. within their own context.
Examples of Religion Definitions of Culture
 Buddhism  Tylor (1958): Culture is a complex whole,
including knowledge, belief, arts, morals,
 Christianity
law, custom, and any other capabilities
 Hinduism acquired by humans as members of society.
 Islam  Macionis (2017): Culture includes ways of
thinking, acting, and material objects that
 Judaism
form a people’s way of life.
Core Beliefs of Major Religions
Types of Culture
 Buddhism:
 Material Culture: Physical things created by
members of society.
  Nonmaterial Culture: Ideas and other non-  Popular Culture: Entertainment and media
physical things created by members of consumed by the general population (e.g.,
society. TV shows, fast food, carinderias).
Components of Culture How Do People View Their Culture?
 Symbol: Anything that carries a particular  Ethnocentrism: Judging other cultures by
meaning recognized by a cultural group. the standards of one's own (e.g.,
colonialism, language superiority).
 Culture Shock: Inability to understand the
meaning of symbols in unfamiliar  Multiculturalism: Recognizing cultural
surroundings. diversity and promoting equality of cultural
traditions (e.g., recognizing Muslims in
 Language: A system of symbols for
national laws).
communication.
 Cultural Relativism: Understanding a
 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Language shapes
person’s beliefs and practices based on their
how people perceive and understand the
own culture, not through the lens of
world.
another (e.g., respecting Ramadan
Values and Beliefs practices).

 Values: Culturally defined standards for How Cultures Change

what is desirable and good.
 Invention: Creation of new ideas, methods,
 Beliefs: Specific thoughts or ideas or devices (e.g., new modes of
considered true by people. transportation).

Norms  Innovation: Improvement of existing ideas

or technologies (e.g., better smartphones).
 Mores: Norms with great moral significance
(e.g., marriage as a sacred ritual).  Discovery: Uncovering previously unknown
facts (e.g., development of mRNA vaccines
 Taboo: Strict prohibitions against certain during COVID-19).
behaviors (e.g., Filipinas not taking food
from wakes). Culture is the shared way of life in a society,
including beliefs, values, norms, and physical
 Folkways: Casual or routine norms (e.g., objects. It consists of material and nonmaterial
Pagmamano). elements that shape how people think, act, and
Different Kinds of Culture interact.

 Dominant Culture: Accepted by the Norms guide behavior and are classified as mores,
majority of a society, shaping norms and taboos, or folkways.
institutions (e.g., English in the U.S.). There are various types of culture, including
 Mainstream Culture: Common ideas, dominant culture, subcultures, countercultures,
attitudes, and media that are popular at a and popular culture. Culture evolves through
given time (e.g., TikTok, Instagram). invention, innovation, and discovery. People view
culture through ethnocentrism, multiculturalism,
 Subculture: A group with shared interests or and cultural relativism.
lifestyles that differ from the dominant
culture (e.g., role players, EMO, bikers).
 Counterculture: A subculture whose values LESSON 3 The Self in Western and Eastern
and behaviors oppose mainstream society Thought
(e.g., feminist, civil rights, LGBTQ+
movements).  Different cultures shape varying perceptions
of the "self," with a common distinction
 High Culture: Cultural patterns associated being the Eastern vs. Western dichotomy.
with society’s elite, requiring specialized This distinction has historical and political
knowledge (e.g., opera, fine arts). influences. While geographically close
countries may share similarities, numerous
factors contribute to cultural differences. In
 the Philippines specifically, each region ways: the individualistic self, the concept of self-
holds unique perspectives on the "self." sufficiency, and the self being rational.
The Concept of "SELF" in Eastern Thought  The Individualistic Self
Eastern concepts of "self" leans more toward the The individualistic self is always conceived as the
different philosophies, namely: Confucianism, autonomous bounded entity. For one to be
Taoism, and Buddhism autonomous, one must be able to show
independence.
1. CONFUCIANISM
 This philosophy originated from the Chinese  The Concept of Self- sufficiency
philosopher, teacher, and political figure
The self must be able to provide his/her needs
named Kung Fu Zi, or more popularly known
without the help of other people. The self can
as Confucius.
gather the needed resources to accomplish his/her
 The concept of "self" under this
goals without aid from other people.
philosophical thought focuses on having a
harmonious social life through acting  The Concept of Self- sufficiency
properly and accordingly with other people.
 Confucianism sees self-cultivation as the
Being self-sufficient implies confidence in one's
ultimate purpose of life but the capacity to provide what the self needs from one's
characteristics of a chun-tzu, or a man of own resources and authority. it is important for the
virtue or noble character, is still embedded self to establish one's power and accumulate the
in his social relationships (Ho, 1995). needed knowledge and resources so that one will
 The cultivated self in Confucianisms what
be able to provide one's needs.
some scholars call a "subdued self" wherein  The Self Being Rational
personal needs are repressed (subdued) for
the good of many (Ho, 1995). The self must not waste resources on meditation
2. TAOISM and other metaphysical cognitions but be
 Taoists adopt a free-flowing, relative, constantly rational and reasonable. Under this
unitary, as well as paradoxical view of concept, everything must be explained by logic and
almost everything. reason.
 Taoism rejects the strictness brought by Eastern philosophies are more attuned to the
Confucianism and would prefer a simple collective dimension of the self as opposed to the
lifestyle (Ho, 1995). Western individualistic ideals of the self.
 The teachings of the Tao describe how a
simple lifestyle can be achieved. Sigmund Freud’s model of the psyche is one
 According to Taoism, the ideal concept of of his most well-known contributions to
the "self" is selflessness but not forgetting psychology. His theory of the id, ego, and
about the self. superego describes the three parts of the
human mind that influence behavior and
BUDDHISM personality. These components work
 Buddhism is based on the teachings of together, often in tension, to shape how we
Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha. This think, feel, and act. Freud believed that the
philosophy views the self as an illusion, born dynamics between these three forces are key
out of ignorance, of trying to hold and to understanding human behavior, conflict,
control things, or human- centered needs; and psychological development.
thus, the self is also the source of all 1. The Id
sufferings  Definition: The id is the most
 The goal of Buddhism is to forget the primitive part of the psyche, present
cravings of the self, break the attachments a from birth. It represents our basic
person has with the world, and to renounce instincts and desires.
the self which is the cause of all suffering  Characteristics:
(Ho, 1995). o Unconscious: The id
operates entirely in the
The Concept of the Self in Western Thought unconscious mind.
o Pleasure Principle: It seeks
In Western thought, the concept of "self" is
seen as a social construct characterized in three immediate gratification of
desires and needs,
 regardless of reality or o Mediator: The ego is the
social norms. Freud referred mediator between the
to this as the pleasure impulsive id and the
principle, where the id moralistic superego. It tries
strives for pleasure and to balance the conflicting
avoids pain without demands in a way that
considering consequences. allows the individual to
o Instinctual Drives: The id is function effectively in
driven by basic biological society.
urges, such as hunger,  Example: If the person in the earlier
thirst, sex, and aggression. example of anger wants to shout,
It wants to satisfy these the ego would think about the
urges instantly. consequences, such as whether it
o Irrational: The id is would lead to a fight or harm
impulsive and does not relationships. It might suggest taking
consider logic, ethics, or a deep breath or walking away
consequences. For example, instead of acting impulsively on the
if a person is hungry, the id desire to shout.
wants food immediately, 3. The Superego
without concern for how it  Definition: The superego is the part
is obtained. of the psyche that holds moral
 Example: Imagine a person feels a standards and ideals. It represents
sudden urge to shout at someone the internalized values and rules of
who has angered them. The id might society, as well as parental and
push them to do so immediately, societal influences.
seeking release from the pent-up  Characteristics:
emotion, without thinking about the o Morality and Ethics: The
social or relational consequences. superego is responsible for
2. The Ego the moral judgments we
 Definition: The ego is the part of the make. It strives for
psyche that deals with reality. It perfection and works to
develops to help balance the desires control the id's impulses,
of the id and the constraints of the especially those that society
external world. deems unacceptable, such
 Characteristics: as aggression or lust.
o Reality Principle: The ego o Conscience: The superego
operates according to the includes the conscience,
reality principle, meaning it which punishes us with
considers the external feelings of guilt or shame
world and its constraints when we violate moral
when making decisions. standards.
Unlike the id, which seeks o Ego Ideal: The superego
immediate gratification, the also includes the ego ideal,
ego recognizes that some which represents the
desires must be postponed standards of perfection the
or modified based on social person aspires to achieve.
norms, rules, and This is shaped by ideals,
practicality. rules, and aspirations
o Conscious and handed down by parents,
Unconscious: The ego is culture, and society.
largely conscious but also o Internalized Authority:
contains unconscious Freud believed that the
elements. It manages the superego developed during
demands of both the id and childhood, as children
the superego, working to internalize their parents'
find a realistic way to satisfy values and expectations.
the id's desires. Over time, this becomes a
 guiding force for moral
behavior.
 Example: Continuing from the earlier
example, if the person feels the urge
to shout in anger, the superego
might respond by causing them to
feel guilty for such an inappropriate
outburst. It might push them to act
with restraint, as shouting would go
against their internalized moral
codes of proper behavior.
The Interplay of Id, Ego, and Superego
Freud suggested that the id, ego, and
superego are often in conflict, and the way
they interact shapes our personality and
behavior. Here’s how they can come into
conflict:
 Id vs. Superego: The id wants
immediate gratification of desires
(e.g., acting on anger), while the
superego seeks moral behavior,
often creating tension. For example,
the id might want to shout at
someone in anger, but the superego
would feel guilty about the social or
moral consequences of such an
outburst.
 Ego as Mediator: The ego works to
resolve the conflict between the id
and the superego by finding a
realistic solution. For example, the
ego might recognize that while
shouting feels good in the moment
(id’s desire), it might suggest calming
down and expressing the anger in a
more socially acceptable way
(following the superego’s moral
guidance).
Freud believed that psychological health
involves a well-functioning balance between
the three components. If one part dominates
too much, it can lead to psychological issues.
For example:
 If the id is too dominant, a person
might become impulsive, reckless, or
selfish.
 If the superego is too harsh or rigid,
a person might feel guilty, anxious,
or overly self-critical.
 If the ego is weak or ineffective, a LESSON 4 COGNITIVE SELF/ SELF
person might struggle to balance AS A COGNITIVE CONSTRUCT
their desires and reality, leading to Cognitive Self
poor decision-making or emotional
turmoil.  It refers to the way individuals think about
and perceive themselves. It involves our
thoughts, beliefs, and mental processes that
shape how we understand our identity,
 abilities, and behavior. The cognitive self moments when they feel overlooked,
helps us form a self-concept, which is how reinforcing their negative self-image.
we define who we are based on our own
 Perception Shifts: Experiences can change
thoughts and experiences.
perception, such as receiving positive
 Someone may sharply say “I am who i am,
feedback or achieving a goal that alters
yet one may ask, “If you are who you are,
one’s self-concept.
then who are you that makes you who you
are?” 2. Memory: Our self-concept is influenced by
our memories, particularly autobiographical
The psychologist William James (in 1890)
memories, which reinforce our identity
suggested that the self has two parts: the "I" and
through past experiences.
the "me".
TWO TYPES OF MEMORY:
 The "I" is the part of us that thinks, feels,
and acts. It’s the part that is aware and  Influence of Positive and Negative
experiences life. Memories: Positive memories, such as
achievements or acts of kindness,
 The "me" is the part that includes our
strengthen our self-concept, while negative
physical traits and abilities, the things that
memories may challenge our sense of self-
make us who we are as individuals.
worth.
Key Components of Self as a Cognitive Construct
 Childhood Memories: Early experiences
 Self-Concept: The perception we have of have a lasting effect, shaping our
ourselves, influenced by our beliefs, foundational beliefs about who we are and
personality, and self-awareness. what we’re capable of.
 Self-Schema: Specific beliefs that form the 3. Social Comparison: Comparing ourselves to
basis of our self-concept, such as identifying others provides a benchmark for self-evaluation.
as hardworking or shy. Social comparisons can influence self-esteem and
motivation.
 Possible Selves: The potential versions of
ourselves we envision, which affect our  Types of Comparison:
aspirations and motivation.
o Upward Comparison: Comparing
3 Types of Possible Selves: oneself to those perceived as
"better" can be motivating but also
 Ideal Self: Who we want to be.
discouraging.
 Ought Self: Who we think we should be.
o Downward Comparison: Comparing
 Feared Self: Who we don’t want to become. oneself to those "worse off" can
boost self-esteem, as it emphasizes
 Self-Esteem: This is the value or worth we one's relative strengths.
place on ourselves, influencing our
willingness to take risks.  Impact on Self-Worth: Social comparisons
 Self-Efficacy: Self-efficacy is the belief in our are particularly relevant in settings like
ability to complete tasks and achieve goals. social media, where people often only share
positive experiences, potentially distorting
Cognitive Processes Involved in Self-Construction viewers’ self-perception.
1. Perception: Perception shapes the way we Attribution: How we explain our successes and
interpret our environment and influences failures affects our self-image.
our self-image. Perceptions can be selective,
 Internal vs. External Attributions: People
often reinforcing existing beliefs about
who attribute success to internal factors
ourselves.
(like effort) may have higher self-confidence,
TWO TYPES OF PERCEPTION: while those who attribute failure externally
(like bad luck) may avoid self-blame.
 Selective Perception: We tend to notice
information that aligns with our self-beliefs.  Role in Resilience: Attributing failures to
For example, a person who considers correctable factors (like needing more
themselves unattractive might focus on practice) can enhance resilience and foster a
growth mindset.
Types of A Self in Cognitive Constructs Sometimes, people present a version of
themselves to fit in or be accepted, even if it
 Actual Self:
doesn’t align with their true identity.
The self we believe we are right now, based on our
current attributes and abilities.  Impact on Well-Being: Presenting a false
self too frequently can lead to stress,
Example: A student may see themselves as confusion, and dissatisfaction.
"hardworking but struggling with math." This self-
image influences their choices, like seeking Influence of Culture and Society on Self-
additional tutoring or avoiding challenging Construction
problems.
 Ideal Self:  Collectivist vs. Individualist Societies:

The self we aspire to become, shaped by our Collectivist societies prioritize group harmony and
personal goals and aspirations. interdependence, while individualist societies
emphasize independence and personal
 Discrepancy Between Actual and Ideal Self: achievementa.
When there’s a significant gap between the
actual and ideal self, it may lead to feelings  Social Identity Theory:
of inadequacy but also drive self-
improvement. Group affiliations shape self-concept, with
individuals deriving a sense of self-worth from
Ought Self:
being part of various social groups.
The self shaped by obligations, responsibilities, and
social expectations.  Media Influence:

 Impact of Societal Pressure: Failing to meet Exposure to idealized images affects self-esteem,
these expectations can lead to feelings of often setting unattainable standards for beauty,
guilt or shame, especially in cultures with success, and happiness.
strong family or community ties.
The Role of Self-Talk and Self-Reflection
Feared Self:
The self we are afraid of becoming, which often  Positive vs. Negative Self-Talk
serves as motivation to avoid negative behaviors or
Positive and negative self-talk represent two
choices.
distinct ways in which individuals interpret and
 Academic Struggles: A college student respond to their own thoughts, impacting self-
majoring in math and education fears esteem and emotional well-being. Positive self-talk
becoming someone who drops out of school consists of constructive, encouraging statements
due to repeated failures. that boost confidence, foster resilience, and help
individuals approach challenges with a growth
 Unfulfilled Potential: An aspiring teacher mindset.
fears becoming someone who fails to make
a positive impact on their students. They  Self-reflection and Growth
worry about becoming a teacher who
doesn’t inspire students or who feels Self-reflection is the process of thoughtfully
indifferent to student success. considering one’s experiences, actions, and
 Personal Health Decline: Someone who has thoughts to gain deeper insight into personal
seen family members suffer from chronic motivations, strengths, and weaknesses. This
health issues may have a feared self of reflective practice allows individuals to assess past
becoming similarly unhealthy. actions, learn from successes and mistakes, and
 Financial Instability: A person might fear a make intentional changes that contribute to
future where they are financially unstable, personal growth.
possibly due to poor budgeting or career
setbacks. The Impact of Self-Cognitive Construct on
Behavior
False Self:  Self-Consistency
Self-consistency refers to the alignment between a  Values and Beliefs: Our deeply held values
person’s actions and their core beliefs and values. and beliefs shape how we perceive
When individuals act in ways that match their self- ourselves and what we consider important.
concept, it strengthens their sense of identity,
 Influence on Self-Concept: Personal values
builds self-confidence, and enhances overall
like honesty, empathy, and independence
satisfaction.
become core parts of our identity and
 Self-Regulation influence how we behave.
Self-regulation is the capacity to control impulses  Value Conflicts: When our actions or
and manage emotions, guiding behavior in a way surroundings clash with our values, it can
that supports long-term goals and personal values. cause inner conflict, motivating us to adjust
Effective self-regulation allows individuals to resist either our values or our environment.
immediate temptations, delay gratification, and
The Developmental Aspect of Self-Concept
stay focused on achieving their objectives
 Childhood Influence: Early life experiences,
 Goal Setting and Motivation
family dynamics, and educational influences
Goal setting, when grounded in self-awareness, play a significant role in shaping self-
involves identifying objectives that are realistic and concept.
aligned with personal values, fostering greater
 Adolescence: This is a critical time for self-
motivation and resilience. Understanding one’s
exploration, where individuals experiment
values, strengths, and limitations is key to setting
with different identities and seek autonomy.
achievable goals that resonate personally.
 Adult Identity: In adulthood, self-concept
Applications of Self as a Cognitive Construct in
stabilizes, but significant life events (such as
Real Life
career changes, relationships, or
 Educational Settings: Understanding parenthood) can still reshape identity.
concepts like self-efficacy and self-esteem
can help students boost motivation,
resilience, and academic performance.
 Personal Relationships: Self-awareness and
knowledge of social comparison can
improve empathy, communication, and
conflict resolution in relationships.
 Career Development: Self-concept and self-
efficacy play significant roles in career
choice, work performance, and handling
setbacks in the professional world.
 Mental Health: Cognitive approaches to
understanding the self can be applied in
therapy to treat issues like low self-esteem,
anxiety, and depression.

Self-Compassion and Self-Acceptance

 Self-Compassion: Treating oneself with
kindness, especially during times of failure
or suffering. It helps build resilience and
reduces self-criticism.
 Self-Acceptance: Recognizing and accepting
one’s strengths and weaknesses without
harsh judgment. It encourages a balanced
and realistic self-view, leading to greater
contentment.
The Role of Personal Values and Beliefs