Definitions

Hygiene

Hygiene refers to the set of practices associated with the preservation of health and healthy
living. Hygiene is a concept related to medicine, as well as to personal and professional
care practices related to most aspects of living, although it is most often associated with
cleanliness and preventive measures. Hygiene is also the name of the science that deals
with the promotion and preservation of health, also called Hygienics.

Other definitions:

I. Refers to acts that can lead to good health and cleanliness, such as frequent
hand washing, face washing, and bathing with soap and clean water

II. Conditions or practices conducive to maintaining health and preventing

disease, especially through cleanliness: good standards of both food and personal hygiene
as well as environmental hygiene.

NB- Practicing personal hygiene in many parts of the world can be difficult due to lack of
clean water and soap.

Sanitation- is a hygienic means of promoting health through prevention of human contact

with the hazards of wastes. Wastes that can cause health problems are human and animal
faeces solid wastes, domestic wastewater (sewage grey water) industrial waste and
agricultural wastes. Hygienic means of prevention can be by using engineering solutions
(e.g. sewerage and wastewater treatment) simple technologies (e.g. latrines septic tanks) or
even by personal hygienic practises (e.g. simple hand washing with soap.)

It is also group of methods to collect human excreta and urine as well as community waste
water in hygienic way, where human and community health is not altered, (WHO).

Ø Sanitation methods aim to decrease spreading of diseases by adequate water, excreta

and other waste treatment, proper handling of water, food and by restricting the occurrence
and causes of diseases.
Epidemiology: -

The frequency and distribution of diseases and the factors that contributes to the spread of
diseases.

The factors include:

· Virulence of the pathogen.

· Susceptibility of the population.

· Mode of transmission.

There are four types of epidemiological studies of diseases Endemic, Epidemic, Pandemic
and Sporadic.

Of the four, epidemics causes serious damage to population in cases where hygiene is not
observed.

Epidemic: more than the normal number of cases of a disease in a community or an area
within a particular period.

It involves diseases with short incubation period and mode of transmission is not
complicated in that it can be distributed easily, e.g. through contaminated drinking water

Transmission of diseases

Transmission/spread

The process of the pathogen (diseases causing organism) leaving one host an infecting a
new host.

For transmission to be complete two factors are crucial

· Source of disease

· Target population

Disease causing agents

The following are the major disease causing agents:

· Bacteria

· Parasites

· Viruses

· Fungi

· Chlamydia

· Rickettsia

Modes of disease transmission

· Ingestion (through the oral route)

· Penetration (due to the bleach of the skin or mucosal linings)

· Inhalation (through the respiratory route)

· Conjunctiva (through the eye)

· Urinogenital.

· Vector borne (aided by vectors

Ingestion.

In communities where facilities for safe disposal of faeces are inadequate, the major part of
the diarrhoeal disease burden originates from infected faeces

Infectious agents are transmitted from faeces to hands to mouth (which can occur directly,
or indirectly via other surfaces e.g. toilet surfaces) or by consumption of food or water which
has become contaminated with faecal organisms.

Infections

An infection is the detrimental colonization of a host organism by a foreign species. In an

infection, the infecting organism seeks to utilize the host’s resources to multiply, usually at
the expense of the host.

Personal hygiene

Reasons for personal hygiene

Personal hygiene is important for the following reason:

To improve health. Wash your hands frequently. Good personal hygiene can make you a
healthier person. Regular bathing and hand washing will prevent many illnesses by killing
the unseen germs found on our bodies.

To prevent body odour. Apply deodorant daily. Good personal hygiene will prevent body
odour. Washing every day and using a good antiperspirant or deodorant will remove the
body chemicals that cause odour.

To improve self-esteem. Go about your day with confidence. Good personal hygiene also
improves self-esteem and confidence. If you knowq you are clean, you can go about your
daily activities without worrying that body odours may be offending others.

To prevent skin problems. Good personal hygiene may prevent athlete’s foot and other
skin conditions that are caused from lack of washing.

To prevent dental problems. Brush your teeth three times a day. Good personal hygiene
will prevent bad breath and tooth decay. Brushing and flossing your teeth three times a day
will keep your breath smelling clean. It will also please your dentist

How to practice good hygiene

 Wash your hands after coming into contact with germs, which can be found
almost everywhere. When you’re preparing uncooked meat or have gone to the
bathroom or done anything that brings your body into contact with germs, it’s
important to wash your hands. E. Coli, hepatitis and other infectious diseases can be
transmitted if you bring contaminated hands into contact with someone’s face or
body. It is recommended that you use an antibacterial soap when washing hands to
ensure that you kill all or most germs that could be present on your hands and
forearm.
 Brush your teeth 2-3 times a day. Brushing your teeth as recommended by your
dental professional results in a good healthy personal appearance and oral health. If
you don’t brush your teeth as recommended, you could face an array of dental
 problems including: tooth decay, gingivitis bad breath and so on. The bacteria that
form in your mouth between brushing or overnight causes this dental problem. You
are advised to brush your teeth and rinse with an antiseptic mouthwash each day at
least 2-3 times per day to fight off this bacterium.
 Bathe daily. Taking a bath is key to more than just your overall hygiene but also
results in ridding your body of bacteria. Not bathing can lead to an over accumulation
of bacteria that can cause odour and certain types of infection, primarily in women.
You are encouraged to bath at least 1-2 times per day with an antibacterial soap.
Some antibacterial soap may cause an allergic reaction. Ask your physician with
soap you should use.
 Wash your hair daily if you don’t wash your hair daily you could develop
dandruff problems and lice. Ridding yourself of lice can be difficult. Buy a
shampoo that fights dandruff and moisturises and improves the quality of your hair.
This is good way to maintain the overall health of your hair. If you have a problem
with dry scalp, consult with a dermatologist about the possibility of getting a
prescription shampoo.
 Don’t use anything that has come into contact with another person’s body
fluid. This is a very important step in practising good hygiene. Don’t use or touch
syringes or any other type of medical or personal item that has come into contact
with another person’s body fluid. Using someone’s personal items could put you in
danger of contracting a very serious illness or condition. Sometimes, even if you
know someone, you should still refrain from his/her personal items.

HAND WASHING

Hand washing for hand hygiene is the act of cleaning their hands with or without the use
of water or another liquid or with the use of soap for the purpose of removing soil, dirt and or
microorganisms.

Medical hand hygiene pertains to the hygiene practices related to the administration of
medicine and medical care that prevents or minimises disease and the spreading of
disease. The main medical purpose of washing hands is to cleanse their hands of
pathogens (including bacteria or viruses) and chemicals which can cause personal harm or
disease. This is especially important for people who handle food or work in the medical
field, but it is also an important practice for people for the general public. People can
become infected with respiratory illness such as influenza or the common cold, for example,
if they don’t wash their hands before touching their eyes, nose, or mouth. Indeed, the
Centres for Disease Control and prevention (CDC) has stated: ‘‘It is well documented that
one of the most important measures for preventing the spread of pathogens is effective
hand washing.’’

Hand washing techniques

 Hand washing with wipes

 Soap and water
 Hand antiseptic sanitiser
 Drying

Water hygiene and sanitation (WASH)

Providing adequate and safe water, sanitation and hygiene education is crucial for
achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) of achieving universal primary
education, promoting gender equality, reducing child mortality and most importantly in
achieving the target (MDG 7) of halving the proportion of the population without access of
safe drinking water in basic sanitation.

Definitions

Safe water

Safe water is clean water that can be consumed or used without risk of getting a disease.

Sanitation

Sanitation is the state of being clean. It generally refers to the facilities and services
involved in the safe disposal of human waste. ie Toilets. Latrines.

Hygiene

Hygiene is the practice of keeping yourself and the things around you clean (free of germs)
in order to prevent disease. It refers to a range of practises, including personal hygiene and
professional care, which reduce the incidence of disease.

Good hygiene practices

Drinking safe water

Why is it important?
· Water from once open source like streams, river canal/channel etc. is unsafe for
drinking, as it is prone to contamination by animals’ germs and human beings.

· Drinking contaminated water causes diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery, typhoid,

cholera and hepatitis.

· Even if water is collected from a safe source, it can get contaminated if it is not
handled properly while collecting, storing and using.

How should drinking water be collected, handled and stored?

· Drinking water should be collected from a safe source such as a tap and protected
Springs only.

· The inside of a vessel should be cleaned well before collecting water.

· After filling the vessel with drinking water, it should be covered while being carried
from water source to the place where it is used.

· Treating water at the point of use is an effective way of making it safe to drink.
Treatment methods includes: 0 point of use treatment using chlorine (chlorination) solution.

· SODIS (solar disinfection) fill clean 1.5-2 litre plastic (PET) bottles with clear water,
place on an inclined surface (roof) in the sun for 6 hours (48 hours if cloudy) water will be
safe to drink.

· Filtering using special ceramic filters.

· Boiling: heating water until a rolling boiling begins. After cooling off, it is safe to drink
if it has been kept covered.

· To remain safe, water must be stored in clean containers with narrow necks or
covered with hard covers or jerry cans or other closed containers with spigots.

· To keep treated water safe, hands and other objects should not be put into drinking
water containers. A ladle or cup attached to the storage container or hung on the wall with a
nail and only used for the purpose of serving the water should be used.
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

Environmental health is defined by the World Health Organisation as those aspects of the
human health and disease that are determined by factors in the environment. It also refers
to the theory and practice of assessing and controlling factors in the environment that can
potentially affect health.

Handling of household refuse

Waste disposal is a growing problem worldwide. Although there have been recent
advancements in waste disposal, it remains an overall public safety and environmental
health issue that countries around the world continue to address.

Types of waste and its disposal

 Organic

Derived from animal and plants foods which includes:

- Vegetable and meat trimmings.

- Bones.

- Inedible plant parts.

- Food leftovers.

- Old cooking oils.

- From flower beds and hedges.

 Inorganic (solid waters) which include

- Packaging materials, cans both plastic and metals.

- Glass which include crockery.

- Glass bottles mostly from the bar and kitchen.

- Offices wastes which include papers cardboard cartridges.

- Garage wastes which include old engine oils.

- Linen wastes, towels and rags.

 Liquid wastes

- This include grey water from the kitchen and cooking oils.

PREVENTION AND REDUCTION

The best method of managing waste is prevention and reduction, which can be achieved in
a number of ways like recycling and making use of second hand items.

 Burying

 It is suitable for organic wastes which cannot (degrade) once in the soil thus add
nutrients to the soils.
 It is not suitable for solid wastes.
 It is not suitable where large amounts of wastes are produced.
 It is ideal for picnic where small amount of wastes is produced.

Storage of hazardous materials

 Keep all flammable products out of direct sunlight and away from heat, sparks or
flames.
 Store all containers in an upright position a cardboard box instead of plastic bags
and place leaking containers in a larger plastic container with a tight-fitting lid.
 All hazardous waste generated by business needs to be stored in a safe and secure
location.
 Waste identified as high or extremely risky should not be stored with the rest of
hazardous waste. This kind of waste needs to be picked up by special arrangement,
possibly outside of the regular hazardous waste pickup.
 Burning/Incineration

Incineration is popular due to the minimal land available for disposal but there is some
concern about the release of micro pollutants like dioxins from incinerator stacks.

- Mainly used inflammable waste like paper.

- Suitable for small amounts of waste as this method may pollute the air.

 Draining into main sewer

- Suitable for disposing liquid wastes like grey water from dishwashing

- Water from the kitchen is normally channelled to the main sewer.

 Recycling/energy recovery

Energy recovery is a promising form of waste disposal. It works by recycling some forms of
waste into a fuel source for heating, cooking and powering turbines.

- This is one of the best way of disposing wastes.

- Materials are separated and taken for recycling.

Waste that can be recycled include:

- Glass.

- Metals.

- Plastic cans heavy duty plastic sheets and paper.

- Rubber.

- Paper (made from wood).

- Cooking oil into biodiesel.

Compositing/biological reprocessing

Biological reprocessing methods such as composting can be used for organic waste like
food, paper and plant material.

- Organic matter is composed to produce organic manure to grow organic foods and
for adding nutrients to flower beds.
  Feeding animals

Left over foods are used to feed pigs, cows, dogs and other domestic animals.

 Compactors

- Compacting reduces the waist sizes (bulkiness)

- The compacted wastes are then discarded into dumping sites.

 Disposal in to sea/rivers/ Ocean Dumping

Controversy surrounds ocean dumping as a waste disposal method. Although the waste
may provide nutrients from some sea life, it’s widely believed that the harmful insects will
outweigh any benefits.

- This is a bad method of waste disposal because it pollutes the rive r environments.

- However, water from sewage lagoons is usually safe to dispose into the rivers once
they are certified clean.