CHAPTER 4: EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

Section 4.1 Ground Shaking

we feel the ground vibrate as when there is a large cargo truck passing, when there is a
large Man-made explosion, perhaps from a nearby quarry. Natural event like volcanic eruption
or landslide can also shake the ground tremendously. For many people who experience a very
strong earthquake, nothing is perhaps more daunting then being on a tall building swaying as if
tis the end of the world.
Ground shaking or vibration is what we feel when energy build up by the application of
stress to the lithosphere is releases by faulting during an earthquake. Can something be done to
prevent the shaking of the ground during earthquake? What do we need to know and what action
can one takes so that one does not experience damage to property and threat to life during
intense earthquake vibration?
How earthquake vibration is generated?
Most natural earthquakes are cause by sudden slippage along a fault zone. Slippage along
fault zone is hindered because there are irregularities on the fault plane. If it were smooth, block
on opposite side of a fault will just slide past each other continuously. The Elastic rebound theory
suggest that elastic strain energy build up in the deforming rock on either side of the fault (fig.
4.1.1 Reid’s Elastic Bond Theory)
 Fig.4.1.1

until it overcomes the resistance posed by any irregularity on the fault plane. When the slippage occur,
energy is released. The elastic energy released is transported by seismic wave that travel throughout the
earth. We feel the seismic wave as vibration. (Fig.4.1.2)
 Fig 4.1.2 Seismic Wave Radiation

There are three main type of seismic wave, each of which shakes the ground differently. P
(primary) and S (secondary)waves are called body waves as these travel in the rock below the
surface of the earth. P and S waves radiate out from the rapturing fault, after reaching the surface
of the earth, these are converted to surface wave that travel outwards from the epicenter.
How ground shaking is measured?
The strength of ground shaking (or that of seismic waves) is measured in terms of
Velocity, Acceleration, Frequency content of the shaking and how long the shaking continues
(the “Duration”). These term are also used by scientist and engineers to describe the swaying
motion of the building and other structure as a reaction to the shaking of the ground during
earthquake.
Ground acceleration during earthquakes varies from place to place. How intense the
ground shaking that a site may experience will depend on earthquake magnitude (which to large
degree is related to fault length), depth of focus, distance from epicenter and the duration of the
shaking. The nature of ground material also determines the shaking reaction of the ground. As
shallower earthquakes release energy from a position closer to the surface, the ground shaking
or acceleration will be stronger.
Vocabulary of definitions:

Frequency – how often a vibration occurs, the unit of measurement is Hertz (Hz). The product
of wavelength and frequency is Velocity

Natural Frequency – the frequency at which a system naturally vibrates once it has been set
into motion. The natural frequency depends on the stiffness and mass of the system.

Period – the time (in seconds) it takes for one cycle to occur. The period is equal to the reciprocal
for frequency (1/frequency).

Acceleration – is the rate of change of velocity expressed as a ratio of the acceleration of gravity.

Effect of Ground Shaking

The horizontal component of seismic wave is the most destructive to building since it is
easier to shake than to compress rocks. S (share) wave velocity is a good measurement for the
intensity ground shaking, the velocity, period and frequency are often use in detail assessment
for susceptibility and buildings to ground shaking.

Ground shaking per se cannot harm you if you are in the open field. It is the failure of a
building due to poor design, poor construction, weak foundation that cause harm to the people.
Understanding how vibration, due to earthquakes affect foundation and the building is critical in
design and other structure to withstand shaking at a given site.
Hayat Hotel in Baguio City, June 1990

Old Church in Bohol, October 2015

 Ruby Tower, Manila, 1968

Earthquake Source Characteristics Control Intensity of Vibration

How strong an earthquake ground shaking is would depend to a large degree on the
nature of the earthquake source. Thus, the intensity ad nature of ground shaking largely depends
on the size of the fault rapture. On the magnitude of the earthquake, and on the distance from
the earthquake epicenter. The intensity of vibration generally increases with the earthquake
magnitude but it decreases with the distance away from the earthquake source as energy
dissipates. The decline in intensity as distance increase, however, depends upon direction. Thus,
isoseismal lines are rarely circular and either shown elliptical elongation in the direction of some
major structural trend. The size of the fault rapture that produces an earthquake may greatly
affect the distance-intensity relation of the ground shaking. If the fault breaks extend to the
surface, heavy shaking is generally concentrated in a narrow region along the length of the fault
and isoseismal line are highly elongated parallel to the fault trace. Details of the earthquake-
generating fault such as fault orientation may greatly influence the character of seismic waves.
Much of the energy release and therefore, earthquake ground motion will be more severe in the
direction of rapture propagation. Strong patches along the source fault may radiate more seismic
energy.
Vibration Hazard Zoning
The use of velocity in estimating ground-shaking potential is based on the principle that
seismic waves have different speed when traveling through different materials. Earthquake
waves travel through strong materials at high frequency (high velocity), weaker materials, on the
other hand, allows earthquake waves to travel at lower frequency (low Velocity). Susceptibility
to ground shaking of a loose sediments can then be assessed in term of properties reflecting
strength such as grain size, sorting, consistency, relative density, age, and thickness. Hard rock
properties are therefore used as proxies for velocity to estimate ground shaking. Shear wave
velocity generally increase as main grain size increases. However, with greater velocity (higher
frequency), seismic wave amplitude will lower. This means that the fine grain sediments such as
clay will experience greater shaking than coarser sediments such as sand. Age may be similarly
related to shear wave velocity due to its correlation with relative density and consistency of
sediments. In general, the older the sediments, the less will be its shaking response.

Section 4.2 Ground Rapture

How ground Rapture Form

The lithosphere breaks when its strength is overcome by the large amount of stress
applied. This breaking happened same way a piece of rock does when struck by hammer. Rock
failure that involves the slipping of lithosphere block past each other is called Faulting. An
earthquake is generated when a fault moves, as its resistance could not match the large amount
of accumulated stress related to plate motion. (Fig.4.2-4)

Fig.4.2-4 Fault Motion

Active Faulting
The most active fault is quite dangerous as large earthquake originate very often (at short
interval) along them. Many of the fault that had formed, however, are deemed inactive as they
have already healed and so are no longer capable of moving to generate earthquake. Active fault
show evidence that they moved in the recent geologic past. Recency of activity is an indication
of a fault’s tendency to give way to pressure under the current stress regime. Active fault is
therefore more likely to give way and generate earthquake in the near future. How recent is
recent depends on where the term active fault is used in some region, the lower age limit could
be as old as 2.5 million years.

Factor Affecting the Characteristic of Ground Ruptures

There are various which control the general nature and character of faulting. Some of this
factors are specifically more relevant to the assessment of ground rapture hazards. These
determine how long ground rapture are, how and by how much the earth’s surface breaks along
ground rapture, and where deformation is limited along the narrow fault trace or effect of the
wider zone. These factors include the type of fault movements (reverse, normal, strike-slip) and
the inclination of the fault plane. The type of faulting partly depends on the steepness of the fault
plane. Thrust faults are more gently inclined and therefore rapture propagation towards the
surface is made more difficult by gravity and the load of the overlying rocks. Factors such as depth
and nature of sedimentary materials overlying the bedrock fault may determine the pattern of
surface fault traces.
How far from the fault is safe from rapturing?
Setback refers to the distance from the fault trace that is considered safe from the effect
of ground rapture. It is measured from the trace outward for both sides of the fault. Setback will
vary along the fault trace depending on the fault characteristic in a locality obtained from detailed
and site-specific fault studies.

Section 4.3 Liquefaction

How liquefaction occur?
Vibration rearrange sand particle from a loose arrangement of grains into more compact
state. This result in increases pore pressure between the grains. Once the pressure exceeds the
weight of overlying material, water is released and cause the sediment grain to separate as they
are push apart. The sediments become more mobile and attain a jelly-like consistency. From solid
state, the sediments are transformed into a liquefied state due to increase in pore-water
pressure.
Types of Liquefaction features
Flow Failures – Considered the most dangerous type of ground failure due to liquefaction, this
occur on liquefiable slope material with steepness greater than 3 degrees. Block of overlying
material slide down so fast (as much as 10 kph) that these reach a distance of ten kilometers from
the source. (Fig.4.3-2)
Lateral Spread – Blocks or the broken pieces of the flat or very gentle ground (less than 3 degrees)
above a liquefied zone move laterally. (Fig.4.3-3)
Ground Oscillation – Due to the flat or nearly flat slope, the ground is unable to spread and
instead oscillate like waves (back and forth and up and down). Water and wet sand are ejected
through the fissures that form and there is build-up of conical shape mounds of sand at the
surface. (Fig.4.3-4)
Loss of Bearing Strength – Loss of strength of sediments resulting in tilting of houses and
floating of buoyant structures that are anchored on the liquefied zone. (Fig.4.3-5)
Effect of Liquefaction on Buildings and Other Structures
Liquefaction cause some of the most striking ground failure and damages to man-made
structure. Damage during liquefaction results from the settlement of structure into the soil, flow
landslide, lateral spreading landslide and the ejection of water and sediments at the surface in
the form of sandblows or sandboils, fountains or even seepage of water that leads to flooding.
Sinking, spreading and cracking of the ground due to earthquake also cause buildings to
collapsed, pipes and tanks to float and break poles to fall, streets and gardens to be covered with
silts coming out to the surface.

Mitigating Liquefaction Hazard

Hazard zone maps are prepared to identify areas potentially subject to liquefaction. Local
government units and national government agencies can use the information in the maps to
regulate the risk through ordinance or code changes.
Several options can be considered to improve sites prior to liquefaction events. The
foundation can be stabilized by removing the liquefiable soil and replacing these with new
material that are more firm, the foundation can also be compacted before the construction of
the new building.

Section 4.4 Earthquake-Induce Landslide

Why Landslide Occur?

A change in the stability of a slope can cause by number of factors acting together or
alone. These factors include:
1. Removal of Support at the base of the slope which may be due to erosion at the toe of a
slope by river or ocean waves. That’s is why landslide may occur even on hot summer day.
2. Groundwater (pore water) pressure during sudden change in the water level of bodies of
water adjacent to a slope also act to destabilized it.
3. Volcanic eruption bulging of slopes and the force of volcanic material ejection or emission
may also contribute to slope instability.
4. Intense rainfall. Landslide are triggered due to the weakening of the slope material by
water saturation.
5. Snowmelt is also known to have the same effect as in saturating slope material.
 6. Human Interventions. Man contributes to the instability of slope through construction
activities (road, building and other facilities), quarrying/mining and unabated logging
which leads to the loss of deeply rooted trees and soil cohesiveness.
7. Earthquakes. Slope are prone to widespread failure during earthquakes because of
sudden shaking of hilly mountainous area.

Type of Landslide
The type of landslide base on movement are:

• Topples - occur suddenly when a massive part of very steep slopes breaks loose and
rotate forward.
• Rock Falls – involves chunks of detached rocks that fall freely for some distance or bounce
and roll down the steeps slope.
• Slides – involved large block of bedrocks that break free and slide down along a planar or
curved surface.
• Lateral Spread – are triggered by earthquakes and affect gentle slopes with less than 10-
degree inclination. Slope material loses cohesion through liquefaction caused by the
shaking during earthquakes.
• Flow – involved down slope motion of fine grained clay, silts, and fine sand made mobile
by water saturation. These flows include mudflows and earthflow and are common during
the rainy season.
• Complex Slide – are combination of two or more types of movement.

Factor Affecting Occurrence of Landslide

• Intact Rock Strength – refers to a rock’s reaction to standard laboratory test to
determine its resistance or strength. Relatively strong rock simply let the spark fly
with blow of a hammer. Moderately strong rock just let lumps breaks with light
hammer blow while very weak rocks crumble with a hand grip.
• Mass weathering grade – soil and rocks is one of the most important properties
that the engineering geologist has to consider when dealing with slope stability
issues. Weathering of rocks results in Physical and chemical changes due to
external process. Weathering grade rocks ranges from fresh or unweathered state
to the completely weathered. Residual weathered state is when rock is completely
transformed into soil and therefore has lost any strength.
• Spacing of Joint – is another property to considered. The term joints as used in its
engineering sense refers to the different type of discontinuities such as fracture,
fault, or bedding plain. Spacing refers to the distance between joints along the
line. It is very important because cohesive strength is lost along an open joint, the
greater the volume of joints in a rock mass, the weaker is the mass.
 • Orientation of Joints – with respect to the slope becomes increasingly
unfavorable for slope instability as the dip out of rock face becomes steeper. It is
most favorable for stability against sliding when the dip is into the slope.
• Width and Continuity of Joints – influences friction and cohesive strength as well
as water movement in the rock mass. Wide joints have no cohesive strength and
frictional strength can only develop at the point of contact of rock on either side
of the joint. If a joint is limited in the area, it will have a little effect on the strength
of the rock mass. But if it is continuous, it provides a ready-made plane along
which shearing movement can occur.

Effect of Earthquake-induce Landslide

Ground shaking is widely considered to be the primary cause of damage to structure, loos
of lives and injuries due to earthquake. A substantial part of the total loos of lives, injuries and
damage to structure due to earthquake may be attributed to burial and debris impact cause by
earthquake-induce landslide.
Ground failure is less likely to cause spectacular structural collapses, but is frequently
the cause of major disruptions, particularly to lifelines which can lead to prolonged loss of
function and income.
One of the major impact to both the natural and built environment is the complete
relocation of some human population and infrastructure to new areas, resulting in the
abandonment of town and other areas that were damaged by the earthquakes and landslides.
Measure to Mitigate effect of Landslides
Recognizing and reporting any signs of slope instability to local authorities and neighbors
in your community is an important step. Make a list of whom you should contact if an emergency
involving landslide is suspected.
At the community level, provision should be made for food, water, blankets, medicines,
and other supplies needed for possible prolonged isolation due to destruction of roads by future
landslides. Biological measures such as planting of deeply-rooting tress hold slope material
together and reduce the slope’s water load.
Thought costlier, engineering remedial measures such as landslide barriers and drainage
structure are effective in preventing landslides.