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BPHCT-137

WAVES AND OPTICS

Indira Gandhi National
Open University
School of Sciences

Block

1
WAVES – AN INTRODUCTION
UNIT 1
Wave Motion 9
UNIT 2
Superposition of Waves 35
UNIT 3
Acoustic Wave 65
UNIT 4
Electromagnetic Wave 101
UNIT 5
Polarisation of Light 119
Course Design Committee
Prof. A. K. Ghatak, Retd. Dr. Parthasarathy Prof. Shubha Gokhale
IIT Delhi, New Delhi Dept. of Physics, School of Sciences
Maharaja Agrasen College, IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Suresh Garg, Retd.
University of Delhi, Delhi
School of Sciences Dr. Sanjay Gupta
IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. M.S. Nathawat School of Sciences
Vice Chancellor, Former Director, IGNOU, New Delhi
Usha Martin University School of Sciences,
IGNOU, New Delhi Dr. Subhalakshmi Lamba
Prof. R.M. Mehra, Retd. School of Sciences
Dept. of Electronics, Prof. Vijayshri IGNOU, New Delhi
South Campus, School of Sciences
University of Delhi, Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Dr. Ashok Goyal, Retd. Prof. Sudip Ranjan Jha
Dept. of Physics, Hansraj College School of Sciences
University of Delhi, Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi

Block Preparation Team

Prof. S.R. Jha (Units 1-5)
School of Sciences
IGNOU, New Delhi
Units of this block are based on the Oscillations and Waves (BPHE-102) and Optics (PHE-09)
courses of the earlier B.Sc. programme of IGNOU.
Course Coordinators: Prof. S.R. Jha, Prof. Sanjay Gupta

Block Production Team

Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Hemant Kumar Parida
Assistant Registrar Section Officer
MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi
Acknowledgement: Shri Gopal Krishan Arora, EDP, SOS for CRC preparation.
October, 2021
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021
ISBN:
Disclaimer: Any materials adapted from web-based resources in this module are being used for educational
purposes only and not for commercial purposes.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from the Copyright holder.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University’s office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Registrar
MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Printed at: Gita Offset Printers Pvt. Ltd., C-90, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-I, New Delhi-20
CONTENTS
Block and Unit Titles 1
Credit page 2
Contents 3
WAVES AND OPTICS: COURSE INTRODUCTION 5
BLOCK 1: Waves – An Introduction 7

Unit 1 Wave Motion 9

1.1 Introduction 10
1.2 Waves on a String 11
1.2.1 Representation of Wave Motion 13
1.2.2 Relation between Wave Velocity, Frequency and Wavelength 15
1.3 Mathematical Description of Wave Motion 16
1.3.1 Phase of a Wave and Phase Difference 21
1.3.2 Plane Waves and Spherical Waves 22
1.4 Energy Transported by Waves 23
1.5 Intensity of Waves 27
1.6 Summary 29
1.7 Terminal Questions 30
1.8 Solutions and Answers 31

Unit 2 Superposition of Waves 35

2.1 Introduction 36
2.2 Principle of Superposition of Waves 37
2.3 Standing Waves 43
2.3.1 Standing Waves on a String 44
2.4 Beats 53
2.5 Wave Groups and Group Velocity 56
2.6 Summary 60
2.7 Terminal Questions 61
2.8 Solutions and Answers 62

Unit 3 Acoustic Wave 65

3.1 Introduction 66
3.2 Production of Sound Waves 67
3.2.1 Graphical and Mathematical Representation of Sound Waves 69
3.2.2 Sound Waves in Different Media 74
3.2.3 Forced Vibrations and Resonance 77
3.2.4 Musical Instruments 81
3.3 Intensity of Sound 84
3.3.1 Intensity Level: Decibel 84
3.4 Musical Notes and Scale 86
3.4.1 Musical Scales 87
3.5 Acoustics of Buildings 90
3.6 Summary 96
3.7 Terminal Questions 98
3.8 Solutions and Answers 98

Unit 4 Electromagnetic Wave 101

4.1 Introduction 102
4.2 Wave Equation for Electromagnetic Waves 103
4.2.1 Transverse Nature of Electromagnetic Waves 107
4.3 Huygens Principle 111
4.3.1 Wavefronts and their Properties 111
4.4 Summary 113
4.5 Terminal Questions 114
4.6 Solutions and Answers 115

Unit 5 Polarisation of Light 119

5.1 Introduction 120
5.2 What is Polarisation? 121
5.3 Simple States of Polarised Light 123
5.3.1 Linear Polarisation 124
5.3.2 Circular Polarisation 126
5.3.3 Elliptical Polarisation 128
5.4 Principles of Producing Linearly Polarised Light 130
5.4.1 Ideal Polariser: Malus’s Law 130
5.4.2 Polarisation by Reflection: Brewster’s Law 131
5.4.3 Polarisation by Double Refraction 133
5.4.4 Selective Absorption: Dichroism 137
5.5 Wave Plates: Circular and Elliptical Polarisers 138
5.6 Summary 139
5.7 Terminal Questions 140
5.8 Solutions and Answers 141

We wish you success.

7
Unit 1 Wave Motion

UNIT 1
One of the attractions of sea shore is to see
waves. Waves coming from far off distances
WAVE MOTION
spread at the shore. Can you imagine how
much energy is stored in nature in the form
of waves? (Source of picture: wikimedia.org)
Structure
1.1 Introduction 1.4 Energy Transported by Waves
Expected Learning Outcomes
1.5 Intensity of Waves
1.2 Waves on a String
1.6 Summary
Representation of Wave Motion
1.7 Terminal Questions
Relation between Wave Velocity, Frequency
and Wavelength 1.8 Solutions and Answers
1.3 Mathematical Description of Wave Motion
Phase of a Wave and Phase Difference
Plane Waves and Spherical Waves

STUDY GUIDE
This is the first unit of the course on Waves and Optics. The phenomena associated with light such as
interference, diffraction and polarisation can be explained on the basis of wave model of light.
Therefore, we begin this course with a discussion about formation and propagation of waves and its
mathematical description. We have considered mechanical waves such as waves on a string to explain
wave motion. However, the concepts that you study in this unit apply to all kinds of physical waves:
light and all other electromagnetic waves such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared, ultraviolet,
X-rays, gamma rays, and sound waves, waves on the water surface, etc. Although waves and related
phenomena appear obvious, the scientific understanding of the underlying concepts requires careful
study.
Many concepts of this unit are familiar to you from your +2 level physics course. You have also studied
about waves in Unit 19 of the first semester course entitled Mechanics (BHPCT-131). Therefore, you
will find it easy to comprehend the concepts discussed in this unit. It will be good if you revise Unit 19
as we will not go into all the details here but focus only on the main points. While studying this unit, you
should focus on the following important aspects associated with waves: i) how oscillatory motion leads
to wave motion; ii) what are the parameters which specify a wave and its propagation; and iii) how is
energy carried by waves. The level of mathematical treatment in this unit is fairly simple. You are
advised to solve all the SAQs, and TQs to master your understanding of the concepts discussed in this
unit.

“All truths are easy to understand once they are discovered; Galilio Galilei
the point is to discover them.”

9
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The study of wave motion is interesting because waves are present all around
us. For example, if you have ever stood at the sea shore or dropped pebbles
in a still pond, you must have seen water waves. What we hear and what we
see in the world around us depends on waves. When we speak, our vocal
cords inside our throat vibrate. Their vibrations cause the surrounding air
molecules to vibrate and the effect is heard as sound. When this sound
reaches the ears of other persons near us, their ear drums vibrate and cause
the sensation of hearing in them. From your school physics course, you know
that sound is a form of energy and it is carried by sound waves, which enable
us to hear what others speak.
Visible light enables us to see. You know from the second semester course
BHPCT-133 entitled Electricity and Magnetism that it is an electromagnetic
wave. You also know about other electromagnetic waves such as radio
waves, microwaves and X-rays. Most modern communication technologies
such as radio, television, telephone, fax, internet, etc. are based on
transmission and receipt of signals in the form of radio waves and
microwaves. X-rays are used in medical diagnosis, e.g., for taking images of
bones to diagnose fractures. At the microscopic level, we learn about matter
waves to understand the nature of atoms, molecules, electrons, protons and
other elementary particles.
All these examples should convince you that understanding the physics of
wave motion is of fundamental importance. The waves mentioned above can
be broadly categorised into three main types: mechanical waves,
electromagnetic waves and matter waves. In this unit, we shall discuss
mechanical waves on a string. However, the basic ideas we develop in the
unit apply to waves of all kinds including light (electromagnetic wave).
We begin our study of wave motion by describing briefly, in Sec. 1.2, how
waves are formed and how they propagate. For this, we consider
transverse waves on a string which you have studied in Unit 19 of
BHPCT-131. In this section, you will also learn how to depict wave motion
graphically. In Sec. 1.3, you will revise the mathematical description of waves.
The two types of waves, namely, plane waves and spherical waves have also
been discussed qualitatively in this section. One of the important reasons to
study wave motion is that waves carry energy from one place to another. In
Sec. 1.4, you will learn how to obtain the expression of energy transported
by travelling waves. Finally, in Sec. 1.5, we introduce the concept of
intensity of a wave.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
explain the propagation of transverse waves on a string;
represent waves on vibration graph and waveform graph;
write the mathematical expression for a wave;
describe plane waves and spherical waves;
derive an expression for the energy carried by waves; and
explain the concept of intensity of a wave and show that it depends on
10 the amplitude of the wave.
Unit 1 Wave Motion
1.2 WAVES ON A STRING
We begin our discussion on the phenomena of formation of waves and their
propagation by considering wave formation on a stretched string. Before we
do that, you should perform the following activity which will help you
understand how waves are generated on a string.

Take a long thin elastic string and fix one of its ends to a distant wall as
shown in Fig. 1.1a. Hold the other end of the string with your hand so that
the string is stretched and taut. Now quickly move your hand up and down,
once. What do you observe? A disturbance marked A in Fig. 1.1c travels
along the length of the string. An isolated disturbance like A is called a
pulse and it is generated due to one quick up and down motion of the
portion of the string held in your hand.

The pulse generated

on the string is also
called disturbance.
The word disturbance
is used as a general
term which refers to the
deformation in the
shape of the string with
respect to its
undisturbed horizontal
configuration as shown
in Fig. 1.1a.

Fig. 1.1: a) An string fixed to a rigid wall; b) one quick up and down motion
of the portion of the string held by hand; c) pulse A is generated;
d) and e) show that the pulse A moves along the string as time
passes.

In the above activity, if you keep moving the end of string held in your hand up
and down in a periodic manner, you will observe that a wave is generated on
the string as shown in Fig. 1.2a. You have learnt in Sec. 19.2 that the
periodic motion of the string in hand at one end gives rise to a wave
moving along the string. So we will not repeat the discussion here.
Note that Figs. 1.2a to 1.2e show five snapshots (photographs) of a wave on
the string beginning at the instant t 0. These have been taken at the
intervals of T / 4 up to the instant t T . Here T is the time period.
In Fig. 1.2a showing the waveform at the instant t 0, the point marked A on
the string is the maximum value of the disturbance (displacement of the
element of the string from its equilibrium position). It is called the crest of the
wave. Now, let a ribbon, shown by mark X, be tied at the point of the string at
the position x1 in such a manner that it coincides with the position of crest A
at the instant t 0. Can you see what happens to the ribbon and the crest
A as free end of the string is moved up and down?
11
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction

Fig. 1.2: Periodic motion of the hand holding the free end of the string
generates a disturbance with a sinusoidal profile. Parts (a) to (e) of the
Figure depict how the disturbance generated by the hand travels along
the string to form a wave.

The ribbon moves up and down just like the hand but the crest A moves
from x1 to x 2 , and so on. Thus, we can conclude that as a wave
(disturbance) propagates in a medium (string), two distinct motions are
taking place:
x motion of the disturbance (represented by crest A), and
x the oscillatory motion of the particles (represented by the ribbon) of the
medium.
We have taken the example of mechanical waves on a string for introducing
the concept of wave motion. You know that mechanical waves can exist
only in material medium such as strings, water, air, rocks, etc. Of course,
Electromagnetic waves sound waves are the most familiar example of mechanical waves in air.
are also transverse in
nature.
Mechanical waves are of two types: transverse and longitudinal. The wave
travelling on a string is an example of transverse wave and sound wave in air
is an example of longitudinal wave.
In transverse waves, the particles of the medium (such as string) oscillate
The periodic oscillatory
motion of the end of the perpendicular to the direction in which the wave travels. Waves
string held by hand propagating on the strings of musical instruments (such as ektara, sarangi,
forces the particles or sitar, vina and violin) are transverse waves.
elements of the string
(medium) to execute On the other hand, in a longitudinal wave, particles of the medium oscillate
oscillatory motion. Such along the direction of propagation of the waves. Mechanical waves in a
oscillatory motion of the gaseous medium are always longitudinal but those in liquids and solids may
particles of the medium be both longitudinal and transverse.
is called forced
oscillations. Waves produced due to continuous and periodic forced oscillations in an open
medium (medium without boundaries) are travelling periodic waves. If the
oscillations of the driving force such as the hand holding the free end of the
string are simple harmonic, the travelling waves are called harmonic waves;
these waves propagate with the frequency of the periodic driving force. In this
12
Unit 1 Wave Motion
unit we shall confine our discussions only to harmonic waves in one-
dimension.
You may like to quickly check your understanding of waves answering a
simple SAQ.

SAQ 1 – Characteristics of mechanical waves

Fill in the blanks:

a) A single disturbance that moves through a medium is called a .............
b) When the particles of the medium are vibrating along a direction
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation, then the wave is a
....................... wave.
c) If a one dimensional longitudinal wave is propagating from west to east
direction, the particles of the medium would be oscillating in
........................... direction.

We hope that you understand the role of the oscillatory motion in the
generation of mechanical waves. The next step is to describe wave motion.
So, we quickly revisit the concepts discussed in Sec. 19.3 of Unit 19 of the
first semester course BPHCT-131 to represent waves graphically and
mathematically. We begin by revising how to represent wave graphically. For
simplicity, we consider mechanical waves on a string, though the results
will apply to other types of one-dimensional (1-D) waves as well.
1.2.1 Representation of Wave Motion
To keep the discussion simple, we assume that
x The waves are harmonic, i.e., their source (driving force) executes simple
harmonic motion.
x The medium is uniform and the wave propagates at a constant speed.
Under these assumptions, the wave propagates with the same time period as
the period of the oscillating source. That is, the frequency, f of the wave is
equal to the frequency of the oscillating source (or the particles of the
medium). Since frequency is reciprocal of time period, f 1/ T . The
amplitude of the wave is given by the maximum displacement of the
particles of the medium from their respective mean positions.
Further, the particles of the medium located at two consecutive crests or
troughs of a wave are in the same state of motion; that is, their
displacements and velocities are the same. Any pair of two such particles
of the medium are said to be in the same phase. The distance between any
two consecutive particles on a waveform in the same phase is called the
wavelength of the wave.
On the basis of above information, we can now represent a sinusoidal wave
graphically. Let us take the example of sinusoidal waves on a string (Fig. 1.2)
and represent them graphically. For depicting waves, we show the
displacement of the particle(s) of the medium on two types of graphs:
Vibration Graph: In this graph, we plot the displacement, y of a particle of the
medium located at a fixed position, x as time passes. This graph, shown in
13
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
Fig. 1.3, shows the wave behaviour at a single location along the wave's
path as time passes. We can obtain it by fixing a slit perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation at a point in space along the path of the wave
and observe wave motion as time passes. It will be a sinusoidal graph.

Fig. 1.3: The vibration graph of a wave showing its motion at a given position as
a function of time.
The vibration graph represents the motion of a wave with time at a given
location in space. In other words, the vibration graph represents the
vibratory/oscillatory motion of a particle of the medium located at a fixed point
as wave propagates. You know that such simple harmonic motion of the
particles of the medium is represented by
y (t ) a sin Zt (1.1)
Here, a is the amplitude of the wave (which is the same as the amplitude of
oscillation of the particles of the medium) and Z, its angular frequency. It is
related to the frequency, f by Z 2Sf and to the time period, T by Z 2S / T .
Thus, Eq. (1.1) can also be written as
y (t ) a sin 2S (t / T ) (1.2)
The vibration graphs inform us of the wave's shape, amplitude, and time
period as shown in Fig. 1.3.
Waveform Graph: In this graph, we keep the time fixed and plot the
displacement, y of the particles located at different positions, x. The waveform
graph (Fig. 1.4) is the same as the snapshot of a wave at any instant. It
displays wave behaviour at different locations at a single moment in time
and indicates the wave’s shape, amplitude and wavelength (Fig. 1.4).

Fig. 1.4: The waveform graph of a wave showing displacement of the particles
of the medium as a function of position at a given time; this is like the
snapshot of the wave at any instant of time.
Further, note that the waveform graph is also sinusoidal and represents the
wave at a given instant of time. Thus, we can write the equation
representing this graph as
y ( x ) a sin k x (1.3)
where k is a constant and it is called wave number of the wave. The wave
14
number, k is related to the wavelength, O of the wave. To discover the
Unit 1 Wave Motion
relation, recall that the wavelength, O is the distance between any two
Note that the wave
consecutive points, along the distance axis, which are in the same state of number k is defined as
motion (that is, in the same phase), as shown in Fig. 1.4. Thus, the 2S / O. Actually, the
displacement, y(x) is the same at both ends of this wavelength, i.e., term wave number
y ( x x1) y ( x x1 O). So, using Eq. (1.3), we can write, should refer to the
number of waves in
a sin k x1 a sin k ( x1 O) a sin (kx1 kO) one metre. That is, it
Since sin (T 2S) sin T, where T is any variable, the above equality will be should be a quantity
satisfied only when given by (1/O). And
2S k (= 2S/O) should be
kO 2S or k (1.4) called angular wave
O number. But, we will
Eq. (1.4) gives the relation between k and O.
follow the standard
Using Eq. (1.4) in Eq. (1.3), we can write convention and call k
the wave number. You
y (x) a sin 2S ( x / O) (1.5) should be mindful of
the factor 2S used in
In addition to the wave parameters such as amplitude, wavelength, frequency,
defining angular
and phase defined so far, we also need to know the velocity of a wave and
frequency Z and wave
how it is related to the wave parameters. Let us find out. number k.
1.2.2 Relation between Wave Velocity, Frequency and
Wavelength
We can establish the relation between wave velocity, frequency and
wavelength on the basis of their definitions. Recall that a wave travels a
You know that velocity
distance equal to one wavelength in one time period. Therefore, the wave is a vector quantity
velocity is given by which contains
Wavelength O information about the
v
Time Period T magnitude of the
velocity (that is, speed)
Since frequency is reciprocal of time period, (f 1/ T ), we can write
and the direction of
v fO (1.6) motion. For
one-dimensional
That is, the velocity of wave is equal to the product of its frequency and its
waves, it is one and the
wavelength. same whether we use
Note that we have obtained the expression for wave velocity [Eq. (1.6)] for a the term velocity or
wave on a string. But, this equation holds for all kinds of waves, whether speed provided we
assume that the wave
transverse or longitudinal, mechanical or electromagnetic.
is propagating along
Before studying further, you may like to answer an SAQ the positive x-direction.

SAQ 2 – Calculating wave parameter

A transverse wave is generated on a string due to the periodic motion of one
of its ends with the other end fixed to a distant rigid support. If the frequency
of the periodic motion of the free end of the string is 3.0 Hz and the wave
speed is 6.0 ms 1, calculate the distance between two adjacent crests of the
wave.

The vibration graph and waveform graph represent a wave at fixed position
and at a fixed time, respectively. But, as we know, a travelling wave varies
with time as well as position. Thus, neither Eq. (1.2) nor Eq. (1.5) can be taken
as a complete mathematical description of a travelling wave. Let us now learn
how to represent a wave mathematically. 15
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
1.3 MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION OF WAVE
MOTION
Refer to Fig. 1.5 which shows two snapshots of a wave travelling along the
positive x-direction. Fig. 1.5a depicts the waveform at time t = 0 and Fig. 1.5b
depicts the waveform at a later time t1( ! 0). Note that in time t1, the entire
waveform has moved in the positive x-direction. Let us assume that the wave
travels with velocity v.

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.5: Snapshots of a wave travelling in positive x-direction at a) t = 0;

b) t ! 0.

As you know, in wave motion, the entire waveform moves. Thus, as evident
from Fig. 1.5, the disturbance at x = 0 (that is, the displacement y of the
particle of the medium at x = 0) will travel to a point x (> 0) at a later time,
because the disturbance takes time to travel to that point. The time taken by
the disturbance depends on how far the point is from x = 0 and what is the
velocity of propagation of the disturbance (or the wave).
Suppose the disturbance at x = 0 (Fig. 1.5a) takes time 't in travelling to point
x (> 0) (Fig. 1.5b). Thus, the displacement of the particle at x at time t will be
the same as the displacement of the particle at x = 0 at time (t – 't) where, 't
is the time taken by the displacement to move from x = 0 to x = x.
Now, from Eq. (1.2), you know that the displacement of a particle at point x is
given as
y ( x, t ) a sin 2S(t / T )

So, to describe the motion of the disturbance or the wave, we replace t by (t –

't) in the above equation and get
t 't ·
y ( x, t ) a sin 2S§¨ ¸ (1.7)
© T ¹
To find the time 't, we note that the disturbance travels with velocity v. So, we
can write
'x x 0
v
't 't
x
So, 't (1.8)
v
Substituting Eq. (1.8) in Eq. (1.7), we get

a sin 2S§¨
t x ·
y ( x, t ) ¸
© T vT ¹

a sin 2S§¨ ·¸
t x
(1.9a)
16 ©T O ¹
Unit 1 Wave Motion
It is possible to write Eq. (1.9a) in a few other equivalent forms. To show, we
note that v O /T . Then we can write Eq. (1.9a) in terms of v and T as:
2S
y ( x, t ) a sin ª« §¨ t ·¸º»
x
(1.9b)
¬ ©
T v ¹¼

We can also rewrite this equation as:

2S
y ( x, t ) a sin ª« (vt x )º» (1.9c)
¬O ¼

Any one of the Eqs. (1.9a to c) gives a complete mathematical

description of a one-dimensional (1-D) wave travelling along the positive
x-direction. Note that Eqs. (1.9a), (1.9b) and (1.9c) are equivalent
representations of a 1-D wave. In terms of angular frequency Z ( 2S / T ) and
wave number k ( 2S / O), we can write Eq. (1.9a) as

y ( x, t ) a sin (Zt kx) (1.9d)

The simple way in which Z and k enter the mathematical expression for the
wave explains why these quantities are so often used in the description of
wave motion. Note that a wave described by either of the Eq. (1.9a to d) has a
single constant frequency and signifies a monochromatic wave.

Eqs. (1.9a to d) provide us equivalent descriptions of a wave moving in the

positive x-direction; which of these equations we use is a matter of
convenience and depends on the specific situation.
It is important to mention here that these equations describe all types of
one-dimensional sinusoidal waves travelling in the positive x-direction. They
represent transverse waves arising due to the vertical oscillations of particles
of a string as well as longitudinal waves arising due to the horizontal or Note that for a
longitudinal oscillations of the particles of the medium. The only difference is longitudinal wave, both
in what the quantity y ( x, t ) represents: It represents vertical displacement in the position, x and
the case of waves on strings and horizontal displacement in the case of displacement, y (x,t)
longitudinal waves. are along the same
direction. They,
You may also like to know: How do we describe a wave travelling in the however, refer to two
negative x-direction? A wave travelling in the negative x- direction is different quantities: x
represented by any one of the following equivalent expressions: refers to the position of
a particle of the
ª 2S º medium and y (x,t)
y ( x, t ) a sin « (vt x )» (1.10a)
¬O ¼ refers to the
displacement of the
ª 2S § x ·º particle located at x,
y ( x, t ) a sin « ¨ t ¸» (1.10b) with respect to its
¬T © v ¹¼
equilibrium position.
ª § t x ·º
y ( x, t ) a sin «2S ¨ ¸» (1.10c)
¬ © T O ¹¼
y ( x, t ) a sin (Zt kx) (1.10d)

On comparing Eqs. (1.9b) and (1.9d) or Eqs. (1.10b) and (1.10d), we obtain
the expression for wave velocity in terms of Z and k as:

v Z/ k (1.11)
17
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
So far, you have learnt the graphical and mathematical descriptions of one
dimensional wave. Now, you would like to know: Is there an equation which
governs the propagation of waves similar to Newton’s laws of motion which
govern the motion of objects? Yes, there is such an equation called the wave
equation. Let us learn it now.
Wave Equation
The wave equation governing the propagation of the transverse wave on a
You will learn to derive
string is obtained by applying Newton’s second law of motion to a small
wave equation if you
pursue higher studies in
segment of the string. Here, we shall write the wave equation without deriving
physics as it is beyond it and discuss its physical significant qualitatively (Read the margin remark).
the scope of this course. The wave equation for 1-D wave is given as:
w2y w2y
v2 (1.12)
wt 2 wx 2
To understand what the wave equation conveys physically, let us consider the
transverse wave on a string. The LHS of Eq. (1.12) represents the
acceleration of an element of the string. (Note that y ( x, t ) gives the
displacement of an element of the string, located at x, at time t.) The use of
partial derivative is due to the fact that the displacement of the particles of the
medium is a function of x and t both. On the RHS of Eq. (1.12), v represents
the velocity of the wave and the term (w 2 y / wx 2 ) gives a measure of the
Note that (wy / wx ) gives amount of bending in the string. The wave equation [Eq. (1.12)] governs the
the slope of the string at motion of all kinds of 1-D waves.
point x. Therefore, Some important points related to wave equation are given below:
w2y § w § wy · ·
¨ ¨ ¸¸ 1. The wave equation gives the velocity of the wave in terms of the properties
wx 2 © wx © wx ¹ ¹
of the medium. It is found that, for transverse waves on a string, the
gives how the slope
varies with position, x. velocity of wave is given by
v T /U (1.13)

where T is the tension in the string and U, its linear mass density.
2. Although Eq. (1.12) gives the wave equation in terms of the parameters
associated with 1-D transverse wave propagating on a string, similar wave
Note that we have used equation is associated with all kinds of waves. In the wave equation for
the symbol T for time- sound waves in a fluid, the wave function, that is, the displacement y ( x, t )
period of the wave and
represents the longitudinal displacement of the particles of the fluid.
also for the tension in
the string. You should Similarly, we have wave equation for light (electromagnetic wave) wherein
be mindful of the context the wave function represents the oscillating electric and magnetic fields.
to know what does the So, in general, we can write the 1-D wave equation as
symbol T refers to.
w 2\ w 2\
v2 (1.14)
wt 2 wx 2
where \( x, t ) represents the physical quantity that oscillates as the
wave passes. For example, in case of transverse wave on a string,
\( x, t ) is y ( x, t ), the displacement of an element of the string, located at x,
at time t. As time passes, this element of the string oscillates about its
mean position.
3. Another important aspect of the wave equation is that it enables us to
determine whether or not a given wave function (that is, the mathematical
18
Unit 1 Wave Motion
representation of a wave) represents a progressive wave. That is, any
function which represents a wave must satisfy the wave equation. To
elaborate this, let us take the example of transverse wave on a string.
You have seen that Eqs. (1.9) and (1.10) represent transverse waves on a
string propagating along positive x-direction and negative x-direction
respectively. The wave functions represented by Eqs. (1.9) and (1.10) must
satisfy the wave equation for 1-D transverse wave on the string given by
Eq. (1.12). By taking derivatives (w 2 y / wt 2 ) and (w 2 y / wx 2 ) of Eqs. (1.9) and
(1.10), you can show that it is indeed true. So, if we are given a function and
asked to ascertain whether or not it represents a travelling wave on a string,
we can check that by requiring the function to satisfy the wave equation given
by Eq. (1.12).
To concretise your understanding of wave equation and wave function
representing a wave, solve the following SAQ.

SAQ 3 – Mathematical representation of a wave and wave

equation
Show that the following functions satisfy the wave equation given by
Eq. (1.12):
a) y ( x, t ) ( x vt )2
b) y ( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt )
c) y ( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt )

d) y ( x, t ) ae i (kx Zt )

On solving SAQ 3, you know that a wave can be represented by a variety of

mathematical functions. The only condition is that the function must satisfy the
wave equation. Apart from Eq. (1.9), two more commonly used mathematical
representations of 1-D wave travelling in the positive x-direction are
y ( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt ) (1.15a)
and y ( x, t ) a cos(kx Zt ) (1.15b)

Similarly, the waves travelling in the negative x-direction can be represented

as
y ( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt ) (1.15c)
and y ( x, t ) a cos(kx Zt ) (1.15d)

You should convince yourself that the wave functions given by Eq. (1.15)
represent progressive waves because they satisfy wave equation given by
Eq. (1.12).
However, the particular choice of the mathematical representation of a wave is
determined by the convenience of mathematical treatment and physical
situation under consideration.
Now, you should go through the following example to learn to calculate wave
parameters from a given expression for a wave.
19
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction

XAMPLE 1.1: CALCULATING WAVE PARAMETERS

The expression for a 1-D wave travelling along the positive x-direction is
given as
y ( x, t ) 0.04 sin [S ( x 4t )] m
Calculate the amplitude, wave number, wavelength, angular frequency and
frequency of the wave.
SOLUTION Comparing the given expression for the wave with
y ( x, t ) a sin (kx Z4t )
We get,
amplitude, a = 0.04 m
wave number, k S m 1
2S 2S
So, wavelength, O 2.0 m
k S
angular frequency, Z 4 Ss1
Z 4S 1
So, frequency, f s 2.0 s1.
2S 2S
You may now like to solve an SAQ.

SAQ 4 – Calculating parameters of a wave

A 1-D sinusoidal wave is propagating along the positive x-direction. The
displacement at two points x1 0 and x 2 2.0 cm is given by the following
expressions:
y ( x1, t ) (0.02 cm) sin >(3S s1) t @
S
y ( x2, t ) (0.02 cm) sin ª«(3S s1) t º»
¬ 2¼
Determine the amplitude, frequency, wavelength, direction of propagation and
speed of the wave.

Before proceeding further, let us recall the important points discussed so far.

x When a mechanical wave propagates in a medium, two distinct motions

take place: (i) motion of the disturbance, and (ii) oscillatory motion of
the particles of the medium.
x A sinusoidal 1-D wave travelling in the positive x-direction can be
represented by
y ( x, t ) a sin(Zt kx)
y ( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt )
x A sinusoidal 1-D wave travelling in the negative x-direction can be
represented by
y ( x, t ) a sin(Zt kx)
y ( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt )
x The wave equation for 1-D wave is given as
w2y w2y
v2
wt 2 wx 2
20
Unit 1 Wave Motion
So far, you have learnt that waves propagate in a medium when the particles
of the medium oscillate about their respective mean positions. You have also
learnt about parameters such as the amplitude, time period, frequency and
wavelength of the wave which characterise a wave. To complete the
mathematical description of a wave, we also need to know the phase of a
wave. You have learnt about phase of a wave and phase difference in detail in
Sec. 19.3.4 of Unit 19, BPHCT-131. We, therefore, briefly discuss it here for
the sake of completeness.
1.3.1 Phase of a Wave and Phase Difference
Recall from Sec. 1.2 that two particles on a waveform graph of a wave are
said to be in the same state of motion if their displacements and velocities
are the same. Thus, even though all particles of the medium execute simple
harmonic motion and their displacements show the same sinusoidal variation
in time, their states of motion may be different at any given instant of time.
We denote this difference in the states of motion of particles of the
medium in terms of the phase angle or simply phase.
Mathematically, the argument of the sine (or cosine) function [Eq. (1.9)]
representing a periodic travelling wave represents the phase of the wave.
We denote it by the symbol I (x, t). Thus, the phase of a sinusoidal wave at
position, x and time, t represented by Eq. (1.9d) is the argument of the sine
function given by
I ( x, t ) Zt kx (1.16)
Note that the phase of a wave is an angle and is measured in degrees or in
radians; a phase difference of 360º corresponds to one wavelength.
Eq. (1.16) shows that the phase of a wave changes with both space and time.
Further, from the definition of the phase, it follows that all points on the
waveform separated by one wavelength or its integer multiples are in the
same phase.
To obtain the expression for the phase difference between two arbitrary points
on a wave, let us consider any two points located at positions say, x1 and x 2 ,
respectively, on a waveform graph (Fig. 1.4). Mathematically, the phases I1
and I 2 of the particles at positions x1 and x2 on the waveform at a fixed
time t can be written as [Eq. (1.16)]:
I1 Zt kx1
and I2 Zt kx2
Hence, the phase difference, 'I between the particles at two positions x1
and x 2 on the waveform is given by
'I( x, t ) (Zt kx2 ) (Zt kx1)
k ( x1 x 2 )
2S
( x1 x 2 ) (1.17)
O
We can extend this discussion of phase of different points on a single
waveform with respect to some reference point to a situation where more than
one wave is travelling in space. Two waves are said to be in phase when
the corresponding points of each wave reach their respective maximum
or minimum displacements at the same time. Thus, if the crests and 21
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
troughs of the two waves coincide, they are said to be in phase (Fig. 1.6a).
However, if the crest of one wave coincides with the trough of the other wave,
as shown in Fig. 1.6b, their phases are said to differ by 180° and the waves
are said to have opposite phase. The phase difference between two waves
can vary from 0 to 360q. Fig. 1.6c shows two out of phase waves with an
arbitrary phase difference. These ideas about phase difference between two
waves play an important role in deciding the outcome of their superposition.
You will learn about superposition of waves in the next unit.

Fig. 1.6: Two waves A and B are a) in-phase; b) completely out of phase; c) out
of phase by an arbitrary angle.
Till now, we have discussed wave phenomena by considering one
dimensional wave on a string. But, the waves we encounter in nature are
generally two-dimensional or three-dimensional. For example, waves on water
surface are two-dimensional and sound waves in air are three-dimensional.
Such waves are represented as plane waves and spherical waves using the
concept of wavefront. Let us now learn about it.
1.3.2 Plane Waves and Spherical Waves
Let us first consider waves on a water surface. You know that if you drop a
pebble on the surface of water, waves propagate outward from the point
where the pebble touched the water surface. The wave spreads in the form of
concentric circles. This is an example of two-dimensional (2-D) wave. The
Recall that the particles radius of each circular crest (or trough) increases as the wave propagates.
of the medium through Note that all the particles on a given crest or trough will be in phase
which waves propagate because all these particles are at the same distance from the source (pebble
are said to be in phase if touching the water surface). An expanding circular crest (or trough) is called a
their state of motion is wavefront. A wavefront is defined as the locus of all points which are in
same. phase. So, two-dimensional waves are characterised by circular wavefronts.
Now, let us imagine a point source which is generating waves in the
surrounding medium. A point source of sound is a good example of such a
source. Can you guess what would be the nature of the wavefront? The
wavefronts of the waves will be spherical with the point source as centre. A
few sections of concentric spherical surfaces representing the spherical
wavefronts is shown in Fig. 1.7a.
Thus, the waves emanating from a point source in a uniform medium are
called spherical waves. Spherical waves are characterised by spherical
wavefronts. Further, the lines that are directed radially outward from the
source are called rays. So, rays are lines perpendicular to the wavefront and
directed radially outward from the source. Rays indicate the direction of
propagation of waves. The concept of wavefront and rays is very useful in
explaining many phenomena such as interference, diffraction and polarisation
related to light waves.
22
Unit 1 Wave Motion

Fig. 1.7: a) Spherical; b) plane wavefronts for waves emanating from a point
source.

Now, refer to Fig. 1.7 again. Suppose, the point source is at a very large
distance from the point of observation. Will the nature of wavefront change?
Yes; the spherical wavefronts will become nearly planar. So, at large
distances from the source, a section of a plane can be used to represent the
wavefront as shown in
Fig. 1.7b. Wave from a point source can, therefore, be considered as plane
waves at large distances. In case of plane waves, rays are straight lines
parallel to each other.

One of the important characteristics of waves is that it transports energy. You

would, therefore, like to know how much energy is transported by a wave of
frequency f and wavelength O, travelling with the speed v? We now seek the
answer to this question.

1.4 ENERGY TRANSPORTED BY WAVES

To obtain an expression for the energy transported by a travelling wave, let us
consider a taut string with one end fastened to a rigid wall and the other end
attached to a vertical oscillator, as shown in Fig. 1.8a. When the oscillator is at
rest, each element of the string will be in its respective equilibrium position.
So, in this condition, the string has no kinetic energy and, its elastic potential
energy is also zero.

Fig. 1.8: a) A stationary string whose one end is fixed and the other end is
attached to a vertical oscillator; b) snapshot of the transverse wave on
the string generated by the vertical oscillator attached to its free end.

When a periodic force is applied to the free end of the string due to vertical
oscillations of the attached oscillator, a sinusoidal transverse wave is
generated on the string. As the wave propagates along the string, each
23
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
element of the string is set into motion and gains kinetic energy. Also, since
the string is under the influence of constant force (tension), it will have
potential energy due to stretching, which is essentially elastic potential energy.
As the sinusoidal wave propagates on the string, the energy contained in one
wavelength of the wave is transported along the propagation direction.
To calculate the energy contained in the wave, let us consider a small element
dx of the string as shown in Fig. 1.8. Note that as the wave propagates, the
length of the element dx of the stationary string (Fig. 1.8a) stretches to dr
(Fig. 1.8b) due to tension T in the string. But the mass of the stretched
element dr is the same as the mass Udx of the element dx, where U is the
mass per unit length of the string.
Thus, the kinetic energy of the element 'x can be written as

dy · 2
(U'x ) §¨
1 1
d (K .E.) mv 2 ¸ (1.18)
2 2 © dt ¹
where U'x is the mass of the element 'x and (dy/dt) is its velocity. Actually,
the function, y ( x, t ) describing the wave is a function of two variables namely
position x and time t. Therefore, strictly speaking, we should take a partial
wy ( x, t )
derivative, , of y(x,t) with respect to the variable t keeping x constant
wt
to determine the velocity v of the element 'x.
Since the sinusoidal wave is represented by Eq. (1.9d):
y ( x, t ) a sin (Zt kx)

we can write
wy
a Z cos (Zt kx)
wt
Thus, on substituting the value of wy / wt in Eq. (1.18), we get the kinetic
energy of the element 'x as
1
d (K.E.) (U'x ) [a 2 Z2 cos2 (Zt kx)] (1.19)
2
Now, to calculate the potential energy which arises due to elastic potential
energy of the string, we note that as the wave propagates along the string,
the string is stretched and acquires elastic potential energy. From
Fig. 1.8b, you may note that the length of the element increases by an amount
('r 'x). This stretching is caused due to the tension T in the string which is
a constant force. So, the elastic potential energy acquired by the element of
length 'x is:
d (P.E.) Work done Force u (Increase in the length of the string) T ('r 'x )
From Fig. 1.8b, we note that

'r ('x )2 ('y )2

So, d (P.E.) T [ {('x )2 ('y )2 }1 / 2 'x ]

ª§ 1/ 2 º
« § wy · 2 ·¸ 'y dy § wy ·
¨
T 'x 1 ¨ ¸ 1» because Lt # ¨ ¸
¨
«© © wx ¹ ¹ ¸ » 'x o 0 'x dx © wx ¹ t 0
24 ¬ ¼
Unit 1 Wave Motion
Using the binomial theorem to expand the first term in the square bracket on Binomial theorem:
the RHS of the above expression and retaining only the first two terms of the
(1 x )n 1 nx
expansion, we get
n (n 1) x 2
1 § wy · 2
d (P.E.) T¨ ¸ 'x 2!
2 © wx ¹
n (n 1) (n 2) x 3
Again, we use Eq. (1.9d) to calculate wy / wx : ...
3!
wy
ak cos (Zt kx)
wx
Thus, the elastic potential energy of the element 'x of the string is
1
d (P.E.) (T 'x ) [a 2k 2 cos2 (Zt kx)] (1.20) We can write
2
(UZ2 Tk 2 )
So, the total mechanical energy of the element of length 'x of the string is ª T k2 º
UZ2 «1 »
dE d (K.E.) d (P.E.) «¬ U Z2 »¼
1 1
U'x a 2 Z2 cos2 (Zt kx) T'xa2 k 2 cos2 (Zt kx) We now use the
2 2 relation for the velocity
1 of the wave in terms of
'x a 2 cos2 (Zt kx) [ UZ2 Tk 2 ] (1.21) tension T in the string
2
and mass per unit
Using Eq. (1.21), we can write the linear energy density, D (x,t) of the wave length U of the string
as (read the margin remark): given as:
dE v T /U
D ( x, t )
'x k 1
and .
1 2 Z v
a [ (UZ2 Tk 2 ) cos2 (Zt kx) ]
2 Then, we get
Ua 2Z2 cos2 (Zt kx) (1.22) (UZ2 Tk 2 ) 2UZ2
Eq. (1.22) shows that the space and time variation of energy density of a wave
on a string is a function of (Zt kx), which is same as the space and time
variation of displacement, y (x,t). What does this signify? It signifies that
i) The energy density varies faster because of the square of cosine term.
ii) The energy of a wave propagates along its direction of propagation with
velocity v ( Z / k ).
Now, to calculate the total mechanical energy E contained in one wavelength
of the wave, we integrate Eq. (1.22) from 0 to O:
O O
E ³ D ( x, t ) dx Ua 2 Z2 ³ cos2 (Zt kx) dx
0 0
O ª cos 2 (kx ) 1º
For mathematical convenience, we set t 0 for this integration. So, we get E Ua 2 Z 2 ³ « »¼ dx
0¬ 2
(study the margin remark): O ª dx 1 O º
Ua2Z2 ³ « ³ cos (2 kx ) dx »
O 0¬ 2 20 ¼
1 2 2
E Ua 2Z2 ³ cos2 (kx) dx Ua Z O (1.23)
Ua 2 Z2 ª«
x O
sin 2kx º»
O
2 ¬ 2 2S ¼ 0
0
Eq. (1.23) gives the energy contained in one wavelength of the wave. Ua 2 Z2
ªO º
«¬ 2 »¼
Now, power, P of the wave is the energy averaged over one time period, T
and is given by
E E 1 2 2
P Ua Z v 2S 2U a 2f 2v (1.24)
T (O / v ) 2 25
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
where Z 2Sf and T is the time period.
Eq. (1.24) shows that the rate of energy (i.e., power) transported by a wave
varies linearly with wave velocity and the squares of its amplitude and
frequency.
It is important to mention here that the expressions for average energy and
power transported by a wave given, respectively, by Eqs. (1.23) and (1.24) are
valid for all kinds of harmonic sinusoidal mechanical waves. We shall make
use of this fact in Unit 3 where we discuss sound waves.
We now take a concrete example to give you some idea of the power
transported by a mechanical wave. You can then solve a problem.

XAMPLE 1.22: POWER TRANSPORTED BY A

TRANSVERSE WAVE

A progressive transverse wave is travelling on a string of length 3.0 m and

mass 300 g. The tension in the string is 40 N. If the frequency and the
amplitude of the wave are 40 s1 and 6 mm, respectively, calculate the
average power of the wave over one time period.
SOLUTION The average power of a progressive sinusoidal mechanical
wave propagating in a medium of linear mass density U is given by
Eq. (1.24):
1 2 2
P Ua Z v 2S2 Uf 2a2v (i)
2
We know that the amplitude of the wave a 6 mm 6 u 10 3 m, frequency
of the wave f 40 s1. The linear mass density of the string is its mass per
unit length. It is:
m 300 u 103 k g
U 0.1 kgm1
L 3.0m
T 40 N
Velocity of the wave, v 20 ms 1
U 0.1 kgm 1
Substituting these values in Eq. (i), we get
P 2 u (3.14)2 u (6 u 10 3 m)2 u (40 s 1)2 u (0.1 kg m1)2 u (20 ms 1)
2.27 W
This result shows that under the given conditions, the wave transports the
average power 2.27 W or the average energy 2.27 J per second through
the string.

We would now like you to work out an SAQ.

SAQ 5 – Power of a mechanical wave

A transverse wave is propagating on a string of length 1.0 m and mass 500 g.

The tension in the string is 50 N, and the frequency and the amplitude of the
1
wave are 50 s and 8 mm, respectively. Calculate the average power of the
wave.
26
Unit 1 Wave Motion
The amount of energy transported by waves can be huge; these can cause
immense destruction but can also be used constructively for generating
electricity.
Energy Carried by Waves
A vivid demonstration of the energy carried by water waves is in the
damage caused in coastal areas by tidal waves in stormy weather. You
may know that the tidal waves generated in the super-cyclone in the Bay
of Bengal in October, 1990 caused immense loss of life and property in
coastal Orissa. More than ten thousand people lost their lives and
millions were rendered homeless. Similar devastation by tidal waves was
seen when typhoon Katrina struck US east coast in the year 2011. Tidal
waves generated (due to an earthquake in Chile) carried huge amount of
energy across 15,000 km of the Pacific Ocean and caused untold Electromagnetic
damage in Japan in the year 2010. Do you know that a three metre high (e.m.) waves, which
oceanic wave can lift 30 bags of wheat by about 10 ft? include radio and
Seismic waves can also cause untold damage. The earthquake in South microwaves, infrared,
visible and ultraviolet
Gujarat on 26 Jan., 2001 reduced the area to rubbles killing an estimated
light, X-rays and
one hundred thousand people. High-rise buildings, houses and hospitals
gamma rays, travel
collapsed and roads developed huge cracks. Similar devastation was 8
with speed 3 u 10
experienced by the people in Jammu and Kashmir in October, 2005. 1
ms . Energy from the
An earthquake under sea bed near Indonesia in the Indian Ocean on Sun reaches our planet
Dec. 26, 2004 caused a tsunami with waves of a height up to 30 feet and in the form of
brought unimaginable misery in Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Maldives, electromagnetic
and India (Tamil Nadu). radiations and sustains
life.
You may like to read how the energy of tidal waves is being harnessed
the world over to meet the increasing electricity requirements.

In the context of waves, intensity of waves is another useful parameter. From

our common experience, we know that the chirping of birds, the shout of a
person, vehicular noise, sound of crackers or light from a lamp fade beyond a
certain distance. If it were not true, noise pollution would have made our life
miserable. Similarly, the surface temperatures of planets in the solar system
depend on their respective distances from the Sun. The energy and power of
the waves do not give us any information about the variation in the
strength of waves with distance. We describe the strength of a wave at a
given point in space by specifying the intensity of a wave. You will now learn
about it.

1.5 INTENSITY OF WAVES

Intensity of a wave is defined as the rate of energy transfer by the wave
Note that we have
per unit area normal to the direction of wave propagation. Mathematically, considered a point
we can write the intensity (I ) of the wave as source of waves such
P as a point source of
I (1.25)
A sound or light. Unlike
where P is the power and A is area of the surface intercepting the wave one-dimensional waves
on a stretched string, a
perpendicular to the direction in which the wave travels.
point source emits
You must have experienced that loudness of sound decreases as we move three-dimensional
away from its source. You may therefore like to know: How does the waves.
intensity of sound vary with distance from the source? Refer to Fig. 1.9 to 27
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
know answer to this question. It depicts a point source, S, emitting sound
waves. Note that sound waves emanating from a point source spread out in
3-dimensional space over a spherical surface. To depict these spreading
sound waves in 2-D, we have drawn concentric circles in Fig. 1.9 keeping S at
the centre.

Fig. 1.9: Sound waves emitted by a point source S spread in the surrounding
space.
Note from Fig. 1.9 that with increasing radius from centre S, energy
transported by sound waves is distributed over a greater surface area. For
example, at a distance r1 , energy is distributed over a spherical surface of
area 4S r12 whereas, at a distance of r2 ( ! r1 ) the same amount of energy will
be distributed over a larger spherical surface (having area 4S r22 ). So, if we
assume that there is no dissipation of energy of the sound waves, the energy
per unit area will be less at r 2 compared to the energy per unit area at r1.
That is, energy per unit area decreases as the distance from the source
increases or as we move away from the source. In other words, the
intensity of sound waves decreases as the distance from the source
increases.
Thus, for an arbitrary point located at distance r from the source, the energy of
sound waves is distributed over a sphere of surface area, A 4Sr 2 . Thus,
from Eq. (1.25), we can write the intensity of sound at a distance r from the
source as:
P
I
4Sr 2
1
That is Iv (1.26)
r2
Eq. (1.26) is known as the inverse square law. It shows that the intensity of
sound waves varies inversely with square of the distance from the
source. This explains why we can be heard only up to a certain distance.
Note that intensity is an extremely useful parameter because it gives us an
idea about the actual amount of energy received at a given point in space.
Further, from Eq. (1.24), we recall that
P v a2
where a is the amplitude of the wave. So, from Eq. (1.25), we can write
I v a2 (1.27)
Comparing Eqs. (1.26) and (1.27), we find that
1
av (1.28)
28 r
Unit 1 Wave Motion
Eq. (1.28) implies that amplitude of a wave is inversely proportional to the
distance of the observation point from the source. That is, as we move
away from the source, the amplitude of the wave diminishes.
You may now like to answer an SAQ.

SAQ 6 – Calculating the intensity of a wave

Calculate the intensity of sound at a distance of 2.0 m from a point source
which delivers 50.0 W power.

Let us now summarize what you have learnt in this unit.

1.6 SUMMARY

Concept Description
Wave Wave is a disturbance which propagates in a medium progressively. Waves do
not transport matter; these only transport energy and momentum.
Mechanical waves Mechanical waves can exist only in material medium.
Types of waves In a transverse wave, such as a wave on a stretched string, the particles of the
medium oscillate in a direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
the wave. On the other hand, in a longitudinal wave, such as sound wave in
air, the particles of the medium oscillate along the direction of propagation of the
wave.
Graphical The graphical representation of wave motion can be done by two types of
representation graphs: vibration graph and waveform graph. A vibration graph shows the
wave behaviour at a single location along the wave path as time passes. A
waveform graph is snap shot of a wave in space. A waveform graph depicts the
wave behaviour at different locations along the wave path at a particular time.

Velocity of wave The velocity, v of a wave is given as v f O, where f is the frequency of the
wave and O, is its wavelength. The frequency of a wave is a property of the
source responsible for the generation of wave. In terms of angular frequency Z
and wave number k, the wave velocity is given as v Z / k.
Mathematical A one-dimensional progressive wave propagating along the positive x-direction
representation of is described mathematically
waves y ( x, t ) a sin (Zt kx)
On using the relations Z 2S / T and k 2S / O, we can rewrite the above
expression in other equivalent forms as
ª 2S º
y ( x, t ) a sin « (vt x )»
¬O ¼
ª 2S § x ·º
a sin « ¨ t ¸»
¬T © v ¹¼
ª §t x ·º
a sin «2S ¨ ¸»
¬ © T O ¹¼
A one-dimensional progressive wave travelling along the negative x-direction is
given as
y ( x, t ) a sin (Zt kx)
29
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
Phase of a wave The argument of the periodic function representing a periodic travelling wave is
called the phase angle or simply the phase, I ( x, t ) of the wave:
I ( x, t ) Zt kx
Two points on the vibration graph of a wave separated by T or its integer
multiples are in the same phase. Similarly, two points on the waveform graph of
a wave separated by O or its integer multiples are in the same phase.
Two waves are said to be in phase when the corresponding points of each
wave reach their respective maximum or minimum displacements at the same
time.

Energy of wave The average mechanical energy associated with a transverse wave on a string
is given by
1 2 2
E Ua Z O
2
where U is the linear mass density of the string.

Power of wave The average power (energy transported per unit time) transported by the wave
is given by
1 2 2
P Ua Z v 2S2Ua2f 2v
2
where v is the wave velocity.
Intensity of a wave The strength of a wave at a given point in space is specified by intensity of the
wave:
P
I
A
where P is the power the wave and A the area of the surface at the point
intercepting the wave perpendicular to the direction in which the wave travels.
Intensity of a wave (such as sound wave) at a point in space is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance from the source:
1
Iv
r2
where r is the distance between the source and the point under consideration.
This law is known as inverse square law.

1.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. A transverse wave on a string has amplitude 12 mm, wavelength 2.2 m
and speed 3.0 ms 1. Determine the time period, frequency, angular
frequency and wave number of the wave.

2. A harmonic wave on a string is given as

y ( x, t ) (6.5 mm) sin[(1.42 m 1)x (3.86 s 1t )]

Determine the wavelength, frequency, speed, time period and direction of

propagation of the wave.
30
Unit 1 Wave Motion
3. The tension in a string is 100 N. If length of the string is 0.72 m and its
mass is 5 g, determine the speed of wave along the string.
4. A string with linear mass density 0.15 kg m1 is taut under a tension of
60 N. A transverse wave of amplitude 4.5 cm and angular frequency
120 s 1 propagates on it. Calculate the average power of the wave.
5. Hydrogen atoms produce energy due to fusion in the core of the Sun,
some of this energy is radiated in the form of light, which is an
electromagnetic radiation. The average intensity of sunlight at the surface
of Earth is measured to be 1.33 k Wm 2 . Take the total power produced in
the Sun as equal to the power received per unit area of the Earth’s surface
multiplied by the surface area of a sphere of radius equal to the distance
of the Earth from the Sun. Hence, calculate the mass of hydrogen that is
converted per second into radiant energy in the Sun. Take the distance
between the Sun and the Earth as 1.5 u 10 8 km.

1.8 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions
1. a) pulse; b) transverse; c) in east-west or west-east direction.
2. The frequency of the wave on the string is same as the frequency of the
periodic motion of the end of the string. So, f = 3.0 Hz. The distance
between two consecutive crests of a wave is equal to the wavelength, O of
the wave.
The wave velocity is given as
v fO
So,
v 6.0 ms 1
O 2.0 m
f 3.0 s1
3. a) To show that the function
y ( x, t ) ( x vt )2
w2y w2y
We need to calculate and and substitute the values in
wt 2 wx 2
Eq. (1.12)
wy w2y
? 2 ( x vt ) 2 (i)
wx wx 2
wy w2y
and 2v ( x vt ) 2v 2 (ii)
wt wt 2
Substituting Eqs. (i) and (ii) in Eq. (7.11), we find that the wave
equation is satisfied.
b) y ( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt )
wy w2y
so, ka cos(kx Zt ) k 2 a sin( kx Zt ) (iii)
wx wx 2
wy w2y
and Za cos(kx Zt ) Z2 a sin( kx Zt ) (iv)
wt wt 2
31
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
On substituting Eqs. (iii) and (iv) in Eq. (1.12), we note that the wave
equation is satisfied.
c) y ( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt )
wy w2y
so, ka cos(kx Zt ) k 2a sin(kx Zt ) (v)
wx wx 2
wy w2y
and Za cos(kx Zt ) Z2a sin(kx Zt ) (vi)
wt wt 2
On substituting Eqs. (v) and (vi) in Eq. (1.12), we note that the wave
equation is satisfied.
d) y ( x, t ) a ei (kxZt )
wy
(ik ) ae i ( kxZt )
wx
w 2y
k 2 ae i ( kxZt ) (vii)
wx 2
wy
( ik ) ae i ( kxZt )
wx
w 2y
Z2 ae i ( kxZt ) (viii)
wt 2
4. Since x1 0 and x2 2.0 cm, we can write the given expressions for
displacement as
y (0, t ) (0.02 cm) sin> 3S s 1 t @ (i)

S
and y (2.0 cm, t ) (0.02 cm) sinª« 3S s 1 t º» (ii)
¬ 2¼

On comparing Eq. (i) with Eq. (1.10d) with x = 0, we get amplitude,

a 0.02 cm. Angular frequency,
Z 3S 2Sf 3S f 1.5 Hz
Again, on comparing Eq. (ii) with Eq. (1.10d) we can write,
S
k u (2.0 cm)
2
2S S
or u (2.0 cm) O 8.0 cm
O 2
Since the sign between Zt and kx is positive, the wave is travelling along
negative x-direction.
The wave speed is given by
v Of (8.0 cm) u (1.5 s 1) 12 cm s 1

5. The power of a progressive wave is given by Eq. (1.24):

P 2S2 U f 2a2v

As per the problem, f 50 s1 and a 8 u 10 3 m. The linear mass

density of the string is
32
Unit 1 Wave Motion
0.5 kg
U 0.5 kg m1
1.0 m

? The velocity, v of the wave

T 50 N
v 10 ms 1
U 0.5 kg m1

So,
P 2 u (3.14)2 u (0.5 kg m1) u (50 s 1)2 u (8 u 10 3 m)2 u (10 ms 1)
15.8 W

6. We note from Sec. 1.5 that the intensity of wave is

P
I
4Sr 2
As per the problem, P = 50.0 W and r = 2.0 m.
So,
50.0 W
I
4 u 3.14 u (2.0 m) 2

1.0 W m2

Terminal Questions
1. Speed of wave, v = f O. So,
v 3.0 ms 1
f 1.36 s 1
O 2.2 m
1 1
Time period, T 0.74 s
f 1.36 s 1
Angular frequency, Z 2Sf 2 u 3.14 u 1.36 s 1 8.54 s 1
2S 2 u 3.14
Wave number k 2.85 m 1
O 2.2 m
2. The given expression for the wave is
[ y ( x, t ) (6.5 mm) sin[(1.42 m1)x (3.86 s1)t ]

Comparing with standard equation for wave travelling in positive x-

direction
y ( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt )

We have, k 1.42 m1 and Z 3.86 s1

So,
2S 2 u 3.14
O 4.42 m
k 1.42 m 1
Z 3.86 s 1
f 0.61 s 1
2S 2 u 3.14
Speed, v fO (0.61 s1) u (4.42 m) 2.70 ms 1

Direction of propagation is positive x-direction.

33
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
3. We know that the speed of transverse wave on a string is given as
v T /U

5 u 103 kg
T 100 N and U 6.9 u 103 kg m1
0.72 m
So,
100 N
v 120.39 ms 1
6.9 u 10 3 kg m 1
4. We know that the average power of a wave on a string is given as
1
P U Z2 a2 v (i)
2
The velocity, v of the wave is given by
T 60 N
v 20 ms 1
U 0.15 kg m 1
Angular frequency, Z 120 s 1; Amplitude, a 4.5 u 10 2 m
On substituting the values of these parameters in Eq. (i), we get the
average power,
1
P u (0.15 kg m1) u (120 s1) u ( 4.5 u 102 m)2 u (20 ms 1)
2
43.74 W
5. We are given that the intensity (I) of sunlight on the Earth’s surface is
Intensity I 1.33 k Wm 2 1330 Wm 2
According to the question, the total power P produced in the Sun is
P Intensity u ( 4S R 2 )
where R is the distance between the Sun and the Earth. Substituting the
values of I and R, we get
P (1330 Wm 2 ) u 4 u 3.14 u (1.5 u 1011 m)2 4.356 u 1026 W
Since power is the energy radiated per second, we can say that the Sun
radiates 4.356 u 10 26 J per second. This signifies the amount of energy
produced per second in the core of the Sun due to fusion. To determine
how much mass is converted per second into energy due to fusion, we use
Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence relation:
E mc 2
E 4.356 u 10 26 J
? m 4.08 u 10 9 kg
c2 (3 u 10 8 ms 1 ) 2
Thus, 4.08 u 10 9 kg hydrogen burns every second for the intensity of solar
radiation we receive on the Earth. Obviously, this is a huge quantity of
hydrogen. Yet, the Sun has been shining for billions of years and will
continue as such for long. But a time will come when entire hydrogen will
be burnt up. Can you imagine what would happen to life on our planet
thereafter?
34
Unit 2 Superposition of Waves

UNIT 2
The superposition of waves giving
rise to standing waves is basic
SUPERPOSITION
phenomena associated with the
working of musical instruments. OF WAVES
(Source of picture: wikimedia.org)

Structure
2.1 Introduction 2.4 Beats
Expected Learning Outcomes
2.5 Wave Groups and Group Velocity
2.2 Principle of Superposition of Waves
2.6 Summary
2.3 Standing Waves
2.7 Terminal Questions
Standing Waves on a String
2.8 Solutions and Answers

STUDY GUIDE
In the previous unit, you have revised basic concepts related to wave motion and its mathematical
representation. In this unit, you will learn how to apply the superposition principle to waves. You will
learn how a variety of phenomena associated with waves such as standing waves, beats and wave
groups can be explained by applying the superposition principle.

Superposition of waves is used to understand interference and diffraction of light. Thus, you should
internalise the concepts discussed in this unit. Further, while studying the unit, the mathematical
treatment of the formation of standing waves, beats and wave groups may seem similar. It is,
therefore, necessary to focus on the apparently minor but significant differences in the mathematical
analysis of each phenomenon. You will be using simple trigonometric relations, which you have learnt
in your +2 mathematics. We, therefore, advise you to refresh your knowledge of basic trigonometry.
Also, you are advised to focus on the physical significance of the mathematical results obtained due to
superposition of waves under different conditions. Try to solve SAQs and TQs yourself to check your
understanding of the concepts discussed in the unit.

“Ask the right questions, and nature will open the doors to C.V. Raman
her secrets.”

35
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you have learnt that a progressive wave transports
energy. When such a progressive wave meets a rigid boundary, a part of the
wave is reflected and a part is transmitted. In case of one-dimensional
progressive waves, such as transverse waves on a string, the reflected waves
travel in the same medium but in a direction opposite to the direction of
propagation of the incident wave. This is a situation where we have two waves
in the same region of space at the same time.

In fact, there are many other situations where two or more waves exist in
space simultaneously. For example, raindrops strike the surface of a pond and
generate circular waves that meet each other. Similarly, you may find yourself
in a situation when your ears are receiving sound waves generated by two
persons speaking at the same time. So you may ask: How do we analyse a
phenomenon which arises due to the simultaneous existence of two, or
more than two waves at a given point in space and time? To analyse the
behaviour of waves in such situations, we use the principle of
superposition.

As such, the principle of superposition is not a new concept for you. In Unit 17
of the first semester course entitled Mechanics (BPHCT-131), you have learnt
how to apply this principle to analyse the motion of a particle on which two
simple harmonic oscillations acted simultaneously. In the case of oscillations,
the superposition principle led us to conclude that the resultant motion of the
particle depended on the amplitudes, frequencies, and phase difference of the
superposing oscillations. The resultant was also determined by the directions
of superposing oscillations – whether collinear or orthogonal. In the present
unit, you will learn how to use the principle of superposition for waves and
understand many related concepts such as standing waves, beats, and wave
groups.

We begin this unit by revisiting the principle of superposition in Sec. 2.2 and
discuss its implications for waves. Further, as you know, a wave is
characterised by its amplitude, frequency (or wavelength) and initial phase. In
Sec. 2.2, you will also learn that superposition of waves leads to a variety of
outcomes depending upon the relation between the characteristic parameters
of the superposing waves.

In Sec. 2.3, you will learn about formation of standing waves, also known as
stationary waves, due to superposition of two identical waves (same
frequency and same amplitude) travelling in opposite directions. In standing
waves, energy is confined to a limited region of space. This phenomenon
finds useful manifestation in the form of music one of the most charming
aspects of life produced by wind pipes (such as flute, trumpet, shehnai, etc.)
and string instruments (such as sitar, guitar, violin, etc.).

Yet another important phenomenon resulting due to superposition of waves of

36 nearly equal frequencies is known as beats. The most vivid demonstration of
Unit 2 Superposition of Waves
beats is observed in the case of sound waves, as periodic changes in the
intensity of sound. You might have observed that in an orchestra, a violinist
tightens up or loosens the pegs of her instrument while tuning with the
instruments of other musicians. By adjusting the pegs, the violinist changes
the frequency of the sound produced by her instrument so that different notes
may be generated. Tuning two instruments is actually a way to eliminate
beats. You will learn about beats in detail in Sec. 2.4.

In Sec. 2.5, we generalise the phenomenon of beats and introduce the

concept of wave groups or wave packets, which arise due to superposition
of two or more waves of slightly different frequencies. The concept of wave
packet is of great importance in quantum mechanics where microscopic
particles such as electrons and protons are represented by localised waves or
wave packets.

In the next unit, you will study about acoustic waves.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
explain the principle of superposition for waves;
apply the superposition principle to explain the formation of standing
waves;
derive the mathematical expression for a standing wave on a string;
explain the concept of node and antinode in a standing wave;
obtain expressions for the frequency of normal modes;
explain the phenomenon of beats;
explain the formation of wave groups or wave packets; and
derive expressions for group velocity and phase velocity.

2.2 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES

From Block 4 of the first semester course BHPCT-131, you will recall that
harmonic oscillations obey the principle of superposition. Recall what happens
when two or more simple harmonic oscillations act on a particle
simultaneously? You have learnt that the resultant displacement of the particle
at any instant of time is given by the algebraic sum of displacements due to
individual oscillations acting separately.

You may now like to know: Do waves also obey the principle of
superposition? The answer is, yes. When two or more waves travel in the
same region in space, independent of one another, the resultant displacement
of a particle of the medium at any given time is equal to the algebraic sum of
the displacements due to individual waves. This is known as the principle of
superposition of waves. That is, each wave influences the particles of the
medium independent of the influence of other waves.
37
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction

Fig. 2.1: Snapshots of two pulses A and B, having positive amplitudes but
propagating in opposite directions, at different times: a) Two pulses
approach each other; b) the two pulses meet each other; c) the
superposition region where resultant amplitude increases; d) the
pulses moving just beyond the superposition region; e) pulses much
beyond the superposition or cross-over region.

To understand the principle of superposition of waves, it is convenient to

consider two pulses A and B travelling on a string in opposite directions, as
Note that we have taken shown in Fig. 2.1a. Note that both the pulses have different but positive
pulse(s) for illustrating amplitudes. As time passes, these meet one another, as shown in Fig. 2.1b.
and explaining
Fig. 2.1c shows the superposition region, the region where the two pulses
superposition of waves.
It is easier to depict as exist simultaneously. Note that in this region, the amplitude (or
well as explain. Since a displacement of the particles in the cross-over region) of the resultant
pulse is a part of the pulse increases and it is equal to the sum of the amplitudes of the two
waveform representing a
superposing pulses. Further, beyond the cross-over region, these two
wave, the explanations
and results will be valid pulses continue to move in their respective original directions, as shown in
for waves as well. Figs. 2.1d and 2.1e. It means that each pulse behaves as if it has not been
influenced by the other in any way, i.e., they act completely independently.

Now, refer to Fig. 2.2a which shows two pulses (A and B) approaching each
other with their amplitudes oppositely directed. When they cross each other,
the resultant amplitude is the algebraic sum of the amplitudes of the two
pulses (Fig. 2.2c). Note that the resultant amplitude (depicted by solid line in
Fig. 2.2c in the cross-over region,) is positive but less than the amplitude of
the pulse travelling from left to right. (The resultant amplitude is diminished
because the pulse moving from right to left has negative amplitude.) Beyond
the superposition region, the two pulses propagate along their respective
directions as unaffected individual pulses (Fig. 2.2d and 2.2e).
38
Unit 2 Superposition of Waves

Fig. 2.2: Snapshots of two pulses A and B one with positive amplitude and the
other with negative amplitude propagating in opposite directions at
different times: a) Two pulses approach each other; b) the two pulses
meet each other; c) in the superposition, the resultant amplitude is
positive but smaller in magnitude compared to pulse A; d) the pulses
moving just beyond the superposition region; e) much beyond the
superposition region, the pulses move in their respective original
directions.

Our discussion of superposition of waves has so far been qualitative.

Moreover, we have considered a rather simple case of two superposing
pulses travelling on the same string. We considered this for its ease of
depiction and understanding. As such, the principle of superposition is
valid for all kinds of waves wherever two or more waves exist
simultaneously in a given region of space. Let us now apply the
superposition principle for waves and express it mathematically.
If y 1 ( x, t ) and y 2 ( x, t ) represent the displacement of two waves separately,
then y1 ( x, t ) y 2 ( x, t ) is the resultant wave when the two waves superpose.
That is, the expression for the displacement of the resultant wave, y ( x, t ) is
given by
y ( x, t ) y1( x, t ) y 2 ( x, t ) (2.1)

In Unit 1 of this block, you have learnt that a wave is characterised by its
amplitude, angular frequency, wave number and phase. So, you may like to
know: How do we determine these parameters of the resultant wave?
When two waves superpose, their resultant is determined by the relation
between the corresponding parameters of the waves and their direction of
propagation. Some possible cases are that waves have:
1. Same angular frequencies and phases but different amplitudes
(Z1 Z2 , I1 I2 0, a1 z a2 )
39
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
2. Same amplitudes and frequencies but finite phase difference

(a1 a2 , Z1 Z2 )

3. Identical waves travelling in opposite directions.

4. Same amplitudes and phases but different frequencies.

Let us apply the superposition principle to each case.

1. Superposition of two waves having the same angular frequency,

same phase but different amplitudes and both propagating along the
positive x-direction.

Mathematically, we represent these waves as

y1 ( x, t ) a1 sin(kx Zt )

and y 2 ( x, t ) a2 sin(kx Zt )

The waveforms for these two waves at a given instant is shown by dashed
and dotted curves in Fig. 2.3. Now, using the superposition principle, we
can write the expression for the resultant wave as

y ( x, t ) a1 sin(kx Zt ) a2 sin(kx Zt )

(a1 a2 ) sin(kx Zt ) (2.2)

From Eq. (2.2), we note that the amplitude of the resultant wave is equal
to the sum of the amplitudes of individual waves. However, the
frequency and phase of the resultant wave remain unchanged. The
resultant waveform is also shown by a solid curve in Fig. 2.3.

Fig. 2.3: Superposition of two in-phase waves of the same frequency but
unequal amplitudes moving along the same direction.

2. Superposition of two waves having a finite phase difference but

same amplitude and frequency and propagating along the positive x-
direction.
We represent these waves as
y1 ( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt )
and y 2 ( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt I)

When such waves superpose, we observe the phenomenon of

interference provided the phase difference, I between the waves remains
40
Unit 2 Superposition of Waves
constant. The phenomenon of interference is more vividly seen with light
waves. You will learn about it in detail in Units 6 and 7 of this course.

3. Superposition of identical waves propagating in opposite directions.

The waves can be represented mathematically as

y1 ( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt ) (2.3)

and y 2 ( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt ) (2.4)

Note that Eq. (2.3) represents a wave propagating along the positive
x-direction while Eq. (2.4) represents a wave propagating in the negative
x-direction. The resultant of the superposition of these two waves in a
bound region gives rise to standing waves, also known as stationary
waves. You will learn about standing waves and their characteristics in
detail in Sec. 2.3.

4. Superposition of two waves of slightly different frequencies but

same amplitude and phase and propagating along the same
direction.

The waves can be represented mathematically as

y1 ( x, t ) a sin(kx Z1t ) (2.5)

and y 2 ( x, t ) a sin(kx Z2t ) (2.6)

When such waves superpose, beats are produced. Although the

phenomenon of beats is observed for all kinds of waves, we can hear
them when sound waves superpose. The beats are heard as periodic
variation in the loudness of sound. (We hear louder sound followed by
a lower sound, with some time period.) In addition to the phenomenon of
beats, superposition of waves of slightly different frequencies gives rise to
the formation of wave groups or wave packets. The concept of wave
packet has great significance in quantum mechanics. You will learn about
the phenomenon of beats and the concept of wave packets in Sec. 2.4.

From the above qualitative discussion, you can note that the superposition of
two or more waves can give rise to a variety of phenomena. In other words,
we can say that a variety of natural phenomena can be understood on the
basis of superposition principle.

It is, however, important to mention here that superposition principle

can be applied only when the amplitudes of the superposing waves are
small. It is so because a small-amplitude wave does not influence the
properties of the medium significantly. In fact, the changes in the medium due
to propagation of a small-amplitude wave are so small that the other waves
are not affected by it. However, when the amplitude of the waves is large,
such as that of shock waves generated by supersonic aircrafts, the
superposition principle is not adequate to know the resultant.

In order to appreciate the principle of superposition, you should go through the

following example carefully.
41
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction

XAMPLE 2.1: SUPERPOSITION OF TWO PULSES MOVING

IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS

Consider two pulses on a string which are moving towards each other as
shown in Fig. 2.4 below at the instant t 0. Each pulse moves with a
speed of 2 cms1. Sketch the pulses at t 1.0 s and 2.0 s.

Fig. 2.4

SOLUTION From the initial location of pulses, we note that at t = 0, the

two pulses are situated between 1.0 cm and 2.0 cm and between 6.0 cm
and 7.0 cm, respectively. Now these pulses are moving towards each other
with a speed of 2 cm s1. So, the pulse moving to the right will be located
between 3.0 cm and 4.0 cm after 1 s and the pulse moving towards the left
will be located between 4.0 cm and 5.0 cm. On superposition, they will
merge and appear as one big pulse between 3.0 cm and 5.0 cm as shown
in Fig. 2.5.

Fig. 2.5

After 2.0 s, these pulses will cross each other. The pulse moving to the
right will be located between 5.0 cm and 6.0 cm, and the pulse moving
towards the left will be located between 2.0 cm and 3.0 cm. These are
depicted in Fig. 2.6.

Fig. 2.6

Now you may like to solve the following SAQ.

42
Unit 2 Superposition of Waves

SAQ 1 – Superposition of pulses

At time t 0, the two pulses on a string approaching each other are shown in
Fig. 2.7 below. The pulses are moving with a speed 1.0 cm s1. Sketch the
pulses at t 1.0 s, 2.0 s and 4.0 s.

Fig. 2.7

Before proceeding further, let us recapitulate what you have learnt in this
section.

x According to the superposition principle, when two or more waves

travel in the same region in space, the resultant displacement of a
particle in that region is equal to the algebraic sum of its displacement
due to individual waves.

x The superposition principle is valid only for small amplitude waves.

x The phenomena of interference, beats and standing waves arise due to

superposition of waves.

x When two waves having the same amplitude and phase but slightly
different frequencies superpose, beats are produced. Beats can easily
be heard for sound waves.

Let us now discuss in detail the superposition of waves travelling in opposite

directions and leading to the formation of standing waves.

2.3 STANDING WAVES

You now know that superposition of two identical sinusoidal waves (of the
same frequencies and amplitudes) travelling in opposite directions gives rise
to standing waves. Let us try to visualise such waves and their superposition
in an actual physical situation. Consider a stretched string and think: How can
we obtain two identical waves with same amplitudes and frequencies but
moving in opposite directions? In practice, we obtain such waves using the
phenomenon of reflection; it is quite difficult otherwise.

You may now ask: What type of boundary gives rise to a reflected wave
which is identical to the incident wave? An identical wave is generated
when a wave is reflected from a fixed (or rigid) boundary such as a wall and
the close-end of an organ pipe or a free boundary such as free end of a
string and the open end of an organ pipe.

Refer to Fig. 2.8a which shows an incident wave on a stretched string

completely reflected by a fixed boundary (wall). Since the incident and
43
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
reflected waves travel in the same medium (string), their speeds and
frequencies remain the same. So, we find that if a sinusoidal wave is
completely reflected by a boundary, the reflected wave (travelling in the
opposite direction) will have the same amplitude, frequency and speed as
that of the incident wave.

Note that a wave may Similarly, an identical reflected wave is obtained when reflection takes place at
be partially reflected and a free boundary such as the free end of a string (Fig. 2.8b).
partially transmitted
when it is incident on a
boundary separating two
different media.

Fig. 2.8: Reflection of a wave propagating on a stretched string from a) fixed

boundary; b) free boundary.

We hope you now know how to generate two identical waves travelling in
opposite directions. When such identical waves travelling in opposite
directions superpose, we obtain standing waves. You might have observed
that in stringed musical instruments such as sitar, guitar and veena, both ends
of a string are fixed. When the string is plucked, standing waves are
generated due to the superposition of incident and reflected transverse waves
between its fixed ends.

So far, we have discussed the conditions under which standing waves can be
formed on a stretched string. It is, however, important to mention here that
standing waves are also formed due to superposition of longitudinal waves in
air columns, such as an organ pipe. Note that in the case of the string,
transverse displacement of the particles of the string leads to formation of
transverse waves. But in an organ pipe, longitudinal waves are generated due
to longitudinal displacement of air molecules giving rise to compressions and
rarefactions. However, the nature of mathematical functions representing
either a transverse or a longitudinal wave is the same. Therefore, the
mathematical analysis of standing waves due to superposition of transverse
waves will be valid for longitudinal waves as well. We shall confine our
discussion to the formation of standing waves on a string.

2.3.1 Standing Waves on a String

Consider a stretched string subject to uniform tension T and fixed at its ends,
x 0 and x L , as shown in Fig. 2.9a. Suppose that a wave travels in the
positive x-direction from the end x 0 and is reflected at the fixed end at
x L. The incident and reflected waves are shown in Fig. 2.9b.
44
Unit 2 Superposition of Waves

Fig. 2.9: a) A stretched string under tension T and fixed at x = 0 and x = L; b) the
waves travelling in positive x-direction and negative x-direction. Note
that for ease of visualisation, we have shown only a pulse of the waves
travelling in opposite directions.

We can represent the wave travelling along the positive x-direction by

y1 ( x, t ) a sin (kx Zt ) (2.7)

And, we can represent the wave travelling in the negative x-direction as:

y 2 ( x, t ) a sin (kx Zt ) (2.8)

When these two waves superpose, the resultant wave is given by

y ( x, t ) y1 ( x, t ) y 2 ( x, t )

a sin (kx Zt ) a sin (kx Zt )

or y ( x, t ) (2a sin kx) cos Zt (2.9) y ( x, t ) y i ( x, t ) y r ( x, t )

a sin (kx Zt )
Eq. (2.9) represents the resultant wave when two identical waves travelling in a sin (kx Zt )
opposite directions superpose. Let us pause for a moment and ask: What a[ sin kx cos Zt
does Eq. (2.9) convey physically? We can make the following inferences: sin Zt cos kx
sin kx cos Zt
i) The first and the most significant aspect of Eq. (2.9) is that it does not
sin Zt cos kx ]
represent a travelling wave. How do we say so? It is because it does
(2a sin kx ) cos Zt
not contain a factor (kx Zt ) or (kx Zt ). Thus, we find that the
superposition of two identical waves propagating in opposite directions
gives rise to a wave which does not propagate; that is, the resultant wave
is stationary or standing. You may like to know: How does the waveform
of the standing wave look like? Fig. 2.10 shows a snapshot of the
waveform representing a standing wave on a string.

B D E
A C

Fig. 2.10: A snapshot of a standing wave on a string fixed at both ends. The
arrow-heads indicate the amplitudes with which various elements of
the string vibrate.

It is important to mention here that Fig. 2.10 depicts the shape of the string
(on which standing wave is formed) at a given instant of time. This
should not give you the impression that the string has such a shape
45
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
at all times. To appreciate this point, refer to Fig. 2.11, which shows the
snapshots of two waves moving in opposite directions and their resultant –
the standing wave – at different times between t 0 and t T , the time
period of the wave. Note that the shape of the string gradually changes
with passage of time from t 0 to t T . (At t T / 4 and t 3T / 4, the
string is straight.)

Fig. 2.11: Snapshots of standing waves at different times; a) wave moving in

positive x-direction; b) wave moving in negative x-direction;
c) resultant standing waves.

ii) Further, from Eq. (2.9), we note that the resultant wave represents a
simple harmonic motion whose amplitude given by 2a sin kx varies from
point to point. Note that the simple harmonic motion is unique. Every
element of the string executes SHM with same frequency, Z. However,
the amplitude, 2a sin kx, of oscillatory motion of each element
depends on the location x of the element of the string. The position
dependent amplitude of various elements of the string are depicted by
arrow-heads of different heights in Fig. 2.10.
iii) To check whether or not the expression for displacement of the resultant
wave, given by Eq. (2.9), is consistent with the physical condition (that
displacement is zero at x = 0), we apply the boundary condition
[ y ( x, t )] x 0 0

on Eq. (2.9). You can see that Eq. (2.9) satisfies this boundary condition.
iv) Note that the amplitude, 2a sin kx of an element of the medium (string) will
be minimum (zero) for all such values of x which satisfy the condition
sin kx sin n S, n 0, 1, 2,...

This means that for such values,

2S
kx nS x nS
O
nO
or x , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (2.10)
2
The points on the string for which x is given by Eq. (2.10) represent the
points where the amplitude of the standing wave is zero. Such points on a
46
Unit 2 Superposition of Waves
standing wave are called nodes and are shown by points A, B, C, D and E
in Fig. 2.10.
v) We also note that the amplitude, 2a sin kx of the standing wave will be Note that here we are
maximum when dealing with three
S types of amplitudes.
sin kx r 1 sin (2n 1) n = 0, 1, 2, ... First is the amplitude,
2
a, of the superposing
S
or kx (2n 1) waves. Second is the
2 amplitude,
(2n 1) O 2a sin kx of simple
x n = 0, 1, 2, ... (2.11)
4 harmonic motion of
The points on the string corresponding to the values of x given by each element of the
medium (string) which
Eq. (2.11) are called antinodes. These are shown by points P, Q, R and S
depends on its
in Fig. 2.10. location. This implies
vi) Since the string is of finite length L and is fixed at both the ends, the that the elements of the
displacement at the fixed ends of the string must be zero at all times. That string on which
is, the expression for the resultant standing wave given by Eq. (2.9) should standing waves are
formed have different
also satisfy the following boundary condition:
amplitudes of
[( y ( x, t )] x L 0 oscillation. This is quite
that is, the displacement at the other end ( x L) of the string, which is unlike travelling waves
in which each element
fixed, must be zero at all times. When we apply this boundary condition to
of the medium
Eq. (2.9), we get oscillates with the
sin kL 0 sin n S n 0, 1, 2,... same amplitude, a and
knL n S the amplitude of the
nO n wave is the same as
or L n 1, 2, 3, ... (2.12) the amplitude of the
2
oscillation of elements.
Eq. (2.12) expresses a very significant result. But, before we discuss its And, thirdly, the
significance, let us understand why have we added a subscript n with k amplitude of the
and O and why have we dropped n = 0 as one of the possible values of n. standing wave which
The subscript n signifies that the wave number k and hence the is 2a.
wavelength O can take only discrete set of values associated with
integer n. Further, n = 0 is a permissible value technically. But, for n 0,
the resultant displacement, y(x,t) is identically zero and will correspond to
a trivial situation. Thus, the value of n effectively starts with 1. The physical
significance of Eq. (2.12) is that it enables us to understand the concept of
normal modes.
Normal Modes
Since the string is fixed at both ends (Fig. 2.9), the boundary condition
[ y ( x, t )] x L 0 applied to the resultant standing wave [Eq. (2.9)] gives us
Eq. (2.12). Note that Eq. (2.12) implies that the length L of the string must
be an integral multiple of O / 2. In other words, on a string of a given length,
L, fixed at both ends, standing waves of only certain wavelengths, determined
by Eq. (2.12), can be sustained or allowed. That is, stationary or standing
waves of only certain values of wavelength are possible. The allowed
values of wavelength (or frequency) of the standing waves determine the
normal modes of vibration of the string fixed at both ends.
The discrete allowed values of wavelength, O of the standing waves are given
by [Eq. (2.12)]:
47
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
2L
On n 1, 2, 3, ... (2.13)
n
And, the corresponding values of the frequencies can be obtained using the
relation v f O . Thus, the normal mode frequency (allowed values of the
frequency) of the standing waves on a string fixed at both ends are given by
nv
fn ; n 1, 2, 3, ... (2.14)
2L
The expression for normal mode frequencies can also be written in terms of
tension in the string and mass per unit length. To do so, we write the velocity
of a transverse wave on a stretched string as
T
v
U
where T is the tension in the string and U is the mass per unit length of the
string. Substituting the above value of v in Eq. (2.14), we get
n T
fn n 1, 2, 3, ... (2.15)
2L U
The frequency corresponding to n 1 is called fundamental frequency of
the standing wave and is given by [Eqs. (2.14), (2.15)]:
v 1 T
f1 (2.16)
2L 2L U
Note that fundamental frequency is the minimum frequency with which a
A mode of vibration
string fixed at both ends can vibrate. For this reason, the fundamental
refers to the ‘way of
vibration’ of the string frequency is also called the first harmonic.
characterised by the You may now ask: What are the other normal modes of vibration of the
frequency of vibration or string? In general, the string can vibrate in n (= 1, 2, 3,...) number of
the wavelength of the
segments and the corresponding frequency of vibration, fn, is given by
standing wave.
Eq. (2.14) or Eq. (2.15). The frequencies fn (for n t 2) are called higher
harmonics or overtones. Note that frequencies of higher harmonics are
integral multiples of the fundamental frequency. Some of the normal
modes of vibration of a string fixed at both ends are depicted in Fig. 2.12.
Note that the string gets divided into larger number of loops as higher
harmonics are excited.

Fig. 2.12: a) A stretched string of length L fixed at both ends; waveforms for
b) the fundamental mode or the first harmonic (n = 1); c) the second
harmonic (n = 2); d) the third harmonic (n = 3).
48
Unit 2 Superposition of Waves
From the above discussion, you may conclude that waves of only certain
discrete values of wavelength (or frequency) can be sustained or generated
on a string fixed at both ends. This discreteness is referred to as
‘quantisation’ of wavelength (or frequency). Note that it is a direct
consequence of the boundary conditions at the fixed ends of the string.
To appreciate the concept of standing waves, you should now go through the
following examples.

XAMPLE 2.2: COMPONENT WAVES OF A STANDING

WAVE

Two waves of the same frequency, velocity and amplitude travelling in

opposite directions on a string fixed at both ends are represented as:
y1 ( x, t ) a sin (kx Zt )
and y 2 ( x, t ) a sin (kx Zt )

On superposition, these give rise to a standing wave given by

Sx
y ( x, t ) 2 sin cos 40 St cm
4
a) Determine the equations representing the component waves y 1 ( x, t )
and y 2 ( x, t ) ;

b) Calculate the distance between two successive nodes.

SOLUTION The resultant wave due to superposition of two waves of
same amplitude and frequency and travelling in opposite directions is given
by [Eq. (2.9)]:
y ( x, t ) (2a sin kx) cos Zt (i)

Comparing Eq. (i) with the expression for the resultant wave given in the
problem:
Sx
y ( x, t ) 2 sin cos 40St
4
We get, k (S / 4) , Z = 40S and a = 1 cm

So, the equations representing the actual component waves will have
these values of parameters a, k and Z. Thus, we get the expressions for
component waves as:
Sx
y 1 ( x, t ) (1.0 cm) sin§¨ 40St ·¸
© 4 ¹
Sx
and y 2 ( x, t ) (1.0 cm) sin§¨ 40St ·¸
© 4 ¹
2S S
b) Since k ( S / 4) O 8 cm
O 4
And, as you know, the distance between two successive nodes is equal
to
O 8 cm
4 cm
2 2
49
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction

XAMPLE 2.3: FREQUENCIES OF HIGHER HARMONICS

The fundamental frequency of a guitar string is 540 Hz. a) Calculate the

frequency of the first and second harmonics excited on it. b) If the tension
in the guitar string is doubled, calculate the new fundamental frequency.
SOLUTION a) From Sec. 2.3.1, we recall that when standing waves are
formed on a string fixed at both ends, the fundamental frequency is also
known as the first harmonic and the higher harmonics are integral multiples
of the fundamental frequency. In a guitar, strings are fixed at both ends.
So, as per the problem, the frequency of the first harmonic is 540 Hz and
the frequency of the second harmonic is 2f1 2 u 540 Hz 1080 Hz .
b) From Eq. (2.15), we recall that frequencies of standing waves formed
on a string fixed at both ends are given by
n T
fn , n = 1, 2, 3, ... (i)
2L U
Therefore, the fundamental frequency (n = 1) is given by
1 T
f1
2L U
When the tension T in the guitar string is increased to 2T, the new
fundamental frequency f1c is given [Eq. (2.16)] as
1 2T
f1c 2f1 763.7 Hz
2L U

Before studying further, you should solve the following SAQs.

SAQ 2 – Standing waves on a string and fundamental

frequency
A string of length 2 m is clamped at both ends. Suppose that a wave
propagates on this string with speed 500 ms 1. (a) Calculate the minimum
frequency of the disturbance which must be generated on this string to obtain
a standing wave. (b) What will be the next higher frequency of the standing
wave?

While studying the characteristics of standing waves, you might have noted
that these differ from progressive waves in the following ways:
1. Standing waves do not transport energy like progressive waves.
2. Each element or particle of the medium oscillates with the same amplitude
in progressive waves. But, in standing waves, each element or particle of
the medium has different amplitude.
You may now like to know: What gives rise to these differences? To
address this question, we need to examine a little more closely the
displacement and velocity of each element of the medium, in which a standing
wave is formed.
Displacement and Velocity of a Particle in a Standing Wave
From elementary mechanics, you know that the velocity of a particle is defined
as the time rate of change of displacement. So, to obtain an expression for the
50
Unit 2 Superposition of Waves
velocity of a particle in a standing wave, we differentiate the resultant
displacement, y ( x, t ) given by Eq. (2.9) with respect to time. Doing so, we get

dy ( x, t ) d
v (2a sin kx cos Zt ) 2aZ sin kx sin Zt (2.17)
dt dt
Eq. (2.17) shows that the magnitude of the velocity of a particle in the medium
will be maximum when sin kx r1 and it will be zero when sin kx 0. If you
examine the expression for displacement [Eq. (2.9)] of the particle, you will
note that the displacement of the particle also attains maximum values for
sin kx r1 and becomes zero for sin kx 0. Further you know that sin kx r1
and sin kx 0, respectively, define antinodes and nodes on a standing
wave. It means that the displacement as well as velocity of the particle
attain maximum value at the antinodes and both are zero at the nodes. At
any intermediate position, the displacement and velocity of the particles
gradually change between maximum and zero.
To appreciate the above conclusions, refer to Fig. 2.13, which depicts the
velocity of the particles of the string supporting a standing wave at a given
instant. The lengths of arrow heads perpendicular to the x-axis represent the
magnitude of velocities of the particles at that instant. From the figure, you
may note that, in standing waves, particles of the medium (string) get divided
into segments like M, N, and O in such a manner that the particles in any
one segment, say M, always move along the same direction. Also, note
that the particles in two adjacent segments, such as M and N, always move in
opposite directions. That is, when particles in segment M move up, particles in
segment N move down and vice-versa. Now compare the variation of velocity
of particles depicted in Fig. 2.13 with the variation of displacement of the
particles depicted in Fig. 2.10. You will note that both are identical.

Fig. 2.13: a) Velocity-position graph for the particles in a standing wave on a

string fixed at both ends. The lengths of the arrow-heads denote the
magnitude of the velocity of the particles at a given instant of time;
b) snapshot of the standing wave at t t 2 .

Now, study Fig. 2.13 a and b again. While Fig. 2.13a depicts the snapshot of
the standing wave at time, say t1, Fig. 2.13b depicts it at a later time,
t 2 ( t1 (T / 2)). Note that the magnitude of the velocity (shown by arrow-
heads) of the particles in any one segment, say particles a1,a2 and a3 in
51
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
segment M, are different. Particle which has to cover larger distance possess
greater velocity and vice-versa. As a result, all particles in a segment – crest
or trough – of the standing wave reach their respective extreme positions at
the same time. This happens because all particles of the string have the
same time period but different velocities.
Now, to concretise your understanding about the behaviour of the particle of
the string when a standing wave is formed on it, you should study the
following example.

XAMPLE 2.4: THE POSITION OF NODES IN A STANDING

WAVE

Two waves propagating on a stretched string fixed at both ends are given
by
y 1 ( x, t ) (0.016 ) sin §¨ 20t ·¸
x
©2 ¹

y 2 ( x, t ) (0.016 ) sin §¨ 20t ·¸

x
©2 ¹
where y1, y 2 and x are in metres and t is in seconds. a) Determine the
position of the nodes of the resulting standing wave. b) Calculate the
amplitude of a particle of the string located at x 0.40 m.
SOLUTION a) From the given expressions for the waves, we note that
the two waves are identical and are travelling in opposite directions.
Therefore, they will superpose and give rise to a standing wave. From
Eq. (2.9), we recall that the instantaneous displacement of the particles in
the resultant standing wave is given by
y ( x, t ) 2a sin kx cos Zt (i)
From the given expressions for y 1 ( x, t ) and y 2 ( x, t ), we note that
2S 1 § 10 · s 1 (ii)
a 0.016 m; k O 4S m; Z 2Sf 20 s 1 f ¨ ¸
O 2 © S¹
On substituting these values of a, k and Z in Eq. (i), we get
y ( x, t ) (0.032 m) sin 0.5x cos (20 t )
From Eq. (2.10), we recall that the position of nodes is given by
nO
x ; n 0, 1, 2, ...
2
On substituting the value of O from Eq. (ii), we get
n 4S
x ; n 0, 1, 2, ...
2
So, the nodes will be located at
x 0, 6.28 m, 12.56 m, ...
b) We know that amplitude of a standing wave is 2a sin kx. So, the
amplitude of the particle located at x 0.40 m will be
§ 0.40 ·
(a) x 0.40 m 2 u (0.016 m) sin ¨ ¸ 0.011 m
© 2 ¹
52
Unit 2 Superposition of Waves
You may now like to answer an SAQ.

SAQ 3 – Determination of the position of nodes and antinodes

The superposition of two sinusoidal waves travelling in opposite directions on

a string fixed at both ends gives rise to a standing wave represented as:
y ( x, t ) (0.12 m) sin (4.0x ) cos (20 t )

where x is in metres and t is in seconds. Determine the a) wavelength, and

frequency of the standing wave, and b) position of nodes and antinodes.

Now, before proceeding further, let us recapitulate what you have learnt in this
section.

x A standing wave is formed when two identical progressive waves

travelling in opposite directions superpose. If standing waves are
formed on a string with both ends fixed, the string may be divided into
one or more segments. Each segment has a point of zero
displacement, called node, and a point of maximum displacement,
called antinode.
x The normal mode frequencies of the standing wave on a string of
length L are given by
nv n T
fn ; n 1, 2, 3, ...
2L 2L U
x The lowest frequency, f1 (for n = 1) is called the fundamental
frequency or the first harmonic of the standing wave The higher
frequencies f2, f3,... etc. are, respectively, called second, third and
higher harmonics.
x The particles in any given segment of a standing wave always move
along the same direction. However, the particles in two adjacent
segments move in opposite directions.

So far, we have considered superposition of two identical waves travelling in

opposite directions. As pointed out in Sec. 2.2, when two or more waves of
slightly different frequencies travelling in the same direction superpose we
observe the phenomena of beats, formation of wave groups, etc. Let us learn
about these now.
2.4 BEATS
When sound waves of different frequencies superpose, the intensity of the
resultant sound increases and decreases alternately with time. This
phenomenon is called beats. Though the name beats comes for the
superposition of sound waves, the phenomenon is true for all types of waves if
the superposing waves have slightly different frequencies.
To understand the phenomenon of beats qualitatively, recall from Sec. 2.2
that the resultant of the superposition of two harmonic waves of same
frequency travelling in the same direction depends on the phase difference
between the two waves. If the two waves are in phase, crest for crest, the
amplitude of the resultant wave will be maximum. When they are out of phase,
crest for trough, the amplitude of the resultant wave will be minimum. So, if 53
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
the superposing waves are sound waves, the intensity of the resultant
wave will be maximum when the superposing waves are in phase and
vice-versa. This is because the intensity or loudness of the sound is
proportional to the square of its amplitude.
Note that, at any given point in space, if the two superposing waves of the
same frequency are in-phase or out-of phase, they will remain so at all
subsequent times. This means that if we fix our position in space, we can
either observe / hear enhanced intensity (due to in-phase superposition) or
diminished intensity (due to out-of phase superposition). But, what we
observe / hear in case of beats is quite contrary: even if we are located
at a fixed position in space, we perceive periodic increase and decrease
in intensity of sound. This means that the superposing waves are in-phase
at one instant and are out-of phase at the other instant at the same position in
space! The question is: How does it happen?
The variation in the phase difference between the superposing waves
giving rise to beats is caused due to the different values of their
frequencies. To visualise this, refer to Figs. 2.14. Fig. 2.14a and 2.14b depict
two sinusoidal waves of the same amplitude but slightly different frequencies
Z1 and Z2, respectively, where Z1 > Z2. Note that these two waves are being
depicted on vibration graphs; that is, these are displacement-time graphs for
the two waves at a fixed value of position, x.

Fig. 2.14: Superposition of two waves of the same amplitude but slightly
different frequencies: a) vibration graphs of wave of frequency Z1;
b) vibration graph of wave of frequency Z2; c) vibration graph of the
resultant wave due to superposition of waves depicted in a) and b).
54
Unit 2 Superposition of Waves
Fig. 2.14c depicts the vibration graph for the resultant wave due to
superposition of the waves depicted in Figs. 2.14a and 2.14b. You may note
the following from Fig. 2.14a to c:
x In the regions where the two superposing waves are in-phase, such as the
regions A, B and C, the amplitude of the resultant wave is large.
x In the regions where the superposing waves are out of phase, such as the
regions D, E and F, the amplitude of the resultant wave is very small.
x Also, the amplitude of the resultant wave varies periodically. This
gives rise to alternations of intensity called beats.
Now, for obtaining a relation between the beat frequency and the frequencies
of the superposing wave, let us consider two waves of same amplitude but
slightly different angular frequencies Z1 and Z2 given as:
y1 ( x, t ) a sin (Z1t k1x )

y 2 ( x, t ) a sin (Z2t k 2 x )

Since we are interested in a physical situation where the position of the

observer/listener is fixed, we can take x = 0 in the above expressions for
waves and consider only the time dependence of the waves (the vibration
graph). So, the expression for the superposing waves reduces to:
y1 (t ) a cos Z1t and y 2 (t ) a sin Z2t. When these two waves superpose, the
resultant wave is given by the superposition principle as:
y (t ) a sin Z1t a sin Z2t

Z Z2 Z Z2
2a sin ª« 1 t º» cos ª« 1 t º»
¬ 2 ¼ ¬ 2 ¼
'Z
2 a cos t sin Zav t (2.18)
2
where Zav (Z1 Z2 ) / 2 defines the average angular frequency of the
resultant wave and 'Z Z1 Z2 represents the difference in the angular
frequencies of the superposing waves.
Eq. (2.18) is the expression for the resultant wave which contains a sinusoidal
term, sin Zav t which is modulated by an amplitude factor 2a cos('Z / 2)t.
Eq. (2.18) suggests that
x at a given point in space, the amplitude of the resultant wave,
2 a cos('Z / 2)t , varies with time between 2a and zero;

x the resultant waveform follows sinusoidal variation within an envelope

represented by the amplitude term, as shown in Fig. 2.14c; and
x the frequency of the resultant wave is Zav ; if Z1 and Z2 are nearly equal,
the amplitude of the resultant wave will vary very slowly.
So, the time interval, 't between two successive beats will correspond to the
cosine term in Eq. (2.18). Since intensity of a wave is proportional to the
square of amplitude, the time interval between two successive beats will be
the time in which amplitude squared, that is, (cosine)2 factor ranges from +1 to
zero to +1.
55
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
Thus, we can write
'Z
't S
2
2S
or 't (2.19)
'Z
This gives the time period for beats. Since frequency is reciprocal of the time
period, the frequency of beats can be written as
1
fb
't
'Z
f1 f2
2S
Thus the frequency of beats is equal to the difference of the frequencies
of two superposing waves.
You may now like to answer an SAQ.

SAQ 4 – Calculating beat frequency

A note of a piano is sounded with a tuning fork of frequency 512 Hz. If six
beats are heard every second, calculate the frequency of the note.

You now know that beats arise due to superposition of waves of slightly
different frequencies. On the basis of the above discussion, we can say
that beats are the manifestation of the collective behaviour of two or
more waves of different frequencies propagating simultaneously. You
may recall that while analysing the phenomenon of beats, we assumed that
x = 0. This condition basically means that the value of the position or location
of observation or listening has been fixed. The situation corresponds to
superposition of vibration graphs (displacement-time graph representing a
wave at a fixed position) generated by waves of different frequencies. For this
reason, beats are also known as ‘superposition in time’. You may ask: What
will happen if we relax the condition that the value of position, x is fixed?
In that situation, the analysis of the superposition leads us to the concept of
wave groups or wave packets. You will learn it now.

2.5 WAVE GROUPS AND GROUP VELOCITY

Consider two waves of equal amplitude but slightly different frequencies Z1
and Z2 propagating in the positive x-direction. We can express such waves
mathematically as
y1 ( x, t ) a sin(Z1t k1x )
and y 2 ( x, t ) a sin(Z2t k2 x )
The resultant wave due to the superposition of these two waves is given by
y ( x, t ) y1 ( x, t ) y 2 ( x, t )
a sin(Z1t k1x ) a sin (Z2t k2 x ) (2.20)
To proceed further, we use the trigonometric identity
§AB· §AB·
sin A sin B 2 sin ¨ ¸ cos ¨ ¸
© 2 ¹ © 2 ¹
and take A Z1t k1x and B Z2t k2 x . Then, we can write
56
Unit 2 Superposition of Waves
ª Z t k1x Z2t k 2 x º ª Z t k1x Z2t k 2 x º
y ( x, t ) 2a sin« 1 » cos « 1 »
¬ 2 ¼ ¬ 2 ¼
(Z Z2 )t (k1 k 2 )x º (Z Z2 )t (k1 k 2 )x º
2a sin ª« 1 » cosª« 1 »¼
¬ 2 2 ¼ ¬ 2 2
ª§ 'Z · § 'k · º
2a cos «¨ ¸t ¨ ¸ x » sin Zav t k av x (2.21)
¬© 2 ¹ © 2 ¹ ¼
where Z1 Z2 'Z , k1 k2 'k , and we have defined average angular
Z1 Z2
frequency and average wave number as Zav and
2
k1 k 2
k av , respectively.
2
We can rewrite Eq. (2.21) as
y ( x, t ) am sin (Zav t kav x ) (2.22)
where
§ 'Z 'k ·
am 2a cos ¨ t x¸ (2.23)
© 2 2 ¹
Let us pause for a moment and try to understand what different terms in
Eq. (2.22) signify physically. Refer to Fig. 2.15 which depicts the waveform
graphs corresponding to Eq. (2.21). Fig. 2.15a and b depict the sine and
cosine terms of Eq. (2.21) respectively. And, Fig. 2.15c depicts the resultant of
the graphs in Fig. 2.15a and b.
Firstly, the function is not a harmonic function because its amplitude, am varies
both in space (x) and time (t). The varying or modulated amplitude gives
rise to a wave envelop as shown in Fig. 2.15b.

Fig. 2.15: The waveform arising due to superposition of two waves of slightly
different frequencies moving along the same direction; a) waveform
corresponding to the sine term in Eq. (2.21); b) waveform
corresponding to the cosine term in Eq. (2.21); c) waveform obtained
by plotting the graphs in a) and b) together.
57
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
Secondly, we note that the function representing the resultant wave comprises
two parts:
i) the sine part which varies (rapidly) with a frequency that is average of the
frequencies of the component waves (this part is depicted graphically in
Fig. 2.15a); and
ii) the cosine part which varies (very slowly) with a frequency that is half of
the difference of the frequencies of the superposing waves (this part is
depicted graphically in Fig. 2.15b). The product of the above two parts of
Eq. (2.21) is plotted in Fig. 2.15c.
We further note from Fig. 2.15c that the superposition of waves of slightly
different frequencies moving along the same direction results in the formation
of groups (or packets) of waves. These are called wave groups or wave
packets.
You may ask: How do these wave groups behave? What is their velocity
of propagation? In general, a wave group propagates with a velocity
different from that of the individual superposing waves. The velocity of
the wave group is called group velocity. We denote it by the symbol v g . Let
us now obtain an expression for v g and check the validity of the statement
regarding the velocity of wave groups.
Since wave groups are formed due to the modulated part (represented by the
cosine term) of Eq. (2.21), we can take the angular frequency, Z ('Z / 2)
and wave number, k ('k / 2) for the wave group. So, using the expression
for wave velocity, v (Z / k ), we can write the group velocity, v g for the wave
group as
'Z / 2 'Z
vg (2.24)
'k / 2 'k
If a wave group is formed due to superposition of not only two but a large
number of waves with angular frequencies lying between Z1 and Z2 (with
Z1 | Z2 ), and wave numbers lying between k1 and k2 , the expression for
group velocity can be written as
dZ
vg (2.25)
dk
Here dZ and dk, respectively, denote the spreads (or difference between the
maximum and the minimum) of angular frequencies and wave numbers of the
superposing waves that gives rise to the wave group.
You may ask: What is the velocity of the resultant wave represented by
the sine function in Eq. (2.21)? The velocity of the resultant wave is called
the phase velocity. We denote it by the symbol v p . From Eq. (2.21), we can
write the expression for phase velocity, v p as
Zav
vp (2.26)
kav

Now let us consider a situation in which wave velocity of the superposing

waves is the same:
Z1 Z2
v (say)
58 k1 k2
Unit 2 Superposition of Waves
Then, in that condition, we can write the phase velocity as
Z1 Z2 k1v k2v
vp v (2.27)
k1 k2 k1 k2

And, for this particular case, we can write group velocity [Eq. (2.24)] as
'Z Z1 Z2 k1v k2v
vg v (2.28)
'k k1 k 2 k1 k2

From Eqs. (2.27) and (2.28) we note that, if the individual wave velocities
are equal, the group velocity is equal to the phase velocity. To express vg in terms
of O, we note that
We have mentioned earlier that the resultant wave travels with phase velocity.
However, the energy transfer by such waves is governed by group dv dv dO
.
velocity. That is why group velocity is a more fundamental physical quantity dk dO dk

and of greater interest in physics. 2S

Since k , it readily
O
Now, you may like to ask: How are phase velocity and group velocity follows that
related? We can establish a relation between the phase velocity and the
dk 2S
group velocity if we replace dZ by d (kv p ) in the expression for v g dO

O2
[Eq. (2.25)]:
Inserting this result in
dZ d
vg (kv p ) above equation, we get
dk dk
2
dv O dv
On simplification, we obtain
dk 2 S dO
dv p
vg vp k (2.29) Hence
dk
2S §¨ O2 ·¸ dv
Since k 2S / O , we can write Eq. (2.29) in terms of O as (read the margin vg vp
O ¨© 2S ¸¹ dO
remark):
dv p dv p
vg v p O (2.30) vp O
dO dO
Yet another important aspect of wave groups is its spatial extent. Refer
to Fig. 2.16 which depicts wave groups formed due to superposition of waves
of different frequencies. You may note that the length of a wave group is
half of the wavelength of the enveloping wave. To substantiate this
statement, we obtain expressions for the wavelength of the resultant wave as
well as the enveloping (or the modulating) wave. The wavelength O r of the Eq. (2.30) gives the
general relation
resultant wave can be written using the sine function of Eq. (2.21): between group velocity
2S 2S and phase velocity. If
Or | (because k1 | k 2 )
k av k you pursue higher
studies in physics, you
And the wavelength O e of the enveloping wave can be written using the will learn that the
cosine function of Eq. (2.21): phase velocity is
independent of
2S 4S
Oe wavelength if the wave
'k / 2 'k is propagating in a non-
Since 'k is very small compared to k we have: Oe !! Or . dispersive medium.
Thus, in a non-
If O1 and O 2 denote the wavelengths of the component waves, (using
dispersive medium,
'k k1 k 2 ) you can verify that group velocity is equal
Oe O1 O 2 to phase velocity.
(2.31)
2 O 2 O1
59
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
Since the spatial extent of the wave group is half of the wavelength of the
enveloping wave, Eq. (2.31) gives the length (or the extent) of the wave
group. You can see from Fig. 2.16 that the length of the wave group is half of
the wavelength of the enveloping wave, i.e., it is equal to Oe / 2.

Fig. 2.16: Wave group and its extent.

You may now like to solve a SAQ.

SAQ 5 – Phase and group velocities

The phase velocity of a wave in a medium is given by

v p C1 C2O
where C1 and C2 are constants. Obtain an expression for its group velocity.

Let us now summarise what you have learnt in this unit.

2.6 SUMMARY

Concept Description
Superposition When two or more waves superpose, the displacement of the particles of the
principle medium in the resultant wave is given by the algebraic sum of the individual
displacements due to superposing waves. This is known as principle of
superposition of waves.
Standing waves Standing waves arise because of the superposition of two identical waves
travelling in opposite directions and confined between two points.
The expression for the standing waves due to superposition of two waves
y 1( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt ) and y 2 ( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt ) is given as
y ( x, t ) y1( x, t ) y 2 ( x, t ) 2a sin kx cos Zt
Nodes and In a standing wave, the region of space is divided into well defined segments.
antinodes The points of zero and maximum displacement are referred to as nodes and
antinodes, respectively. The distance between any two consecutive nodes or
antinodes is equal to one-half of the wavelength of the standing wave.
Normal modes of a The normal mode frequencies of the standing wave on a string of length L and
string fixed at both the end is given as
nv n T
fn n 1, 2, 3, ...
2L 2L U
The value of the frequency corresponding to n = 1 is called fundamental
frequency. The fundamental frequency is the minimum frequency with which
the string can vibrate. The values of normal mode frequencies for n = 2 and
above are called higher harmonics.
60
Unit 2 Superposition of Waves
Beats When two waves of slightly different frequencies travelling along the same
direction superpose, we obtain periodic variations in the amplitude of the
resultant wave at a fixed point in space. These are referred to as beats. In case
of sound waves, the beats are heard in the form of waxing and waning of sound.
The number of beats produced per second; that is, the beat frequency, is given
as
fb f1 f2
The expression for the resultant wave giving rise to beats is given as
'Z
y (t ) 2a cos t sin Zav t
2
Note that beats are also known as superposition in time; that is, the position of
observation/listening is fixed.
Wave groups The superposition of many waves of slightly different frequencies travelling in the
same direction results in the production of a wave packet or wave group.
Group velocity The velocity with which a wave group or wave packet travels is called the group
and phase velocity velocity. The group velocity is given as
dZ
vg
dk
The velocity of the resultant wave is called phase velocity and it is given as
Zav
vp
k av
The group velocity and phase velocity are related as
dv p
vg v p k
dk

2.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. The length of a piano string fixed at both ends is 1.0 m and its mass per
unit length is 0.015 kg m 1. If the frequency of the fundamental note is
220 Hz, calculate the tension in the string.
2. A string of length 3.5 m and mass 0.70 kg is fixed at both ends and the
tension in the string is 60 N. a) Calculate the fundamental frequency of the
standing waves on the string. b) If the standing wave generated on the
string has two antinodes, what is its frequency?
3. Standing waves having a frequency of 8.0 Hz is established on a rope of
length 3.5 m fixed at both ends. The wavelength is twice the length of the
string. Calculate the speed of the wave.
4. Sixty five tuning forks are arranged in order of increasing frequency and
any two successive forks produce 4 beats per second when sounded
together. If the frequency of the last tuning fork is twice the frequency of
the first tuning fork, calculate the frequency of the first tuning fork.
5. Wave groups are formed due to the superposition of two waves of equal
amplitude but slightly different frequencies propagating along the positive
x-direction. If the wavelengths O 1 and O 2 of the two superposing waves
are 0.50 m and 0.75 m, respectively, calculate the spatial extent of the
wave group.
61
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
2.8 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 2.17

2. a) We know that the frequency of the standing wave on a string clamped

at both ends is given by
n
fn v n 1, 2, 3,...
2L
The minimum frequency of the standing wave is obtained by taking
n = 1 in the above relation. So,
1
f1 u 500 ms 1 125 s 1
2 u (2 m)
b) Next frequency of the standing wave which can be sustained on the
string is
f2 2f1 2 u 125 s 1 250 s 1
3. a) The given expression for the standing wave is:
y ( x, t ) (1.2 m) sin (0.40 x ) cos(200 t )
On comparing this expression with the standard expression for
standing wave on a string fixed at both ends:
y ( x, t ) 2a sin kx cos Zt
we get:
2S
k 4.0 m 1 O 1.57 m
4.0 m 1
20 s 1
Z 20 s 1 f 3.2 s 1
2S
b) The position of the nodes is given by
nO
x
2
1.57 m
for n = 1; x1 0.79 m
2
2 u (1.57 m)
for n = 2; x2 1.57 m etc.
2
The position of antinodes is given by
(2n 1)O
62 x
4
Unit 2 Superposition of Waves
3 u (1.57 m)
for n = 1; x1 1.18 m
4
5 u (1.57 m)
for n = 2; x 2 1.96 m etc.
4
4. Let the frequency of the note be f 2 . We know that the beat frequency, f b
is given by
fb f1 f2
or 6 512 f2
? f2 512 r 6
In this case, one frequency of the note cannot be identified; it will be either
518 Hz or 506 Hz.
5. We know that the group velocity and phase velocity are related to each
other by the relation [Eq. (2.30)]:
dv p
vg vp O
dO
From the given expression for the phase velocity of the wave, we have:
dv p
C2 .
dO
Inserting this result in the expression for vg , we obtain
vg C1 C2 O OC2 C1

Terminal Questions
1. Frequency of the fundamental note of a piano string fixed at both ends can
be obtained by using Eq. (2.15):
n T
fn
2L U
On taking n = 1 (fundamental note) and substituting the value of other
parameters in the above expression, we get:
1 T
220 s 1
2 u 1m 0.015 kg m 1
or T (440 ms 1)2 u (0.015 kg m 1 ) 2904 N
2. a) The frequency of normal modes of the standing waves on a string fixed
at both ends is given as
nV n T
fn n 1, 2, 3, ...
2L 2L U
For the fundamental frequency, n = 1. So, the fundamental frequency,
f1 is
1 T
f1
2L U
m
The mass per unit length, U 0.25 kg m1
L
And, as per the problem, tension, T = 60 N.
1 60 N
f1 u 2.21 s 1
2 u (3.5 m) 0.25 kg m 1
63
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
b) When the standing wave on a string fixed at both ends has two
antinodes, it is called second harmonic (Fig. 2.12c). And, frequency,
f 2 of the second harmonic is
f2 2f1 2 u 2.21 s 1 4.42 s 1
3. The frequency of the normal modes of a string fixed at both ends is given
as
nv
fn
2L
We know that when the length of the string is twice the wavelength, the
standing wave corresponds to the fundamental mode (n = 1). So, the
given frequency is the fundamental frequency. So,
v
f1 v f1 u (2L) (8 s 1 ) u (2 u 3.5 m) 56 ms 1.
2L
4. Let the frequency of the first turning fork be f1. Then the frequency of the
second fork will be f2 f1 4. We can rewrite it as
f2 f1 (2 1) 4

Similarly, the frequency of the third fork

f3 f2 4 f1 (3 1) 4

and the frequency of the 65th fork

f f1 (65 1) u 4 f1 256

Since the frequency of 65th fork is 2f1, we can write

f1 256 2f1 f1 256 Hz

5. From Fig. 2.15c, you may note that the spatial extent (that is, the length of
a wave group) is half the wavelength O e of the enveloping wave. And,
from Eq. (2.31), we have
Oe O1O 2
2 O 2 O1
So, substituting the values of O 1 and O 2 , we get
Oe (0.50 m) u (0.75 m)
1.5 m
2 (0.75 m) (0.50 m)

64
Unit 3 Acoustic Wave

UNIT 3
A concert hall has to be specially designed to
ensure that sound energy is uniformly
distributed through the entire hall. This area
ACOUSTIC WAVE
of study is called acoustics of buildings.
(Source of picture: wikimedia.org)

Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.4 Musical Notes and Scale
Expected Learning Outcomes
Musical Scales
3.2 Production of Sound Waves
3.5 Acoustics of Buildings
Graphical and Mathematical
3.6 Summary
Representation of Sound Waves
Sound Waves in Different Media 3.7 Terminal Questions
Forced Vibrations and Resonance 3.8 Solutions and Answers
Musical Instruments
3.3 Intensity of Sound
Intensity Level: Decibel

STUDY GUIDE
You will learn about acoustic waves in this unit. The word ‘acoustics’ means “the science of sound”
and acoustic waves refers to sound waves. Since sound is a wave phenomenon we shall use the
concepts related to wave motion (Unit 1) in this unit. You should, therefore, revise Unit 1. The focus of
our discussion in this unit is on production, propagation, and detection of sound waves. The
phenomena of forced oscillation and resonance play a crucial role in production of sound. You will be
able to understand it better if you revise the basics of oscillatory motion from Units 16 and 18 of the
first semester course entitled Mechanics (BPHCT-131).
Yet another phenomenon which plays a crucial role in production of sound is the formation of standing
waves in strings and air columns. The basic physics involved in formation of standing waves in air
columns such as organ pipes is the same as for the formation of standing waves in strings discussed
in Unit 2. You should, therefore, read that unit once again before studying this unit. Also, you should
keep comparing the salient features of transverse waves on a string discussed in Units 1 and 2 with
the salient features of the sound waves discussed in this unit. This will help you appreciate the
differences and similarities between the two types of waves.

“If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician.

I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my Albert Einstein
life in terms of music…”
65
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous two units, you have learnt the general characteristics of wave
motion and the superposition of waves by considering transverse waves on a
string. You now know that waves are characterised by parameters like
amplitude, wavelength, frequency and phase. You also know that the study of
waves is important because these transport energy from one place to another.
In the present unit, you will study about acoustic waves, which is another
name for sound waves.
Acoustics means the science related to production, propagation and detection
of sound. In fact, the term acoustics is not limited to audio; it includes the
design of buildings, musical instruments and much more. As you know, sound
is an important part of our every day experience. Just as light is responsible
for our visual perception, sound is responsible for our perception of hearing.
Sound is a mechanical wave produced by vibrating objects and it
requires a material medium for propagation. For example, when we speak,
our vocal cords vibrates and produce sound waves which propagate through
air. Human beings, however, cannot ‘hear’ mechanical waves of all
frequencies. The human ear is capable of detecting/hearing mechanical
waves having frequency in the range of 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. Therefore,
mechanical waves in this frequency range are called sound waves.
Moreover, waves of higher frequencies, called ultrasound waves are used in
medical diagnostics and industry. Also, some creatures like bats and dolphins
use these high frequency waves for navigating their path in the dark. Our
understanding about sound and related phenomena is based on the physics
of waves, which you studied in the previous two units. You will learn how to
apply the concepts related to waves for the study of sound.
We begin this unit with a discussion, in Sec. 3.2, on the basic process
involved in the production and propagation of sound waves. You will discover
that sound is a longitudinal wave comprising compressions and rarefactions of
the particles of the medium. We have also discussed the graphical and
mathematical description of sound waves taking analogy with the transverse
waves on a string discussed in Unit 1. For being audible at a given point, the
intensity of sound waves must have a value above the threshold value
(~ 10 12 Wm 2 ) at that point. Normally, the intensity of sound waves needs
to be enhanced. In many musical instrument as well as sound producing
organs of living beings, this enhancement is obtained by forced oscillations
and resonance. You will learn about forced oscillations and resonance and its
role in sound in this section. You will also learn the role of formation of
standing waves on strings and organ pipes in production of sound and
enhancement of its intensity.
The range of intensity of sound which human beings can hear is very large.
Thus, a logarithmic scale, called decibel, is used for the intensity of sound
about which you will study in Sec. 3.3. In Sec. 3.4, we have discussed why
human beings find some sounds pleasing and what are the physical principles
underlying musical notes and musical scales. You will also learn about the
factors such as echo, reverberation, etc. which impact the hearing experience
in a closed room or hall. In Sec. 3.5, we have discussed these factors under
acoustics of buildings which play important role in design of buildings,
particularly, auditoriums and concert halls.
66
Unit 3 Acoustic Wave
In the next unit, we have discussed electromagnetic waves. As you know, light
is an electromagnetic wave. So, the study of electromagnetic waves will help
you understand the phenomena such as polarisation, interference and
diffraction of light.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

describe how sound waves are produced by vibrating objects;

understand the graphical and mathematical representation of sound
waves;
obtain expressions for speed of sound in different media;
explain the role of forced vibrations and resonance in production of
sound;
explain the role of standing waves in production of sound by musical
instruments;
explain the decibel scale for intensity of sound and obtain an expression
for intensity level of sound on this scale;
discuss diatonic and tempered musical scales; and
list and explain the factors which affect the acoustics of building.

3.2 PRODUCTION OF SOUND WAVES

Sound is an important sensory experience in our daily life. As light is the
stimulus for our visual experiences, sound is the stimulus for hearing. Have
you ever thought: How is sound produced by human beings or birds and
animals or musical instruments like sitar and drum? Sound is produced by
vibrating objects. For example, when we speak, our vocal cords vibrate and
produce sound. In case of string musical instruments like sitar or guitar, sound
is generated by vibrating strings. Likewise, you will always find a vibrating
object as source of sound in any other situation. However, for producing the
sensation of hearing, the sound produced by a vibrating object needs a
material medium such as air to travel from the vibrating object to our ear. Most
of the sound may also travel in liquid and solids. The presence of material
media is a necessary requirement for propagation of sound.
Sound is a wave phenomenon. It comprises waves generated by a vibrating
object and propagates through a medium. Generally, the sound we hear in our
day to day life travels through air in the form of longitudinal waves.
To understand how sound waves are produced and how they propagate, let
us consider a long tube containing air with a piston fitted at its one end and
the other end open as shown in Fig. 3.1. When the piston is at rest, the air
inside the tube has uniform density and pressure. Suppose the piston is made
to move back and forth in a periodic manner. Now, think: What is the impact
of this periodic motion of the piston on the air in the tube? As the piston
moves to the right, it will push the air particles in its vicinity to the right. This
will create a layer of air in which particles are compressed. This compressed
layer of the air will, in turn, push the adjacent layer on its right. As a result, a
moving region of compression is formed in the tube. The compression will 67
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
keep moving towards right even when the piston begins moving back to the
left. In the compression region, the density and pressure of air is higher than
the equilibrium density and pressure (when the piston was at rest).

Fig. 3.1: a) A long tube containing air with a piston fitted at one end;
b) Periodic motion of piston generates longitudinal sound waves
comprising regions of compressions (C) and rarefactions (R).
When the piston moves backwards or to the left, a layer of low density is
created. This low density (and low pressure) layer of air is called rarefaction.
From Unit 1, you know
The rarefaction layer of air will pull the adjacent layer on its right. Thus, the
that mechanical waves
are of two types: region of rarefaction also keeps moving to the right in the tube. Again, when
transverse waves and the piston moves to the right, a layer of compression is created, which
longitudinal waves. You propagates along the tube. Thus, the periodic motion of the piston creates
also know that in successive regions of compressions and rarefactions. These successive
transverse waves, such regions of compressions (C) and rarefactions (R) moves along the tube
as the waves on a
as longitudinal waves. This is a longitudinal wave because the
string, particles of the
displacements of the particles of the medium is in the same direction along
medium oscillate
perpendicular to the which the wave propagates.
direction of wave The regions of compressions and rarefactions in a sound wave are the
motion. In longitudinal
regions of high pressure and low pressure, respectively. The ear drum of our
waves, particles of the
ear detects these pressure changes and causes the sensation of hearing.
medium oscillate along
the direction of wave You may ask: As the sound waves propagate in tube, is there a
motion. translational motion of the particles of the medium? No; the particles of
the medium do not move along the wave. The particles of the medium execute
oscillatory motion about their equilibrium position.
In Unit 1, you have learnt that waves are characterised by parameters like
amplitude, wavelength, frequency and speed. The amplitude of the sound
wave is the maximum displacement of the particles of the medium from their
respective mean positions. The distance between two consecutive
compressions (or rarefactions) is wavelength of the sound wave (Fig. 3.1b).
The time taken by a particle of the medium to complete one complete
oscillation is called the time period, T of the wave and the frequency, f of the
wave is equal to 1/T. The frequency of the sound wave is same as the
frequency of the vibrating object producing the sound. The speed v of the
sound wave is the speed with which each compression or rarefaction moves
through the medium. You have learnt in Unit 1 that the relation between
wavelength O, frequency f and speed v of wave is given as
v Of (3.1)
After having understood how longitudinal waves are generated and how they
68
propagate in a medium (air), you may now ask: Are all longitudinal waves
Unit 3 Acoustic Wave
sound waves? In other words, do we perceive all longitudinal waves as
sound? No, it is not so. For being perceived/heard as sound by human beings,
longitudinal wave must satisfy the following two conditions:

i) Its frequency must be in the range 20 Hz and 20 KHz, and

ii) the value of its intensity, at the position of the listener, must be above You will learn about
(more) than “the threshold of hearing”. ‘threshold of hearing’
later in this unit.
When a longitudinal wave satisfy these conditions, it is heard as sound by
human beings. We shall discuss these aspects of sound in detail later in the
unit.

3.2.1 Graphical and Mathematical Representation of

Sound Waves
You have learnt in Unit 1 that mechanical waves such as transverse waves on
a string can be represented graphically as well as mathematically. Can we do
the same for sound wave which is a longitudinal wave? Yes, we can do that
taking analogy of transverse waves on a string discussed in Unit 1. Let us
learn it now.

Graphical Representation

In Unit 1, you have learnt that transverse wave on a string can be represented
graphically by two types of graphs namely vibration graph and waveform
graph. Similarly, longitudinal waves can also be represented graphically by
these two types of graphs. Recall from Unit 1 that in the vibration graph, we
consider a particle of the medium at a fixed position x and plot its
displacement with respect to its mean position as time passes. On the other
hand, in the waveform graph, we keep the time fixed and plot the
displacement of the particles located at different positions, x. That is, the
waveform graph is the snapshot of the displacement of the particles of the
medium with respect to their mean position at a given instant of time. The
vibration graph and the waveform graph for a sound wave are shown in
Fig. 3.2a and b. The amplitude, time period and wavelength of the sound
wave are also indicated in these graphs.

Fig. 3.2: a) The vibration graph of a sound wave showing displacement \( x, t )

of the particles of the medium at a given position as a function of time;
b) The waveform graph of a sound wave showing displacement of the
particles of the medium as a function of position at a given time.
69
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
You may note that the graphical representation of sound waves is identical to
that of transverse wave on a string except for an important difference: While
the displacement, y(x,t) in Fig. 1.3 of Unit 1 denotes transverse
displacement of the particles of the medium (string) on which transverse
waves propagate, the displacement, \( x, t ) in Fig. 3.2 represents the
longitudinal displacement of the particles of the medium (air) in which
longitudinal waves propagate.

Sound as Pressure Waves

The sound waves are also described as pressure waves. As you have
learnt above, the regions of compressions and rarefactions in the sound
wave in air are the regions of high pressure (or density) and low pressure
(or density), respectively. To understand what we mean by pressure wave,
refer again to Fig. 3.1a. Assume that, when the piston is stationary, the air
in the tube is at equilibrium pressure, say pe . As the piston begins to
oscillate periodically, it generates longitudinal sound waves comprising
compressions and rarefactions. The pressure in the compression regions is
higher than equilibrium pressure, pe and that in rarefaction regions is lower
than pe . So, the longitudinal wave is a successive regions of high and low
pressures compared to the equilibrium pressure. Thus, the variation of
pressure in a sound wave at a given time can be represented graphically
as shown in Fig. 3.3. Note that points like A, B, ... represent compressions
having positive value of pressure compared to the equilibrium value and
points like C, D,… represent rarefactions having negative values of
pressure compared to the equilibrium value. On this pressure graph, the
Fig. 3.3: Representation wavelength is the distance between two consecutive value of maximum (or
of sound wave as
minimum) pressure. From this graph, we can also determine the amplitude
pressure wave.
of the pressure wave which is the maximum positive or negative value of
the excess pressure. The human ear drums can detects these pressure
changes in a sound wave and cause the sensation of hearing.

It was shown by Fourier

that complex periodic Further, note that sound waves, produced due to continuous and periodic
waveforms such as forced oscillations in an open medium (medium without boundaries) are
those generated by travelling periodic waves. Travelling waves propagate through the medium
violin and piano can be
which supports them. For example, the periodic motion of the piston
considered as a sum of
harmonic waves. The (Fig. 3.1a) forces the particles of the surrounding medium (air) to oscillate and
process of determining a longitudinal wave is generated. If the oscillations of the piston are simple
the component harmonic harmonic, the travelling waves generated by it are called harmonic waves.
waves constituting a Refer to Fig. 3.4 which depicts three waveforms for the sound waves: a
complex periodic wave
is called Fourier
harmonic (sinusoidal) wave, wave generated due to vibrations of the strings in
analysis. You will learn a violin and a piano.
about it if you pursue
higher studies in Note from Fig. 3.4 that the waveforms of the sound produced by violin and
physics. piano are periodic but not harmonic (sinusoidal). Such waves are called
anharmonic waves.
70
Unit 3 Acoustic Wave

Fig. 3.4: Waveforms for a) harmonic (sinusoidal) wave; b) sound produced by a

violin; c) sound produced by a piano.
In general, harmonic waves are good approximation for sound waves and we
shall consider only harmonic waves for our discussion on sound.
Before proceeding further, you should answer a simple SAQ to check your
understanding of what you have learnt so far in this unit.

SAQ 1 – Production and propagation of sound waves

Mark the following statements as True or False:

a) Sound waves are produced by vibrating objects.
b) The frequency of sound waves is not the same as the frequency of the
vibrating object which produce them.
c) As the sound waves propagate in a medium, there is a translational In Unit 1, you have
motion of the particles of the medium. learnt that both
d) The regions of compressions and rarefactions in a sound wave are the y ( x, t ) a sin (kx Zt )
regions of high pressure and low pressure, respectively. and
y ( x, t ) a sin (Zt kx )
Mathematical Representation
are valid mathematical
Since sound waves are travelling harmonic waves, we can represent it representation of one-
mathematically taking analogy with the mathematical representation of a one- dimensional harmonic
dimensional (1-D) travelling transverse waves on a string discussed in Unit 1. wave travelling in the
positive x-direction
Thus, we can write the expression for 1-D longitudinal wave travelling in
because both of them
positive x-direction as satisfy the 1-D wave
\ ( x, t ) a sin (kx Zt ) (3.2) equation.

where \( x, t ) is the instantaneous displacement of the particle of the medium

at x with respect to its mean position at time t along the direction of 71
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
propagation of the longitudiual wave, the amplitude a represents the
2S ·
maximum magnitude of displacement, k §¨ ¸ is the wave number, O is the
© O ¹
wavelength and Z( 2Sf ) is the angular frequency.

The wave parameters such as a, O and f characterising the longitudinal wave

have the same definition as given for transverse waves in Unit 1. Also recall
from Unit 1 that the velocity of wave in terms of angular frequency Z and wave
Z
number k is given as: v Of (2S / k ) (Z / 2S) .
k

If you compare Eq. (3.1) with Eq. (1.15a), you will note that we have replaced
y(x,t) by \(x,t). While y(x,t) represents displacement of the particles of the
medium (string) perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
transverse wave, \(x,t) represents the displacement of the particles of the
medium along the direction of propagation of longitudinal wave.

Now, before proceeding further, you should go through an example to get an

idea about the numerical values of the wave parameters associated with
sound wave.

XAMPLE 3.1: PARAMETERS OF SOUND WAVES

In a fluid medium, the speed of sound waves is 275 ms 1 and its

frequency is 500 Hz. a) Calculate the distance between two points in the
medium which have phase difference of (S / 3). b) Calculate the phase
difference between two displacements of a particle of the medium at a
point at time 10 3 s apart.
SOLUTION a) We know that the speed of sound wave of wavelength O
and frequency f is given by v Of . Thus, the wavelength is
v 275 ms 1
O 0.55 m
f 500 s 1
We also know that two points separated by a distance equal to one
wavelength, O have phase difference equal to 2S . Thus, we can write
the distance, x between two points having phase difference (S / 3) as
O S
x u 0.10 m
2S 3
b) The time period of the wave is given as
T (1/ f ) (1/ 500 s 1) 2 u 10 3 s .
We know that the phase difference between two displacements of the
particle at a point at time T apart is 2S. Therefore, the phase difference
I between two displacements separated in time by 10 3 s is
2S
I u 10 3 s S
2 u 10 3 s

In Unit 1, you have learnt that the behaviour of a wave in space and time is
described by the wave equation. So, you would like to know: What is the
72
Unit 3 Acoustic Wave
wave equation for sound wave? Again, we take analogy of wave equation
for 1-D transverse wave on a string and write the wave equation for the 1-D
sound waves in a gaseous medium as:
w 2\ w 2\
v2 (3.3)
wt 2 wx 2
where v is the speed of the sound wave. The speed of sound waves in a
gaseous medium is given in terms of the properties of the medium as
v B/U (3.4)
where B is the bulk modulus of the medium and U is the density of the Recall from Unit 1 that
medium. So, in terms of the properties of the medium, Eq. (3.3) can be the speed of transverse
written as wave on a string is
given in terms of
w 2\ B w 2\
(3.5) properties of medium
wt 2 U wx 2 namely the tension in
the string T and linear
Eq. (3.3) is the standard from of the 1-D wave equation for sound waves in
mass density U of the
a gaseous medium with v given by Eq. (3.4). Note that Eq. (3.3) is similar to
string as
Eq. (1.12) – the 1-D wave equation for transverse waves on a stretched string.
You must, however, recognise that the physical properties of the medium Q T /U
which determine the wave velocity in the two cases are different. For
transverse waves on a stretched string, wave velocity is determined by the
tension in the string and its linear mass density, whereas for longitudinal
waves in a gaseous medium, it is determined by the bulk modulus and mass
density of the medium.
Before proceeding further, let us revise the main points discussed so far.

x Sound waves are longitudinal waves produced by vibrating objects.

x Sound waves require a material medium to propagate from one point to
other.
x Longitudinal waves having frequency in the range 20 Hz to 20kHz are
perceived by human beings as sound.
x The intensity of longitudinal wave at the place of listener must have a
value more than the threshold value called “threshold of hearing” for
being heard as sound.
x The 1-D sound wave travelling in the positive x-direction is represented
as
\( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt ); \( x, t ) a cos(kx Zt )
x The wave equation for one-dimensional sound wave is
w 2\ w 2\
v2
wt 2 wx 2

Note that Eq. (3.3) gives the wave equation for 1-D longitudinal wave where
displacement \ is a function of x and t. But, sound waves in air are three-
dimensional (3-D) longitudinal wave. Thus, the displacement \ of the particles
of the medium will be a function of x, y, z and t. So, the wave equation for
three dimensional longitudinal sound wave is
w 2\ § w 2\ w 2\ w 2\ ·
v 2 ¨¨ ¸¸ (3.6)
wt 2 © wx 2 wy 2 wz 2 ¹
73
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
Now, solve an SAQ before proceeding further.

SAQ 2 – Equation of sound wave

Write down the equation for 1-D sound waves travelling along negative
x-direction and having wave parameters given as: amplitude = 0.5 cm,
wavelength = 32 cm and time period = 0.4 s.

The wave equation [Eq. (3.5)] gives the speed of sound waves in terms of the
From your school
physical properties of the medium. This enables us to compare the theoretical
physics, you may recall
that in an isothermal value of the speed of sound in different media with the experimentally
change, the temperature determined values. In the following section, we discuss the speed of sound
of the system remains waves in different media.
constant, whereas in an
adiabatic change, the 3.2.2 Sound Waves in Different Media
temperature of the
Sound waves can propagate in solid, liquid and gaseous medium. The speed
system changes.
of sound varies significantly in these media due to their physical properties.
Let us learn about it now.
Sound Waves in Air
The speed of sound in air can be calculated by using the value of the bulk
modulus (B) and density (U) of the medium in Eq. (3.4). But, for a gaseous
Note that in the previous
units, we have used the
medium such as air, the bulk modulus depends on the thermodynamic
symbol U for linear mass changes in the medium. When sound waves propagate in the medium, it
density. We shall use causes thermodynamic changes in it. The regions of compression have higher
this symbol for bulk temperature and the regions of rarefaction have lower temperature. These
(volume) mass density changes can be isothermal or adiabatic.
as well as linear mass
density of a material. Newton calculated the speed of sound in air, assuming that changes in
Thus, you should be the medium were isothermal. That is, the compression and rarefaction of the
mindful of the context of medium are not accompanied by a change in temperature. For an isothermal
its use. change, the bulk modulus of elasticity is equal to the atmospheric pressure p
(see margin remark):
B = BT = p
For an isothermal where BT is the isothermal bulk modulus. Thus, we can write Eq. (3.4) as
process, Boyle’s law
tells us that v= p U (3.7)
pV = constant Eq. (3.7) is known as Newton’s formula for speed of sound. For air at STP,
For infinitesimal
U 1.29 kg m 3 and p 1.01u 10 5 Nm 2 . Hence, the speed of sound in air,
changes in p and V, we
can write using Newton’s formula, is
p dV + V dp = 0
1.01u 10 5 Nm 2
Hence v= 280 ms 1
1.29 kgm 3
§ wp · p
¨ ¸ But, experiments show that speed of sound in air at STP is 332 ms1, which is
© wV ¹T V
about 15% higher than the value predicted by Newton’s formula. You may
? V ¨
§ wp · { B now like to know: How was this discrepancy resolved? The discrepancy
p ¸ T
© wV ¹T was resolved by Laplace who argued that it was wrong to assume that the
That is, pressure equals thermodynamic changes in the medium caused due to propagation of sound
isothermal bulk are isothermal. It means that we cannot use Boyle’s law to study wave
modulus.
propagation in air because it holds only for isothermal conditions. Laplace
further suggested that sound waves produce adiabatic changes: the
74 regions of compression were hotter while the regions of rarefaction were
Unit 3 Acoustic Wave
cooler. That is, local changes in temperature occur when sound propagates in For an adiabatic
air. This gives rise to a larger value for the speed of sound. change, the equation of
state of a gas (air) is
For an adiabatic change, the bulk modulus, Bs is J times the pressure (see
pV J constant.
§ Cp ·
margin remark); J ¨¨ ¸¸ is the ratio of molar heat capacities of a gas at Therefore, infinitesimal
© Cv ¹ changes in p and V are
constant pressure (Cp ) and at constant volume (Cv ) . Thus, we have Bs J p. connected through the
relation
Then Eq. (3.4) modifies to:
V J dp p J V J 1dV 0
Jp
v (3.8) or
U
§ wp ·
For air, J = 1.4 and the value of the speed of sound in air at STP, calculated V¨ ¸ { Bs Jp
© wV ¹S
using Eq. (3.8) comes out to 331 ms1. This value of the speed of sound is in
excellent agreement with the experimentally determined value. This shows
that Laplace’s argument was indeed correct.
Let us now understand how temperature affects the speed of sound in air. To
do so, we express vsound as a function of temperature. From your school
physics and the third semester course BPHCT-135, you may recall that the
equation of state of an ideal gas is
NkBT
pV n RT N kBT p
V
where p is pressure, V, the volume, n, the number of moles of gas, T, the
temperature, kB , Boltzmann constant and N, the number of gas particles.
NkBT
Substituting p in Eq. (3.8), we get:
V
J kBT
v sound
U (V/N )
JkBT
or v sound (3.9)
m
where m is the mass of an air molecule. Eq. (3.9) tells us that the speed of
sound in air (or any other gaseous medium) is a function of T .
We note from Eq. (3.8) that the speed of sound in a gaseous medium, such as
air, is inversely proportional to the square root of gas density. Is it true even
for the speed of sound in liquids and solids? If so, will sound travel slower in
media denser than air? Let us find out.
Sound Waves in Liquids
The mechanism of propagation of sound waves in a liquid medium is the
same as that of longitudinal waves in a gaseous medium. Thus, the wave
equation given by Eq. (3.3) is also valid for sound waves in liquids. We can,
therefore, write the speed of sound in liquids as [Eq. (3.4)]:
B
v
U
where B is bulk modulus of elasticity for the liquid. Unlike gases, liquids are, in
general, almost incompressible. This means that for producing the same
change in a given volume of a liquid as that of a gas, we need to apply more
pressure in the case of former. As a result, the value of the bulk modulus for
liquids is very high compared to gases. Thus, the above expression indicates
that the speed of sound in liquids will be significantly higher than that in gases.
75
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
3
For water, U 10 kg m
3
and B 2.22 u 10 9 Nm 2 .This gives the speed of
The ability to measure
the speed of sound has sound to be about 1500 ms1. Compare it with the speed of sound in air at
been put to many uses STP (331 ms 1). Note that though water is about 103 times denser than
in military operations.
air, yet sound propagates about five times faster in water. This means
During World War I, a
technique called sound that we can send audio messages from one ship to another faster via water
navigation and ranging than via air. This has led to the development of sonar (Sound Navigation and
(SONAR) was Ranging). High frequency sound waves are used in a SONAR to measure the
developed to locate the depth of sea bed, detect submarines, enemy torpedoes, and for off-shore oil
position of enemy guns exploration.
by using the sound of
cannons in action. The Sound Waves in Solids
technique is also being In a solid medium, both transverse and longitudinal waves can propagate. The
used for exploration of mechanism of propagation of longitudinal waves in a solid is same as in case
under sea minerals and of the propagation of longitudinal waves in a gaseous medium. Thus, the
oil. The
wave equation for the propagation of sound waves in a solid given by
off-shore explorations
are now a routine Eq. (3.3).
You may now like to ask: Which properties of the medium determine the
speed of longitudinal waves in a solid? When sound waves propagate in a
solid rod, changes take place in its length; the volume remains almost
The values of the Young’s constant. Thus for solids, bulk modulus (which relates the volume changes
modulus (Y) and bulk modulus with pressure changes) of elasticity is replaced by Young’s modulus of
(B) of some materials are: elasticity (Y) defined as
Material Y B Stress 'p
(Nm2) (Nm2) Y
Steel 200u109 160 u109 Longitudin al strain § 'l ·
¨ ¸
Aluminium 70u109 70u109 © l ¹
Copper 110u109 140u109
Glass 55u109 31u109 So, by replacing B by Y in Eq. (3.4), we can write the speed of sound in a solid
Diamond 1120u109 540u109 as
Water 0 2.2 u109
Mercury 0 27u109 v Y /U (3.10)
Most 0 1.1 u105
gases at You should now go through the following example to get a feel for the
STP numerical values of the speed of sound in different media.

XAMPLE 3.2: SPEED OF SOUND IN DIFFERENT MEDIA

Calculate the speed of sound in a) air at STP; b) sea water; and c) steel.
Take for air at STP, J = 1.39 and U 1.29 kg m 3 , for sea water,
U 1023 kg m 3 ; B 2.34 u 10 9 Nm 2 ; for steel, Y 20 u 1010 Nm 2 ,
U 7800 kg m 3 .
SOLUTION a) From Eq. (3.7), we know that the velocity of sound in air
is given as
vair Jp / U (i)

For air at STP, we have p 0.76 u 13.6 u 103 u 9.8 Nm 2 ; J 1.39

and U 1.29 kg m3 .
On substituting these values in Eq. (i), we get

(1.39) u (0.76 u 13.6 u 103 u 9.8 Nm 2 )

v air 330.4 ms 1
3
1.29 kg m
76
Unit 3 Acoustic Wave

b) The expression for velocity of sound in liquid is given by Eq. (3.3):

v sea- water B/U

As per the problem, B 0.23 u 1010 Nm 2 and U 1023 kg m 3

0.23 u 1010 Nm 2
So, v sea- water 1.4 u 10 3 ms 1
1023 kg m 3

v steel Y /U

As per the problem, Y 20 u 1010 Nm 2 and U 7800 kg m3

20 u 1010 Nm 2
So, v steel 5.1u 10 3 ms 1
3
7800 kg m

So, we find that the velocity of sound increases as the density of the
medium increases. That is,
v steel ! vwater ! v air

Now before proceeding further, you may like to solve an SAQ.

SAQ 3 – Speed of sound wave in solids

Seismic waves travel with speed 5 u 10 3 ms 1. Assuming the average Earth
density to be 1500 kg m3, calculate Young’s modulus of the material of the
Earth.

You now know that sound waves are produced and propagate in a medium
when a vibrating object forces the particles of the medium to execute
vibratory / oscillatory motion. The forced vibration and a related phenomenon
called resonance plays another important role with respect to sound: they
enhance the intensity of sound so as to make it audible at a distance. You will
now learn about it.

3.2.3 Forced Vibrations and Resonance

Forced vibrations refers to the phenomenon in which an external periodic
force induces vibrations in another system. To understand this process
qualitatively, consider two identical tuning forks A and B of equal frequency,
say 384 Hz. Let tuning fork A be set into vibration and brought close to tuning
fork B. It is observed that B also begins to vibrate. The tuning fork B starts
to vibrate despite the fact that it was not struck and it did not come in
contact with A. The vibration of B is called forced vibration and it is caused
by the compressions and rarefactions produced in air by the vibrating tuning
fork A. That is, tuning fork B is forced by tuning fork A to vibrate through
sound waves.
Another manifestation of the forced vibration is observed when we place a
vibrating tuning fork in contact with a table or some other hard surface of
larger area. The vibrating tuning fork forces the table top to vibrate. The
77
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
vibrating table top generates compressions and rarefactions in a larger
In the context of forced
vibrations, the external volume of air because its surface area is larger, than that of the vibrating
periodic force is called tuning fork. As a result, sound produced by the tuning fork is enhanced due to
driving force or driver the forced vibrations.
and the system on which
this force is applied is
In most musical instruments, forced vibrations and resonance are responsible
called driven system. for enhancing the intensity of sound. When an external periodic force (called
driving force) is applied on a system (called driven system) capable of
vibratory motion, it influences the motion of the system by altering its
frequency and amplitude. To understand how this happens, let us consider a
spring-mass system in which a block of mass m is attached to a spring
(Fig. 3.5).

Fig. 3.5: A schematic diagram of a spring-mass system executing forced

vibrations.
Let an external periodic force, given by F (t ) F0 cos Zt, where F0 is
amplitude of the periodic force and Z is its frequency, be applied to the
oscillator. Due to the periodic driving force, the spring-mass system is pushed
back and forth periodically and it ultimately oscillates with the frequency Z of
the driving force.
At any instant, the mass of the oscillator is subjected to three forces:
i) restoring force, kx, due to the spring,
dx
ii) damping force, J and
dt
iii) driving force, F0 cos Zt.

So, the net force acting on the system is

dx
F kx J F0 cos Zt
dt
According to Newton’s second law of motion, this force must be equal to
d 2x
m . Thus, we have
dt 2
d 2x dx
m kx J F0 cos Zt (3.11)
dt 2 dt
On dividing both sides of Eq. (3.11) by m and rearranging terms, we can write
the above differential equation governing the motion of a damped forced
oscillator as:
d 2x dx
2b Z02 x f0 cos Zt (3.12)
dt 2 dt
where 2b J / m, Z02 k / m and f0 F0 / m , and Z0 is the natural frequency
of the oscillator.
78
Unit 3 Acoustic Wave
You may now ask: Does Eq. (3.11) apply only to the damped spring-mass
system? No, it applies to any oscillatory or vibratory system whose natural
frequency is Z0 and which is subjected to an external periodic driving
force. The motion of a
damped forced
Note that Eq. (3.12) is second order, linear inhomogeneous differential oscillator is governed
equation with constant coefficients. Its solution gives the expression for the by superposition of two
instantaneous displacement of the forced oscillator. Here, we shall write the oscillations: one of
solution without solving Eq. (3.12) and discuss the physical significance of the damped oscillations
expression in the context of sound waves. and the other of
harmonic driving force.
The steady-state solution of Eq. (3.12) is given as When the effect of
damping is overcome
x(t ) a(Z) cos (Zt T) (3.13) by the energy supplied
where, amplitude a(Z) is given as to the oscillator by the
external periodic force,
f0 the system begins to
a (Z)
[(Z02 Z2 )2 4b 2Z2 ] 1/ 2 oscillate with the
frequency of the driving
F0
(3.14) force. The oscillatory
m [(Z02 Z2 ) 2 4b 2 Z2 ] 1 / 2 system is then said to
be in steady-state.
Eq. (3.13) represents the instantaneous steady-state displacement of a
weakly damped oscillator, driven by a periodic force. From Eqs. (3.13) and
(3.14), we note that:
1. The frequency of oscillation of a forced oscillator is equal to the
frequency, Z of the driving force, which is different from its natural
frequency, Z0. This finding tells us that the sound waves generated due
to forced vibrations has the same frequency as the frequency of the sound
producing vibrating object.
2. The amplitude, a(Z) of the forced oscillator depends on the amplitude, F0
and frequency, Z of the driving force. The frequency dependence of the
amplitude of the forced oscillator gives rise to the phenomena of
resonance. Let us learn about it now.

Resonance
From Eq. (3.14), we note that the amplitude of vibration of the system
increases manifold when the frequencies Z and Z0 of the driving force and
the driven system, respectively, are equal. This phenomenon is called
resonance. To understand the phenomenon of resonance, let us re-examine
Eq. (3.14) a little more closely. Note that for low (Z Z0 ) as well as for high
(Z !! Z0 ) driving frequencies, the amplitude will be small because the term
(Z02 Z2 ) 2 in the denominator will be large. As the driving frequency, Z
approaches Z0 , the amplitude will increase gradually. The amplitude of
oscillation acquires maximum value when Z is very close to Z0 . This value of
frequency, say Zr , is called the resonance frequency and the condition
when amplitude attains a very high value is known as resonance.
Now, to obtain an expression for the resonance frequency Zr , we use a
concept from differential calculus. In the language of differential calculus, the
value of amplitude a(Z) will correspond to a maxima
79
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
x if the first derivative of a(Z) with respect to Z is equal to zero, and
x its second derivative is less than zero (negative) quantity,
The corresponding frequency is said to be the resonance frequency.
Let us first calculate the first derivative of a(Z) with respect to Z and equate it
to zero. From Eq. (3.14) we can write

da(Z) d ª f0 º
« 2 »
dZ dZ ¬« [(Z0 Z2 ) 2 4b 2 Z2 ] 1 / 2 ¼»

f0 [ 4Z (Z02 Z2 ) 8b 2 Z]

2 [(Z02 Z2 ) 2 4b 2 Z2 ] 3 / 2
The roots of the At resonance frequency (Z Zr ), we must have da (Z) / dZ 0 . Therefore,
quadratic equation
2
we get:
ax bx c 0
are given by 4Zr (Z02 Z2r ) 8b 2 Zr 0
2
b r b 4ac or 4Zr [Z2r Z02 2b 2 ] 0
x
2a
This equation is satisfied in two situations. The first is when Zr 0. It is
Here b = 0, a = 1 and
c = 2b Z0 . So we
2 2 ignored because it is trivial. The second situation is:
have
Z2r Z02 2b 2 0
1
4 ( 2b Z )
2 2
x r
2 0 This equation is quadratic in Zr and the acceptable root is (see margin
remark):
( Z 2b )
2 2

Zr (Z02 2b2 )1/ 2

0
(3.15)

Note that the root corresponding to the negative sign has been ignored as it is
physically meaningless.

Further, you can verify that, for the value of Zr given by Eq. (3.15),
(d 2a / dZ2 )Z Zr is negative. Physically, it means that the amplitude of
oscillation is maximum at resonance frequency. When such a situation is
obtained, we say that amplitude resonance has occurred. The frequency,
Zr is referred to as the resonance frequency.
Eq. (3.15) shows that resonance frequency depends on damping in the
system. However, if damping in the system is zero, we have b 0 and we get
from Eq. (3.15):
Zr Z0 (3.16)

That is, the resonance frequency is equal to the natural frequency of the
driven system.
At this stage, pause for a moment and think what is happening when there is
resonance between the driver (the external periodic force) and the driven
system (the spring-mass system in the instant case) due to forced vibrations.
Firstly, the amplitude of the driven system increases manifold. From Unit 16 of
BPHCT-131, you know that the energy of an oscillator is proportional to its
amplitude squared. Thus, we can say that the transfer of energy from the
driver to the driven system is maximum at resonance.
80
Unit 3 Acoustic Wave
Secondly, from Eq. (3.16) we note that the resonance takes place when the
frequency Z( Zr ) of the driver is equal to the natural frequency, Z0 of the
driven system. This implies that the transfer of energy from driver to a driven
system due to forced vibrations is most effective or maximum when the
frequencies of the driver and the driven system are equal.

This is an important result in the context of production of sound by musical

instruments like guitar and flute. You will learn about the role played by
resonance in production of sound by these musical instruments later in this
unit. Before proceeding further, let us recapitulate the important points of this
section discussed so far.

x In forced vibration, the driven system vibrates with the frequency of the
driving force. In the context of sound waves, it means that the
frequency of the sound wave is the same as the frequency of the
vibrating object generating the sound waves.
x If the driven system does not suffer any damping, the resonance
frequency is equal to the natural frequency of the driven system.
x At resonance, the amplitude of oscillations / vibrations is enhanced
manifold.

On the basis of the above discussion, you now know that forced vibrations
can cause resonance under suitable conditions. Also, the amplitude of a
driven system increases at resonance. These features of forced vibrations and
resonance enable us to understand the production of rich variety of sound of
sufficient intensity by string and air column (organ pipe) based musical
instrument. Let us now briefly learn about them.

3.2.4 Musical Instruments

Musical instruments are broadly classified into two categories: string musical
instruments and air column (organ pipe) based musical instruments. In the
string musical instruments such as sitar, guitar and violin, transverse
vibrations of the string is the source of sound. The strings in these musical
instruments are in a stretched state and fixed at both ends. When the string is
plucked (that is, disturbed from its equilibrium state), standing waves are
formed. You have learnt in Unit 2 about the formation of standing waves on a
string fixed at both ends. Recall that
a) the frequency of the standing waves on a string fixed at both ends is given
by [Eq. (2.14)]:
n n T
fn v n 1, 2, 3, ... (3.17)
2L 2L U
where T is the tension in the string, U, its linear mass density and L, the
length of the string. Eq. (3.17) shows that the string can vibrate with
different frequencies for different values of n. These frequencies are called
the normal frequencies or normal mode frequencies of the string. The
frequency, f1 corresponding to n 1 is called the fundamental frequency
of the string and frequencies corresponding to higher values of n are
called harmonics or overtones. Using Eq. (3.17), you can show that the
81
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
permitted frequencies of the standing waves on the string constitute a
harmonic series:
f1 : f2 : f3 : .. 1 : 2 : 3 : ... (3.18)
For this reason, the normal mode frequencies of the standing waves on a
string are called harmonics: fundamental frequency is called first
harmonic, the next higher frequency is called second harmonic and so on.
These harmonics are also called overtones. However, there is a
difference: the numbering of overtones does not take into account the
fundamental frequency as such. That is, the second harmonic is called
first overtone, third harmonic is called second overtone and so on. At this
stage, you should refer to Fig. 2.12 which depicts the configuration of
standing waves on a string fixed at both ends for the first few harmonics.
b) From Eq. (3.17), we note that the wavelength of the standing wave on a
string fixed at both ends is given as
2L
On
n
So, in the fundamental mode (n = 1), the length L of the string
accommodates half wavelength.
c) The displacement of the string at the fixed ends is zero; such points on the
standing wave are called nodes. And, between two nodes, there is an
antinode which is the position of maximum displacement of the string.
From Eq. (3.17), it is obvious that sounds of different frequencies can be
produced by string musical instruments. Also note from Eq. (3.17) that the
frequency of the standing waves on a string is a function of tension in the
string, linear mass density of the string and length of the string. Musicians,
therefore, are able to change the frequency of the sound by adjusting one or
the other of these physical parameters of the strings in the instrument.
The sound produced by an isolated string is usually difficult to hear
from a distance of a few metres. It is so because the area of the string is
small and it does not move much air in its surroundings. That is, the power
delivered by the vibrating string to the longitudinal waves generated by it in
the surrounding air is very low and hence it is not heard as sound from a
distance. This is true even for the sound waves generated by the strings of a
musical instrument.
To enhance the power (or intensity) of the sound waves generated by strings,
string musical instruments invariably comprise a hollow box called sounding
box. Sounding box is a hollow wooden box of suitable size. The enhancement
in the power of the sound waves by sounding box is caused due to formation
of standing waves in the air column in the sounding box. To understand this
phenomenon, you need to learn the formation of standing waves in air
columns called organ pipes. Let us now briefly discuss it.

Organ Pipes
An organ pipe is any tube, which has been bent into different shapes or has
holes cut into it. The rich variety of sound produced by organ pipe (or air
column) based musical instruments such as flute and saxophone is due to
82 formation of standing waves. In the context of sound waves, formation of
Unit 3 Acoustic Wave
standing waves in air columns such as organ pipes plays two important
roles:
Firstly, a group of musical instruments called wind instruments, such as flute
and saxophone produce sound due to vibrations of air columns in organ
pipes. The vibrations are caused by the mouth piece of the instrument. The
energy supplied by these vibrations maintains the vibrations in the air column
of the organ pipe.
Secondly, air columns called sounding box are attached with string musical
instruments to enhance the intensity of the sound produced by the vibrating
strings of the instrument.
Both the above functions of organ pipes are based on the formation of
standing waves in the air columns in them. The organ pipe or tubes which are
normally used in the musical instruments are classified into three categories:
closed-closed organ pipe, closed-open organ pipe and open-closed organ
pipe.
We will not go into the detailed mathematical analysis of the formation of
standing waves in these organ pipes as it is beyond the scope of this course.
It is sufficient to know that the formation of standing waves in organ pipes is
analogous to the formation of standing waves on a string; that is, the standing
waves are formed due to the superposition of two waves travelling in opposite
directions. In case of string, the waves travelling in opposite directions are
transverse waves and in case of organ pipes, the two waves are longitudinal
waves. Also, the position of nodes and antinodes in the standing waves
depends on its construction; that is, whether it is a closed-closed, or closed-
open, or open-open pipe.
Before proceeding further, solve an SAQ.

SAQ 4 – Calculating frequency of harmonics of a musical

instrument
The wavelength of the standing wave on a guitar string vibrating in its
fundamental mode is 2 m. If the speed of wave on the string is 400 ms1, what
is the frequency of its second overtone?

With these brief description of organ pipes and the standing waves formed in
its air column, we can understand the role of sounding box in sound produced
by string musical instruments. As we mentioned above, the sound waves
generated by the vibrating string of the instrument is barely audible at a
distance of a few meters or so. But, if a sounding box is attached near the
vibrating string, the air column inside the sounding box is set to forced
vibrations. And, if the frequency of the waves generated on the string matches
with one of the normal modes frequencies of the air column, resonance takes
place and a loud sound is produced.
So far, we have discussed how sound is produced, its speed in different
media and the role of forced vibrations and resonance in production of sound.
When a sound wave reaches human ear, the ear converts the pressure
changes into nerve impulses which is interpreted by brain as something
83
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
heard. However, the sound wave must have sufficient intensity to
produce appreciable pressure changes at the ear drum. Let us now learn
about intensity of sound at a point away from the source and how it is
measured.

3.3 INTENSITY OF SOUND

In Unit 1, you have learnt that the intensity of a wave is defined as the rate
of energy transfer by the wave per unit area normal to the direction of
r wave propagation. Mathematically, we can write the intensity (I ) of a wave
as
S P
I (3.19)
A
where P is the power of the wave and A is area of the surface intercepting the
wave perpendicular to the direction in which the wave travels (Fig. 3.6).
Fig. 3.6: Sound waves
You must have experienced that loudness of sound decreases as we move
emitted by a point
source S spread in the away from its source. You may therefore like to know: How does the
surrounding space. intensity of sound vary with distance from the source? You have learnt
about this in Sec. 1.4 of Unit 1. Recall that for an arbitrary point located at
distance r from the source, the intensity of sound is given as:
P
I
4Sr 2
1
That is Iv (3.20)
r2
Eq. (3.20) is known as the inverse square law. You have also learnt in this
section (Sec. 1.4, Unit 1) that the amplitude a of the wave is inversely
proportion to the distance r :
1
av (3.21)
r
Eq. (3.21) shows that amplitude of a wave decreases with increasing
distance of the listener from the source of sound.
3.3.1 Intensity Level: Decibel
At this stage, you may ask: How is our hearing related to the intensity of
sound waves? A normal person can hear sounds over a very wide range of
intensities. When we speak in normal tone, we emit energy at the rate of
about 10 5 W. Suppose that a person opens his/her mouth by about 10 cm2
The logarithmic scale
used to express intensity
while speaking. Then, the intensity of sound is (10 5 W)/10 3 m2 . Its value is
of sound is Bel, named 10 2 Wm 2 . Let us denote this by I0 . A normal person can hear a sound
after Alexander wave of intensity as low as 10 10 I 0 or 10 12 Wm 2 . The sound of this
Graham Bell. For finer
gradation, it is intensity is called the threshold of hearing (ToH) for human beings. On the
customary to express other hand, we can hear sound of as high an intensity as 10 Wm 2 without
intensity of sound by any damage to our ears.
tenths of a bel or a
decibel (dB). So, we find that the range of intensities which a human ear can detect is very
(1 bel = 10 decibel). large (~ 1013 Wm 2 ). Physicists, therefore, use a logarithmic scale called the
decibel (dB) scale to measure the intensity of sound. Decibel scale is a
relative scale which expresses the intensity of a given sound wave with
84 respect to the threshold of hearing.
Unit 3 Acoustic Wave
The decibel scale differs from most measurement scales in two ways. Firstly, To understand how a
most of the measurement scales such as that for length, mass and logarithmic scale
temperature are absolute and linear. The decibel scale is, however, relative works, let us consider
rather than absolute and logarithmic rather than linear. A linear scale the relation
such as temperature is characterised by the fact that the difference in a = log b
temperature between 20qC and 21qC is same as the difference in temperature where a and b are
between 90qC and 91qC: the difference in temperature is 1qC in both the variables. If we multiply
cases. So, in a linear scale, jumping from one value to another means adding b by 10, we get
a constant value. But, in non-linear scale like logarithmic scale, jumping from ac = log (10 b)
one scale value to another requires multiplying by a constant.
= log 10 + log b
The decibel scale is a relative scale in the sense that it expresses intensity not
=1+a
in absolute terms but in relation to some fixed value called threshold of
hearing (~ 1u 10 2 W m 2 ). That is, when we
multiply b by 10, a
The unit for measuring intensity level of sound, bel is defined as increases by 1.
§ I · Similarly, if we multiply
bellog10 ¨ ¸ 6
b by 10 , we get
© I0 ¹
6
where I is the measured intensity and I 0 is the threshold of hearing. To have ac = log (10 b)

a wider range of values for intensity of sound, intensity is measured in decibel = 6 log 10 + log b
which is 10 times the bel. Thus, the intensity level (E) of sound in decibel =6+a
scale corresponding to intensity I is given by That is, when b is
§ I · 6
multiplied by 10 , a
E (10 dB) log10 ¨ ¸ (3.22)
© I0 ¹ increases by 6, the
value in the exponent.
where, I0 is the intensity corresponding to the threshold of hearing
(1u 10 12 Wm 2 ).
Since the decibel scale is logarithmic, you can see that it is based on multiples
of 10. The threshold of hearing is assigned a decibel level of zero dB. This
corresponds to the intensity of 10 12 Wm 2. A sound of intensity
10 11 Wm 2, which is 10 times more than the threshold of hearing is assigned
a decibel level of 10 dB. A 1000 times more intense (109 Wm 2 ) sound is
assigned a level of 30 dB. You can verify these numbers using Eq. (3.22).
In Table 3.1, we have listed the intensity of waves generated by different
sources of sound and also provided the corresponding intensity level in dB at
a distance of 1 m from the source.
Table 3.1: Intensities of sound at a distance of 1m from typical sources
Source of Sound 2 Intensity Level (dB)
Intensity (Wm )
(with respect to ToH)
12
Threshold of hearing (ToH) 10 0
11
Rustling of leaves 10 10
Whisper 10 20
10
Normal conversation 6 60
10
Street traffic 5 70
10
Bursting of crackers (at 1m) 5 78
8 u 10
Heavy road traffic 2 100
10
Threshold of pain 130
10
Jet take off 2 140
10
85
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
Note that the zero point on the decibel scale (dB) does not imply ‘no sound’.
Instead, it signifies the threshold of hearing i.e., the lowest sound that can be
heard. Also, the sound (~ 140 dB) of jet taking off can cause pain in our ears.
To save workers in airports, buildings are made sound proof. However, people
living in the vicinity of airports are likely to suffer noise pollution.

To check your understanding of decibel scale for intensity levels of sound you
may like to answer an SAQ.

SAQ 5 – Intensity level of sound

In a factory, it is required that the sound intensity level should remain below
80 dB to protect workers from noise pollution. Calculate the maximum sound
intensity permitted in the factory.

Sound, in general, is classified into two types: musical sound and noise.
Although this classification is based on our perception, we can always try to
understand the difference in terms of concepts of physics. You will now learn
the physical characteristics of musical sound and also about musical scale
used for producing musical sound.

3.4 MUSICAL NOTES AND SCALE

In the context of musical As far as perception or hearing is concerned, we can define musical sound as
sound, ‘note’ and ‘tone’ sound which produces a pleasant sensation to the ear. A musical sound
both refer to its ‘pitch’. contains regularly sustained notes produced by a vibrating object. On the
Since, ‘pitch’ of a sound
other hand, noise is an abrupt sound which is not sustained for long. Due to
is related to its
this abruptness, noise produces unpleasant sensation to ear.
frequency, we
essentially refer to the
From the point of view of perception, a sound is characterised by three
frequency of sound
parameters, namely, pitch, loudness and quality. These three attributes of
when we mention ‘note’
or ‘tone’ of a sound. sound are broadly related to physical characteristics of the sound wave. The
pitch of sound is related to the wave frequency, loudness to wave intensity (or
amplitude) and quality to the waveform. Let us briefly discuss these relations.

Pitch and Frequency

As a matter of fact, the subjective perception of sound by human ear is a

physiological process. But, this physiological process is influenced by the
physical characteristics of sound waves. It is found that the frequency of
sound influences the perceived pitch of sound: higher the frequency, higher is
the perceived pitch. You know that pitch of sound enables us to distinguish a
grave sound (or note) from a sharp one. It is found that two frequencies
that differ by a factor of 2 are perceived as pleasant sound when they are
sounded together. Two such frequencies are said to differ by an octave
and this plays an important role in developing musical scales as you will
learn later in this section. The subjective perception of equal steps in pitch
level roughly corresponds to multiples in the frequency of harmonic sound
waves. Thus, two successive notes (pitch level) in music are not equally
spaced in frequency.
86
Unit 3 Acoustic Wave
Loudness and Intensity

The loudness of perceived sound is correlated to its intensity (that is, energy
carried by sound waves per unit area at the position of listener). As you have
learnt in the previous section, the intensity of sound at the position of a
listener must have a value more than the threshold of hearing. Further, the
correlation between loudness and intensity is similar to the correlation
between pitch and frequency; that is, equal steps in loudness correspond to
equal multiples in intensity.

Quality

Even if two sounds waves have the same pitch and loudness, they may be
perceived as two distinct sounds. This difference is caused due to the
waveforms of the two sounds if they are not harmonic waves. To understand
what is meant by the ‘waveform’ of sound, refer to Fig. 3.4 where we have
depicted the waveforms of the sound produced by violin and piano. You may
note that these two waveforms are different from each other which influences
the perceived quality of respective sounds. You may like to know: How such
periodic but anharmonic waveforms are generated?

It was shown by Fourier that a complex periodic waveform (that is, a

waveform which is periodic but not harmonic) can be regarded as a sum of
harmonic waves. So, when a musical instrument generates sounds of different
harmonics or overtones, they combine to produce a complex waveform.
Further, the possible harmonics or overtones which can be generated depend
up on the nature of the musical instrument. Therefore, the waveforms,
corresponding to a given pitch and loudness, produced by a musical
instrument is its unique characteristic. That is why we are able to distinguish
between the same notes produced by flute and sitar.

A complex periodic waveform can be analysed using Fourier analysis and the
relative amount of fundamental frequency and the higher harmonics
constituting the waveform can be ascertained. Similarly, we can add various
amounts of higher harmonics to the fundamental frequency of a musical
instrument and produce a desired waveform.

With the above background, you are now ready to learn about musical scales.

3.4.1 Musical Scale

Musical scale used by musicians to produce musical sound is based on the
concept of octave. In a musical scale, an octave is defined as a set of two
frequencies wherein the value of the higher frequency is two times the
value of the lower frequency. For example, if 220 Hz is the frequency of the
lower note of the octave, the value of the higher note will have the frequency
440 Hz. The importance of octave in music is due to the fact that two
frequencies that differ by a factor of 2 are particularly pleasing when sounded
together and they are said to form an octave.
The human ear can distinguish a number of notes of definite frequencies
between a note and its octave. The musical scale used in Indian (Hindustani
as well as Carnatic) music as well as Western music is based on this series of
87
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
distinguishable notes in an octave. The lowest frequency note in this series is
called key note or tonic. The pitch corresponding to frequency of 256 Hz is
taken as key note for scientific analysis of musical sound. However, musicians
use pitch corresponding to frequency of 264 Hz as key note or tonic for
creating / producing music.

A musical scale is characterised by the relation among the notes in an octave.

Let us now learn about a few musical scales.

1. Diatonic Scale

This is the most common musical scale. It consists of a series of eight

notes with the interval between the last and the first note in the ratio 2:1.
Thus, the range of notes is called an octave. This musical scale is
common to Indian traditional music and Western music. In Indian
traditional music, it is also called saptak comprising seven basic notes; the
eighth (or the last) note of the octave is not counted because it is double
the frequency of the first note. The pitch of a note is given a name such as
sa, re, ga, ... etc. in Indian music tradition and do, re, mi, ... etc. in Western
music tradition. A note is a sound wave of given frequency. The seven
pure notes of the octave in the diatonic scale are assigned names and the
frequency of each note is related to the frequency of the preceding note by
a fixed ratio. The names of these pure note in the Indian and Western
music traditions and the ratio specifying the relation between two
consecutive notes of the diatonic scale is given in Table 3.2 below.

Table 3.2: Frequency relation between notes of the diatonic scale

Name of pure notes

1
(Keynote 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
or tonic)

Indian Traditional
sa re ga ma pa dha ni sa
Music

Western Music
do re mi fa sol la si do
(C-Major Scale)

1 9/8 5/4 4/3 3/2 5/3 15/8 2

Frequency Ratio
1 1.125 1.250 1.333 1.500 1.667 1.875 2

Note from Table 3.2 that the frequencies of the notes in the octave are
arranged in ascending order. Also, note that the frequency intervals of the
musical scale are not uniform. However, the sensation of pitch produced by
these notes is of equal interval. It we take 1 as the key note of an octave
comprising saptak – the basic seven notes – then the frequencies of these
seven basic notes are derived according to the ratio given in Table 3.2.

To understand this scale in terms of frequencies of the basic notes, study the
88 following example.
Unit 3 Acoustic Wave

XAMPLE 3.33: FREQUENCY OF BASIC NOTES OF AN

OCTAVE

Suppose the frequency of the key note (or tonic) of an octave is 256 Hz.
Calculate the frequencies of the seven basic notes of the corresponding
octave of the diatonic scale.
SOLUTION Since the frequency of the key note (lower frequency) of
the given octave of the diatonic scale is 256 Hz, the higher frequency of
the octane is 512 Hz. And, the frequencies of other six basic notes are as
given in the table below:
Note sa re ga ma
Frequency 256 256u 1.125 256u 1.250 256u 1.333
(in Hz) 288 320 341.3

pa dha ni sa

256u 1.500 256u 1.667 256u 1.875 256u 2

284 426.7 480 512

You should note that the relation among the frequencies of diatonic scale as
given in Table 3.2 is with respect to the key note, that is, the lower frequency
of the octave. You may ask: How are the frequencies of the basic notes of
the scale related to each other? The ratio between frequencies of two
successive notes of a musical scale is called musical interval. The musical
intervals of diatonic scale is given in the Table 3.3.

Table 3.3: Musical intervals of diatonic scale

sa re ga ma pa dha ni sa
Notes (f1 ) (f 2 ) (f 3 ) (f 4 ) (f 5 ) (f 6 ) (f 7 ) (f 8 )

Musical (f2 / f1 ) (f3 / f2 ) (f 4 / f3 ) (f5 / f6 ) (f6 / f5 ) (f7 / f6 ) (f8 / f7 )

256
Intervals 9/8 10 / 9 16 / 15 9/8 10 / 9 9/8 16 / 15

From Table 3.3, we note that the musical interval between key note and the
next higher note in the diatonic scale is 9 / 8 . Also, from Table 3.3 we note
that the three main musical intervals in the diatonic scale are 9 / 8, 10 / 9 and
16 / 15 which are, respectively, known as a major tone, minor-tone and semi-
tone. Thus, the sequence of intervals in the diatonic scale are major-tone,
minor-tone and semi-tone. Since major-tone occurs more frequently, this scale
is also called major diatonic scale. It we neglect the difference between
major and minor tones, then diatonic scale will be tone, tone, semi-tone, tone,
tone, tone, semi-tone. In view of having mainly two basic ratios as musical
intervals, this scale is called diatonic scale.

As evident from Table 3.3, the musical interval between two successive notes
(frequencies) are not equal in the diatonic scale. This puts severe limitation on
a large number musical instruments. To overcome this shortcoming of the
89
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
diatonic scale, another musical scale, called tempered scale was developed.
Let us learn about it now.

Tempered Scale
In the tempered scale, the octave is divided into 12 equal intervals. Thus, if x
is the musical interval between two consecutive notes on tempered scale,
then
( x )12 2 x (2)1/ 12 1.05946

Thus, the equal musical interval between two consecutive notes, (that is, the
ratio between the frequencies of two consecutive frequencies) on a tempered
scale is 1.059456 .
In this scale, all the other notes in the octave are defined in relation to tonic
(sa). For notation purposes, each of the 12 notes in an octave has a unique
identity/name/notation as given below:

Table 3.4: Notations of Indian and Western music for tempered scale

(Key
note 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
or tonic)
Note Notation

Indian
Music
S r R g G M m P d D n N Sc
Note
(Symbol)

Western
# # # # #
Music Note C C D D E F F G G A A B Cc
(Symbol)

Because of equal musical interval between two consecutive notes on a

tempered scale, it is also called Equal Tempered Scale (ETS).
In the Indian music tradition, the 12-notes scale comprises seven pure notes
and five impure notes. In the Table 3.4, pure notes are shown by upper case
letters and the impure notes are shown by lower case letters. So, as per
Indian music system, pure notes are S, R, G, M, P, D, and N. Also note that
the seven pure notes correspond to C-Major scale of the Western music
tradition. In Indian traditional music, an octave was divided into 22 intervals.
But, the 12 tone based tempered scale is more prevalent.
Like light, sound waves are also reflected, refracted and diffracted. Due to
these phenomena, hearing experience is affected, particularly in rooms, halls
and auditoriums. The study of impact of these phenomena and the remedial
measures to minimise their undesirable impact on hearing experience is called
acoustics of buildings. You will now learn about it.

3.5 ACOUSTICS OF BUILDINGS

Sound produced in a room, auditorium or any closed space can lead to
various undesirable effects such as generation of noise and lack of clarity. The
90
Unit 3 Acoustic Wave
purpose of studying the acoustics of building is to minimise these undesirable
effects.
The procedure to design a building which do not have any undesirable
acoustic effects, is to first anticipate the possibilities of noise and make
provisions to reduce the disturbances. For clear and comfortable listening
experience, the following factors are taken into consideration at the stage of
planning, design and construction of a building:
a) Reverberation
b) Echo
c) Focussing
d) Echelon Effect
e) Loudness
f) Resonance
g) Noise
Let us now briefly discuss how the above factors affect sound in buildings and
what are the remedial measures adopted to minimise their adverse impact on
the quality of the sound heard by us.
a) Reverberation
The sound waves produced in a big room or auditorium are reflected from
its walls, ceilings and all other objects. A listener will receive direct sound
waves from the source and the sound waves reflected from all the
surfaces of the room. So, even when the production of sound wave has
stopped and the listener does not receive any direct sound, the same
sound waves are present in the hall in the form of reflected waves. The
listener, therefore, will continue to hear the same sound. The persistence
of sound even when the source has stopped producing it is called
reverberation.
Reverberation, as such, is not a completely undesirable effect.
Reverberation for some time is desirable because it enhances the
richness/quality of sound. But, if it is for a longer time, it produces
undesirable effect because it interferes with the next sound. So, the
question is: For how long reverberation is desirable? The reverberation
time is the time for which a sound persists in a hall. It is measured as the
time between when the source stopped producing sound and when
the sound becomes inaudible.
Thus, you may ask: What is the optimum reverberation time? For a room
or hall, reverberation time is quantitatively defined as the time in which the
intensity of sound reduces by 60 dB. For example, suppose the intensity of
a sound of 140 dB reduces to 80 dB in 5 seconds. Then, the reverberation
time will be 5 seconds and it is written as T60 time. Typically, the
reverberation time less than 3 seconds is considered good.
Since the reflection of sound waves is the main cause of reverberation, the
walls, ceilings and other reflecting surfaces in the hall are covered with
sound absorbing materials such as cardboard sheets, perforated sheets,
felt, heavy curtains, etc.
91
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
b) Echo
Echo is another undesirable phenomenon caused due to reflection of
sound waves from various surfaces in a hall. When the time difference
between the arrival of direct sound and the reflected sound to a listener is
less than 60 ms, the two sounds are heard as one composite sound.
However, if this time difference is more than 60 ms, we hear two distinct
sounds; the first is the direct sound and the second is the reflected sound.
The second sound is called echo. Echo is generally caused due to direct
reflection of sound of short duration from a surface of large area.
The remedial measures for echo are to design the construction of internal
structure of the auditorium in such a way as to avoid large surface areas
and to cover the surfaces with porous materials which have high
absorbing capacity for sound waves.
c) Focussing
If the interior walls and ceiling of an auditorium are such that reflected
sound waves converge or focus at a point, there is an abnormally high
intensity of sound at that point. This effect is called focussing. The
undesirable effect of large intensity due to focussing can be remedied by
proper design of the interior walls and ceiling of the hall and covering the
reflecting surfaces with porous absorbing materials.
d) Echelon effect
This effect refers to the production of musical notes when in-phase
reflected sound waves combine with each other. Such in-phase reflected
waves are most likely to be generated if the hall has steps of roughly equal
widths. The sound produced due to echelon effect interferes with the
original sound and makes it confusing.
The echelon effect can be avoided by designing the steps of unequal
widths and cover them with sound absorbing materials.
e) Loudness
For pleasant and satisfactory hearing experience, the loudness of the
sound must be sufficient and uniform all across the hall. Loudness of the
sound is adversely affected by the use of absorbing materials to minimise
the effects of echo, reverberation, etc. Thus, absorbing materials to cover
the interior walls and ceiling of the hall should be used judiciously. Also,
the loudness of the sound is enhanced by designing hard and smooth
reflecting surfaces near the source of sound.
f) Resonance
Sound waves in a building can induce vibratory motion in its window
panes, walls, air enclosed between walls, etc., which in turn, produce
sound waves when they vibrate. If the frequency of the sound waves
produced by them matches with the frequency of the original sound
produced in the hall, resonance may take place. Due to such resonances,
intensity of some of the original musical notes (sound) get enhanced. This
results in a distortion in the hearing experience.
The resonance effect can be remedied by proper maintenance of the
92 objects in the hall so that their vibrations are suitably damped.
Unit 3 Acoustic Wave
g) Noise

It refers to any unwanted sound in the hall which distorts the hearing
experience. The noise can be due to sound coming from outside the hall
such as the sound of traffic, market place, nearby railway station or airport.
The effect of such external sources of noise can be minimised by proper
noise insulation of the hall as well as by having green cover in the form of
trees around the hall. Noise can also be due to internal sources such as
air conditioners, movement of people, etc. The impact of such internal
sources of noise can be minimised by proper maintenance and having
carpeted floors in the hall.

Finally, we end this unit with a brief qualitative discussion on Doppler effect for
sound.

Doppler Effect for Sound

Doppler effect refers to the apparent change in frequency of a wave due to
relative motion between source and detector (an instrument or a human
being). We use the word apparent because the difference in perceived and
emitted frequencies lasts only as long as there is relative motion between
the source and the listener.
This effect is valid for mechanical waves as well as electromagnetic waves.
Since sound (mechanical waves) and light (electromagnetic waves) can be
‘detected’ (perceived) by human beings, it is common to use the term
listener in place of detector in case of sound and observer in case of light.
According to Doppler effect, when the source approaches the
observer/listener or the observer/ listener approaches the source, or both
approach each other, the apparent frequency is higher than the actual
frequency of the wave emitted by the source. On the other hand, when the
source moves away from the observer/ listener, or when the observer/
listener moves away from the source, or when both move away from each
other, the apparent frequency is lower than the actual frequency of the
wave emitted by the source. The difference between the actual frequency
and the apparent frequency is called Doppler shift. In the following, we
confine our discussion to the Doppler effect for sound.
To analyse the Doppler effect for sound and obtain an expression for the
apparent frequency, let us assume that: (a) the motion of the source and/or
the listener is along a line joining the two; and (b) the speed of source is
significantly less than the speed of sound. Under these simplifying
assumptions, we consider the following cases:
i) The source is stationary and the listener is in motion.
ii) The source is in motion and the listener is stationary.

Source Stationary and Listener in Motion

Let us suppose that a stationary source S is producing sound of frequency f
§ v·
and wavelength O ¨ ¸; where v is the speed of sound. The sound waves
© f ¹
93
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
emitted by the source spread out from S as spherical wavefronts. Since the
frequency of the emitted sound is f, the number of complete wavelengths
(or f wavefronts) produced per second by the source will be f. The
frequency of the sound heard by the listener equals the rate at which she
receives the wavefronts. If the listener is stationary, the rate at which she
receives wavefronts is equal to f, the rate at which wavefronts are produced
by the source. So, if the source and the listener both are stationary, we
should expect no change in the frequency of sound.
Now suppose that the listener moves with speed v L towards the source.
Since the listener is moving towards the source, she will receive more
wavefronts per unit time compared to the case when she was
stationary. Therefore, the frequency, say f c , of sound heard by the listener
will be greater than the frequency of the sound emitted by the source. The
expression for the apparent frequency f c is given as
§ v vL ·
fc f ¨ ¸ (3.23)
© v ¹
where f is the frequency of sound wave emitted by the source, v is the
velocity of sound and VL is the velocity of the listener moving towards the
source.
Now, you may ask: Will the apparent frequency f c be greater than or
equal to the actual frequency f when the listener moves away from the
source? In this case, the apparent frequency is given as
§ v vL ·
fc f¨ ¸ (3.24)
© v ¹
Eq. (3.24) shows that, when the listener moves away from a stationary
source, the value of apparent frequency is less than the actual frequency f.
So, the combined expression for the apparent frequency for stationary
source and listener in motion is obtained by combining Eqs. (3.23) and
(3.24):
v r vL ·
f c f §¨ ¸ (3.25)
© v ¹
Source in Motion and Listener Stationary

Fig. 3.7: Spherical wavefronts of the sound waves emitted by a moving

source, S. The source is moving towards a stationary listener, L.
Note that the separation between wavefronts is less in between S
and L compared to the opposite side.
94
Unit 3 Acoustic Wave

Let us now consider the situation when source S, producing sound of

frequency f and wavelength O is moving with speed v s ( v ) towards a
stationary listener L. Let S be at positions marked 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on while
it moves towards L (Fig. 3.7). The spherical wavefronts emitted by the
moving source at the instants when it is at these positions are shown by
correspondingly marked circles. (These circles are drawn by keeping
positions marked 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on as centres.) Note that the wavefronts
emitted by the moving source S are relatively more closely spaced in the
direction of motion of the source and are relatively more widely separated
on the opposite side. Since wavelength is equal to the distance between
two successive wavefronts, its value will be shorter than the normal for the
listener L towards whom S is moving. That is, the motion of the source
towards the stationary listener changes the wavelength of the sound
wave emitted by it. Since these wavefronts move with constant speed, the
change in wavelength causes a change in frequency. In the instant case,
wavelength between the source and the listener decreases. Therefore, the
frequency detected by L will be higher than the frequency of sound emitted
by S.
You may now ask: What happens if S is moving away from L? This
situation is obtained if L is located to the left of the source S in Fig. 3.7. For
L at any location to the left of the source which is moving towards right, the
separation between any two consecutive wavefronts is larger than when S
is stationary. This implies that the wavelength will be larger than the normal
situation and hence frequency detected by the listener will be lower than the
frequency of sound emitted by S.

The expression for the apparent frequency f c when the source is moving
and the listener is stationary is:

§ v ·
fc f ¨¨ ¸¸ (3.26)
© v # vS ¹

where the negative sign in denominator signifies the case where the source
moves towards the listener and the positive sign corresponds to the source
moving away from the listener.

Thus, we find that the apparent frequency of sound changes whenever

there is a relative motion between the source and the listener. However,
you must note that the reasons for the change in frequency in the two
cases discussed above are different. When the source is stationary and
listener is in motion, the change in frequency is caused due to the change
in the number of wavefronts (or the number of complete wavelengths)
received by the listener. On the other hand, when the listener is stationary
and the source is moving, change in frequency is caused due to the change
in the wavelength of the sound.
95
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction

Doppler effect for sound waves finds many applications. Do you know that
Doppler shift in ultra-sound waves reflected from moving body tissues
allows measurement of blood flow? It is commonly used by obstetricians
to detect foetal heart-beat. Do you know how it arises? As the heart
muscle pulsates, the frequency of reflected ultra-sound waves is different
from the frequency of incident waves. Similarly, a sonar makes use of the
Doppler effect in determining the velocity of a submarine relative to a
ship.

The electromagnetic waves also exhibit Doppler effect. In aircraft

navigation, radar works by measuring the Doppler shift of high frequency
radio waves reflected from moving aeroplanes. The Doppler shift of star-
light allows us to study stellar motion. If the stars were stationary, the
spectrum of light from a star will have spectral lines corresponding to, say
hydrogen, at the same frequency (or wavelength) as in the hydrogen
spectrum obtained on the earth. However, if the star is moving away from
us (that is, the earth), the hydrogen spectral lines in the spectrum of star
will be shifted towards the red-end of the spectrum due to Doppler effect.
And, on the other hand, if the stars are approaching us, the spectral lines
will be shifted towards the blue-end of the spectrum.

When the spectrum produced by light from stars is examined, it is

observed that these lines are slightly shifted, as compared to the
corresponding lines from the same elements on the earth, this shift is
generally towards the red-end, which implies that wavelength of light
emitted by the star increases. This observation is interpreted as if the star
is receding, that is, the star is moving away from us. This find supports
the expanding universe theory of the evolution of the universe.

Before proceeding further, let us recapitulate what you have learnt in this
section.

3.6 SUMMARY

Concept Description

Production of Sound is a longitudinal wave produced by vibrating object. Sound waves

sound comprises successive regions of compressions and rarefactions. Like any
mechanical wave, sound needs a material medium for its propagation..

Perception of Longitudinal waves having frequency in the range 20 Hz to 20 kHz are perceived
sound as sound by human beings.

Threshold of It is the minimum value of the intensity of sound at the position of listener for
hearing being heard by human beings.

96
Unit 3 Acoustic Wave
Mathematical The 1-D sound waves travelling in the positive x-direction is represented by
representation of anyone of the two following equivalent expressions:
sound wave \( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt )
\( x, t ) a sin(Zt kx)
The 1-D sound waves propagating in the negative x-direction is represented as
\( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt )
\( x, t ) a sin(Zt kx)
where \( x, t ) is the longitudinal displacement of the particles of the medium
along the direction of wave propagation.
Speed of sound In a gaseous medium, the speed of sound is given by
waves
Jp JkBT
v
U U
In liquid medium, the speed of sound is
B
v
U
In solids, the speed of sound is
Y
v
U
Forced vibration Sound propagates in a medium due to forced vibrations of the particles of the
and resonance surrounding medium by the vibrating object generating sound. In the steady-
state, the frequency of oscillations of a forced oscillator is equal to the frequency
of the driving force. The steady-state displacement of the forced oscillator is
given as
x(t ) a(Z) cos(Zt T)
where the amplitude a(Z) is given as
F0
a(Z)
>
m (Z02 Z2 ) 2 4b 2 Z2 @
1/ 2

When the frequency of the driving force is equal to the natural frequency of the
driven system, the amplitude of oscillations increases manifold and this
phenomenon is called resonance.
Intensity of sound Intensity I of sound is defined as the rate of energy transfer by the sound wave
per unit area normal to the direction of wave propagation:
P P
I
A 4Sr 2
1 1
and Iv and av
r2 r
where a is amplitude and r is the distance from the source of sound.
Intensity level The minimum intensity of the sound wave which a human being can hear is
called Threshold of Hearing (TOH). Its value is 10 12 Wm 2 .
Intensity of sound is measured/expressed using a logarithmic scale called
decibel (dB). It is a relative scale in which intensity of sound is expressed
relative to the threshold of hearing I0. The intensity level, E of sound of intensity I
is given as
§ I ·
E (10 dB) log10 ¨ ¸
© I0 ¹ 97
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
Musical notes From the perception point of view, a musical note is characterised by pitch,
loudness and quality which, respectively, depend on the frequency, intensity and
waveform of the sound wave.
Musical scale Musical scales are based on the concept of octave. An octave is defined as a
set of two frequencies wherein the value of higher frequency is two times the
value of the lower frequency.
The diatonic musical scale consists of a series of eight notes with the frequency
of the last and the first note in the ratio 2:1.
The frequency intervals between the notes of the musical scale are not uniform.
However, the sensation of pitch produced by these notes is of equal interval.
The ratio between two successive notes of a musical scale is called musical
interval.
In the tempered scale, the octave is divided into 12 equal musical intervals. The
musical interval between two consecutive notes of tempered scale is 1.05946.
Acoustics of In a closed space like room or auditorium, the sensation of hearing is affected by
building phenomena such as reverberation, echo, focussing, echelon effect, loudness,
resonance and noise. The process of minimising the effect of these factors is
studied under acoustics of buildings.
Reverberation refers to persistence of sound even after the production of sound
has stopped. A reasonable reverberation time is desirable for appreciating the
richness of musical sound.
3.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. An object vibrating with frequency of 20 Hz produces 1-D sound waves in
air propagating in positive x-direction. The maximum displacement of air
particles from their respective mean positions is 0.03 m and the distance
between two consecutive compressions is 0.08 m. Write the mathematical
expression representing this sound wave.
2. Determine the frequencies of the fundamental mode and the next two
harmonics that can be set up on a sitar string of length 1.2 m. Take the
speed of waves on the string to be 3.8 u 10 3 ms 1.
3. The intensity level of sound at a place is 40 dB. Calculate the intensity of
sound at that place.
4. Determine the sound intensity level if the intensity changes by a factor of
a) 4, b) 10, c) 10 4.
5. The frequency of the keynote (or the tonic) in a diatonic musical scale is
264 Hz. Calculate the frequencies of the various notes of the scale.

3.8 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions
1. a) True, b) False, c) False, d) True
2. The equation for 1-D sound waves travelling in the negative x-direction is
\( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt )
As per the problem, a = 0.5 cm; T = 0.4 s and O = 32.0 cm.
2S 2S
So, k 0.2 cm1
O 32.0 cm
2S 2S
and Z 2Sf 15.7 s 1
98 T 0.4 s
Unit 3 Acoustic Wave
Thus, the desired equation of the wave is
\( x, t ) 0.5 sin(0.2 x 15.7 t ) cm
3. The speed of sound in solid is given as
v Y /U
As per problem, v 5 u 10 3 ms 1 and U 1500 kg m 3 . So,
Y
5 u 10 3 ms 1
1500 kg m 3
or Y (5 u 10 3 ms 1 ) u (1500 kg m 3 ) 3.8 u 1010 Nm 2
4. The fundamental frequency of a string, such as string of a guitar, fixed at
both ends is given as
v
f1
2L
400 ms 1
We have, L = 2.0 m and v 400 ms 1. So, f1 100 Hz.
2 u (2.0 m)
Frequency of second overtone, f3 3 u f1 300 Hz
5. The intensity level, E in decibel is given as [Eq. (3.22)]:
E (10 dB) log10 I / I 0
Since, E = 80 dB, we have
log10 I / I 0 8.0
or I I 0 u (10) 8 (10 12 Wm 2 ) u (1.0 u 10 8 ) 1.0 u 10 4 Wm 2 .
Terminal Questions
1. We know that 1-D sound wave propagating in the positive x-direction is
given as
\( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt )
So, to write the mathematical expression for the given wave, we need to
determine amplitude, a, wave number k and angular frequency Z. As per
the problem, the maximum displacement of the particles of the medium is
0.03 m. So, amplitude, a = 0.03 m.
The distance between two compressions is equal to the wavelength of the
wave. So,
2S 2 u 3.14
O 0.08 m k 78.5 m 1
O 0.08 m 1
Frequency of the wave is equal to the frequency of the vibrating object
producing the wave. So,
f 20 s 1 Z 2Sf 2 u (3.14) u (20 s 1) 125.6 s 1
So, the mathematical expression of the sound wave is
\( x, t ) (0.03) sin[(78.5)x (125.6)t ] m
2. We know that the normal mode frequencies of the string fixed at both ends
is given as
nv
fn
2L
We have, L = 1.2 m and v 3.9 u 10 3 ms 1. So, the frequency of the
fundamental mode (n = 1) is
99
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
3.9 u 10 3 ms 1
f1 1625 s 1
2 u 1.2 m
Frequencies f 2 and f3 of the next two harmonics, namely second and
third harmonics are
f2 2f1 2 u 1625 s 1 3250 s 1
f3 3f1 3 u 1625 s 1 4875 s 1
3. We know that the intensity level, E of sound is given as
E (10 dB) log10 I / I 0
The threshold of hearing, I 0 is 10 12 Wm 2 and E = 40 dB. So,
40 dB (10 dB) log10 I / I 0
I
10 4 I (10 12 Wm 2 ) u (10 4 ) 10 8 Wm 2 .
I0
4. Let the initial intensity level of sound is
E1 (10 dB) log10 I / I 0
where I is the intensity of sound.
a) When the intensity is changed by factor of 4, the intensity level is
E 2 (10 dB) log10 4I / I 0
So, change in intensity level is
ª 4I I º
E 2 E1 (10 dB) «log log »
¬ I0 I0 ¼
ª (4I / I 0 ) º
(10 dB) log « » (10 dB) log (4) 6dB
¬ (I / I 0 ) ¼
b) When the intensity is increased by a factor of 10, the intensity level is
E3 (10 dB) log10 10 I / I 0
So, change in intensity level
E3 E1 (10 dB) log10 10 dB
c) When the intensity is increased by a factor of 10 4 , the intensity level is
§ I u 10 4 ·
E4 (10 dB) log10 ¨¨ ¸¸
© I0 ¹
So, change in intensity level
E 4 E1 (10 dB) u 4 u log(10) 40 dB
5. The frequency of various notes in the diatonic scale having keynote
264 Hz is calculated using the frequency ratios (Table 3.2):
Note Keynote re ga ma
(sa)
Frequency 264 Hz 264u 1.125 264 u 1.250 264 u 1.333
(in Hz) 297 330 352

pa dha ni sa

264 u 1.500 264 u 1.667 264 u 1.875 264 u 2

396 440 495 528
100
Unit 4 Electromagnetic Wave

UNIT 4
Electromagnetic waves are present
everywhere in nature and used extensively
ELECTROMAGNETIC
in all modern technology like FM radio,
radars, wireless communication and
WAVE
microwave ovens.
(Source of picture: wikimedia.org)

Structure
4.1 Introduction 4.4 Summary
Expected Learning Outcomes 4.5 Terminal Questions
4.2 Wave Equation for Electromagnetic Waves 4.6 Solutions and Answers
Transverse Nature of Electromagnetic Waves
4.3 Huygens Principle
Wavefronts and their Properties

STUDY GUIDE
In this unit, you will study about electromagnetic waves. The study of electromagnetic waves in a course
primarily on optics should not surprise you because light is an electromagnetic wave. You have learnt
about electromagnetic waves in Unit 16 and 17 of second semester course BPHCT-133 entitled
Electricity and Magnetism. So, we advise you to revise these units. Like mechanical waves,
electromagnetic waves are described by the wave equation, which is&obtained on the basis& of Maxwell’s
equations. Since you will use vector quantities such as electric field E and magnetic field B in this unit,
you should also revise vector algebra and vector calculus from Block 1 of BPHCT-133. While studying
this unit, you should focus on how it was predicted that light is an electromagnetic wave, what are the
differences and similarities between electromagnetic waves and mechanical waves, and how the
concepts of wavefronts and rays help us understand the propagation of light. You should work through
the derivations while studying the unit to master the mathematical treatment. Also, you should try to solve
SAQs and TQs before looking at their solutions at the end of the unit to check your understanding of the
concepts discussed in the unit.

“Maxwell's equations have had a greater impact on human Carl Sagan

history than any ten presidents.”

101
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In Units 1 and 2 of this course, you have learnt about basic features of wave
motion and superposition of waves. You now know that the waves are
characterised by physical quantities like amplitude, frequency and wavelength.
You have also learnt that the wave equation describes the propagation of a
wave. For example, the wave equation for transverse wave on a string
describes the propagation of ‘disturbance’ (displacement of the elements of
the string) along the string. In this unit, you will learn how to apply concepts
related to wave motion to study electromagnetic waves.
Modern scientific understanding about the nature of light was developed in the
process of answering the question: What is light? Is light made up of particles
or there are light waves? In the nineteenth century, both the particle
(corpuscle) and wave theories of light were being put forward by scientists.
Though the corpuscular theory, supported by Newton, could explain
phenomena like rectilinear propagation of light and formation of shadows, it
failed to explain observations related to interference, diffraction and
polarisation of light. These phenomena could be explained on the basis of the
wave model of light proposed by Huygens. However, the real breakthrough in
understanding the nature of light came from the work of Maxwell, which put
the wave theory of light on a sound theoretical pedestal. According to the
electromagnetic theory proposed by Maxwell, light is an electromagnetic
wave. In this unit, you will learn what an electromagnetic wave is, what
prompted Maxwell to predict that light is an electromagnetic wave and what
are the differences and similarities between electromagnetic waves and
mechanical waves.
In Sec. 4.2, you will learn how to derive wave equation for electric field and
magnetic field from Maxwell’s equations, which describe electric and magnetic
fields. These wave equations imply that electric field and magnetic field
propagate in space as waves. In this section, you will learn that the speed with
which the electromagnetic wave travels in free space is equal to the speed of
light. This prompted Maxwell to predict that light is an electromagnetic wave.
You will learn about some of the properties of electromagnetic waves which
are similar to experimentally observed properties of light. In Sec. 4.3, you will
learn Huygens principle which gives a satisfactory explanation of the optical
phenomena like interference, diffraction and polarisation. You will discover
that the concept of wavefront is at the core of this principle.
In the next unit, you will learn about polarisation of light which provides
experimental evidence for the transverse nature of light waves.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

derive the wave equation for electric field and magnetic field from
Maxwell’s equations;
show that electromagnetic waves are transverse waves;
explain the concept of wavefronts; and

state Huygens principle and use it to discuss propagation of light.

102
Unit 4 Electromagnetic Wave
4.2 WAVE EQUATION FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES
In Unit 1, you have learnt that in mechanical waves such as transverse waves
on a string or longitudinal sound waves in air, the ‘disturbance’ in the medium
propagates like a wave. In case of the transverse waves on a string, the
‘disturbance’ in the medium is the displacement of the elements of the string
and in case of longitudinal sound waves in air, it is the displacement of the air
particles. These disturbances are caused due to periodic forced oscillations of
the particles of the medium. You have also studied that the wave equation
governs the propagation of waves. The wave equation relates the speed of
propagation of the waves with the physical properties of the medium in which
From Unit 16 of the
they propagate. For example, the speed of transverse waves on a string course BPHCT-133, you
depends on the tension in the string and mass per unit length of the string. will recall that Maxwell’s
equation is a set of
The electromagnetic waves are different from mechanical waves because
equations representing
these originate from oscillating charges. In this section, we seek answers of the fundamental laws of
such questions regarding electromagnetic waves as: Which physical quantity electricity and
is varying in the propagation of electromagnetic wave? What is the wave magnetism.
equation for electromagnetic waves which governs its propagation? Does the Gauss’s law for
wave equation enable us to determine the speed of electromagnetic waves? electricity [Eq. (4.1)]
gives electric field due to
Let us find the answers to these questions.
electric charge. Gauss’s
You have learnt Maxwell’s equations in Unit 16 of second semester course law for magnetism [Eq.
entitled Electricity and Magnetism (BPHCT-133). Recall that Maxwell’s (4.2)] says that magnetic
equations in differential form are given as flux through a closed
surface is zero; that is,
& & U unlike electric charge,
.E (Gauss’s law for electrostatics) (4.1)
H0 magnetic charge (or
& & monopoles) does not
.B 0 (Gauss’s law for magnetism) (4.2) exist. Faraday’s law
& [Eq. (4.3)] says that a
& & wB
uE 0 (Faraday’s law for electromagnetic induction) (4.3) changing magnetic field
wt is accompanied by an
& electric field. Ampere’s
& & & E
u B P0 J H0 (Modified Ampere’s law) (4.4) law modified by
wt Maxwell [Eq. (4.4)] by
& & &
where E , B , U and J denote the electric field, magnetic field, free charge adding the second term
on the RHS says that
density and the conduction current density, respectively. changing electric field is
From Eqs. (4.3) and (4.4), it is evident that time-varying magnetic field cannot accompanied by a
magnetic field. As such,
exist without a variable electric field and a time-varying electric field cannot
Ampere’s law, without
exist without a variable magnetic field. In other words, Maxwell’s equations the modification
unified electric and magnetic phenomena. In addition, as you will learn in introduced by Maxwell,
this section, Maxwell’s equations predict (i) the existence of electromagnetic gives magnetic field due
waves and (ii) light is an electromagnetic wave. Thus, Maxwell’s equations to steady current& (having
also unified optical phenomenon with electric and magnetic phenomena. current density, J ). This
set of four equations,
Let us now derive wave equation for electromagnetic waves from Maxwell’s called Maxwell’s
equations. For keeping the mathematical treatment simple, we consider equations, describe
Maxwell’s equations in vacuum (charge free and current free space) so that electric and magnetic
& phenomena.
U = 0 and J 0. Then, Eqs. (4.1 to 4.4) reduce to
103
Block 1 & & Waves – An Introduction
.E 0 (4.5)
& &
. B 0 (4.6)
&
& & wB
uE (4.7)
wt
&
& & wE
uB H0 P0 (4.8)
wt
where P0 and H0 are the magnetic permeability and permittivity of free space.
Note that Eqs. (4.7) and (4.8) are coupled and first order partial differential
equations. These equations can & be &uncoupled with the help of Eqs. (4.5) and
(4.6) and wave equations of E and B fields can be obtained.
&
Now, to obtain the wave equation for electric field E in vacuum, we first take
the curl of Eq. (4.7):
&
& & & § wB · w & &
u u E u ¨¨ ¸¸ ( u B) (4.9)
© wt ¹ wt

To simplify the left hand

& side of Eq. (4.9), we use the following vector identify
for any vector field A :
& & & & & & &
u ( u A) ( A) 2A (4.10)

Using the above identity, we can write the LHS of Eq. (4.9) as
& & & & & & &
u u E (.E) 2 E
& &
From Eq. (4.5), we have .E 0. Thus, we find that Eq. (4.9) reduces to
& w & &
2 E ( u B)
wt
& &
On substituting the value of u B from Eq. (4.8) in the above expression, we
get &
& w 2E
E P0 H0
2 (4.11)
wt 2
Eq. (4.11) is a& second order partial differential equation for the time varying
The 3-D wave equation electric field E.
has the form
Let us now compare Eq. (4.11) with the wave equation for mechanical wave
1 w 2\ given as [Eq. (1.12), Unit 1]
2\
v 2 wt 2 w 2y § 1 · w2y
¨ 2¸ 2 (4.12)
where \( x, y , z, t ) is the wx 2 © v ¹ wt
physical quantity which
We find that these& two equations are similar: you will get Eq. (4.11) if you
propagates wavelike
with speed v. replace y(x,t) by E and (1/ v 2 ) by (P0H0 ) in Eq. (4.12). So, we can say that
& &
Eq. (4.11) is the wave equation for E field and it predicts that E field&
propagates like wave in space. You may ask: How this time varying E field is
generated at the first place? We will address this question shortly.
&
Maxwell’s equations also & lead to a wave equation for magnetic field B . To find
the wave equation for B, let us take the curl of Eq. (4.8):
& & & w & &
u u B H 0P 0 ( u E) (4.13)
104 wt
Unit 4 Electromagnetic Wave
Again, using the vector identity given by Eq. (4.10), we can write LHS of Wave equation is a
Eq. (4.13) as relation between space
& & & & & & &
and time variations of
u u B (. B) 2 B
& & some physical quantity.
Since Eq. (4.6) tells us that .B 0, we have A physical quantity, for
& & & & which a wave equation
u u B 2 B exists, moves like a
wave. In case of one-
Substituting this value of LHS in Eq. (4.13), we get dimensional wave on a
& & w & & string, the physical
2 B H 0 P 0 ( u E)
wt quantity is the
& & displacement of the
Substituting the value of ( u E) from Eq. (4.7) in above equation, we get elements of the string
& and in case of
& w 2B
2 B P0 H0 (4.14) electromagnetic waves,
&
wt 2 it is electric field E and
&
So, we find that Maxwell’s equations in vacuum (charge free and current free magnetic field B.
space) give wave equations for time varying electric and magnetic fields. This
implies that time varying electric and magnetic fields propagate like waves in
space.
At this stage, you may ask: What is the physical process involved in the
generation and propagation of electromagnetic waves? For a qualitative
understanding of the underlying process, note that & one of the Maxwell’s
&
equation [Eq. (4.3)] tells us that a time-varying B field generates& a E field.
Since Eq. (4.3) involves a vector cross-product,
& the generated E field is
perpendicular to the direction in which B field changes. Similarly,
& another
Maxwell’s
& equation [Eq. (4.4)] tells us that a time-varying E field generates a
B& field. Again, since Eq. (4.4) involves a vector cross-product,
& the generated
B field will be perpendicular to the direction in which E field changes.
With the above understanding about the relation between time varying electric
and magnetic fields, let& us consider an electric charge. When the charge is at
rest, it has a constant E field extending radially in all directions. If the charge
is now somehow & made to undergo accelerated motion (such as & oscillatory
motion), the E field of the charge changes. The time varying E field set up by
the oscillating charge is experienced
& by a test charge placed at some distance
from it. So, the time varying E field propagates
& in space with some finite
speed and also generates
& a time-varying B field represented
& by Eq. (4.4).
This time-varying B field, in turn, generates a time-varying E field [Eq. (4.3)].
This process continues; one & changing
& field generates the other which is also
changing. These coupled E and B fields were conceptualised by Maxwell as
a single entity called electromagnetic field which propagates in space like a
wave. The electromagnetic
& & field, once generated, is self-sustaining because
time-varying E and B fields could continuously generate each other and &
propagate& in space. So, wave equations given by Eqs. (4.11) and (4.14) for E
field and B field, respectively, refer to the electric and magnetic components
of the single entity called electromagnetic field which propagates in space as
electromagnetic wave.
As you have learnt in Unit 1, the wave equation enables us to determine the
speed of the wave. So, you may like to know the speed with which
105
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
electromagnetic wave propagates in space. If we compare Eqs. (4.11) or
(4.14) with Eq. (4.12), we find that the speed of electromagnetic wave is given
as
1
v (4.15)
H0P0
Eq. (4.15) shows that the speed of an electromagnetic wave depends only on
P 0 and H 0 which are characteristics of the medium. This suggests that all
electromagnetic waves should, irrespective of their frequencies or amplitudes
propagate with this speed in free space. We can easily calculate the
magnitude of v by substituting the values of H0 ( 8.85 u 10 12 C2N1m2 ) and
P0 ( 4S u 10 7 Ns 2C2 ) in Eq. (4.15):
1
v
[(8.85 u 10 12 C 2N 1m 2 ) u ( 4 u 10 7 Ns 2 C 2 )]1/ 2
2.99794 u 108 ms 1
This is precisely the speed of electromagnetic waves in vacuum. It is
worthwhile to mention here that using the then best known value of H 0 ,
Maxwell found that electromagnetic waves should travel at a speed of
3.1074 u 10 8 ms 1. This was very close to the speed of light measured by
Fizeau (3.14858 u 108 ms 1). Based on these results, Maxwell proposed
that light is an electromagnetic wave and electromagnetic theory of light
was born. In his own words:
This velocity is so nearly that of light, that it seems we have strong
reason to believe that light itself is an electromagnetic disturbance in
the form of waves propagated through the electromagnetic field
according to electromagnetic laws.
We cannot help but wonder at such pure gold having come out of his
researches on electric and magnetic phenomena. It was a classic example of
the unification of knowledge towards which science is ever striving. With this
one calculation, Maxwell brought the entire science of optics under the
umbrella of electromagnetism. Its significance is profound because it
identifies light with structures consisting of electric and magnetic fields
travelling freely through free space.
As you know, the normal
path of the development Also note that the speed of electromagnetic waves is determined by two
of the science is from constants namely H0 (permittivity) and P0 (permeability) which appear in
phenomena or
Coulomb’s law and Biot-Savart law. These laws, and these constants have no
experimental
relation whatsoever with light. But, according to Maxwell’s electromagnetic
observation to theory.
But, in case of theory, these are related to the speed of light.
electromagnetic waves, Heinrich Hertz conducted a series of experiments to produce and detect
it was the other way
electromagnetic waves at a considerable distance. He used an alternating
round. The existence of
electromagnetic waves current (ac) source to drive an electric-dipole antenna as transmitting antenna.
was demonstrated The frequency of the transmitted electromagnetic wave was the same as the
experimentally by frequency of the ac source. The receiving antenna was connected to a circuit
Heinrich Hertz much tuned to the same frequency. By measuring the wavelength and frequency of
after its theoretical electromagnetic waves, Hertz calculated their speed. He found it to be
prediction by Maxwell.
precisely equal to the speed of light. He also demonstrated that
electromagnetic waves also exhibit properties like reflection, refraction,
106
Unit 4 Electromagnetic Wave
polarisation, etc. and hence provided conclusive experimental evidence that
light is an electromagnetic wave.
& &
So far, you have learnt to obtain wave equations for E and B fields using
Maxwell’s equations and discovered that light is an electromagnetic wave
because their speeds in vacuum are same. You have also learnt about the
experiments conducted by Hertz to detect electromagnetic waves. The
polarisation of light is one phenomenon which shows that light is a transverse
wave. Thus, if light is indeed an electromagnetic wave, the electromagnetic
wave must be a transverse wave. Is it so? Let us find out.
4.2.1 Transverse Nature of Electromagnetic Waves
In Unit 1, you learnt that only those mathematical functions represent a
travelling wave which satisfies the corresponding wave equation. For example,
the expression for displacement, y ( x, t ) a sin (kx Zt ) represents a 1-D
wave travelling in the positive x-direction because it satisfies the 1-D wave
equation given by Eq. (4.12). This requirement is satisfied & for electromagnetic
&
waves also by the mathematical function representing E and B fields.
But, in case of electromagnetic& waves,& an additional condition is imposed on
any function representing
& & the E and B fields. Thus, the functions
representing E and B fields must satisfy wave equations [Eqs. (4.11) and
(4.14)] as well as Maxwell’s equations [Eqs. (4.5) to (4.8)]. This means that in
solving the wave equation for electromagnetic waves, we must ensure that the
solutions also satisfy Maxwell’s equation. Only then they would represent an
electromagnetic wave.
The above conditions on the electric and magnetic fields enable us to explain
the transverse nature of electromagnetic waves. Let us see how. Note that Eqs. (4.16)
&
& (4.17) give E and
and
Let the solutions of wave equations [Eqs. (4.11) and (4.14)] be:
& & B fields as sinusoidally
E E 0 sin (kz Zt ) (4.16) varying functions of
& & space and time. These
B B0 sin (kz Zt ) (4.17)
functions are similar to
Eqs. (4.16) and (4.17) represent the electric and magnetic fields associated Eq. (1.15) of Unit 1
with electromagnetic waves travelling&in the positive z-direction with wave which represents a
& transverse wave on a
number k and angular frequency Z . E0 and B0 are the amplitudes of electric
string.
and magnetic fields, respectively. The wave number, k is equal to 2S/O, where
O is the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave and the angular frequency, Z
is equal to 2Sf where f is the frequency of the wave.
Before proceeding further, study the following example to get an idea about
the wave parameters of an electromagnetic wave.

XAMPLE 4.1: PARAMETERS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC

WAVES
The electric field associated with an electromagnetic wave propagating in
vacuum is given by:
&
E ^(28 NC 1 ) sin[(1.8 m 1 ) z (5.4 u 10 8 s 1 ) t ]`yˆ
Determine wavelength and frequency of the wave and its direction of
propagation.
107
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
&
SOLUTION From the given expression for E, we note that the wave
number, k of the wave is
k 1.8 m1
2S 2 u 3.14
So, 1.8 m1 O 3.48 m
O 1.8 m1
The angular frequency, Z of the wave is
Z 5.4 u 10 8 s 1
5.4 u 108 s1
or 2Sf 5.4 u 108 s1 f 8.59 u 107 s1
2 u 3.14
The wave is propagating along the negative z-direction.

Now, you may like to answer an SAQ.

SAQ 1 – Calculating the parameters of electromagnetic wave

A harmonic electromagnetic wave of wavelength 450 nm is propagating in

positive z-direction in vacuum. What is the frequency of the wave? Also
calculate the angular frequency Z and wave number k of the wave.

Now, to understand the transverse nature of electromagnetic wave, recall from

Unit 1 that in a transverse wave, the displacement of the particles of the
medium is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
& the wave.
& Thus, if
electromagnetic wave is to be transverse in nature, the E and B field
variations must be perpendicular to the direction of propagation (z-direction) of
the wave. So, if we show now that this is indeed the case, we can conclude
that the electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.
To that end, let us first examine whether Eqs. (4.16) and (4.17) satisfy the
following two Maxwell’s equations [Eqs. (4.5) and (4.6)] in vacuum:
& & & &
E 0 and B 0
&
If we substitute Eq. (4.16) in the LHS of the above equations for E field, we
get
& & w w
E (E0 x ) sin (kz Zt ) (E0 y ) sin (kz Zt )
wx wy
w
(E 0z ) sin (kz Zt )
wz
& & &
If the equation E 0 is to be satisfied by E field given by Eq. (4.16), all
partial derivatives in the above expression should be zero. But, the partial
derivative with respect to z will be zero if and only if E 0z is zero. It is so
because the partial&derivative of the sine function with respect to z is non-zero.
Thus, we find that E given by Eq. (4.16) can represent the electric field
associated with electromagnetic wave if and only if
&
E 0z (E 0 ) z 0 (4.18)
&
Similarly, you can show that B given by Eq. (4.17) can represent the magnetic
field associated with the electromagnetic wave if and only if
&
B0z (B0 ) z 0 (4.19)
108
Unit 4 Electromagnetic Wave

SAQ 2 – Magnetic field along the direction of electromagnetic

wave propagation
Show that the component of the magnetic field associated with an
electromagnetic wave along the direction of propagation of the wave is zero.

So, Eqs. (4.18) and (4.19) show that the components of the electric field and
magnetic field, associated with the electromagnetic wave, along the direction
of propagation of the wave are zero. This implies that the direction of
propagation of the electromagnetic wave is perpendicular to directions
of the electric and magnetic fields that constitute it. Thus, we conclude
that electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.
At this stage, you may ask: Do the solutions of wave equations given by
Eqs. (4.16) and (4.17) satisfy the remaining two Maxwell’s equations
[Eqs. (4.7) and (4.8)]? To get an answer to this question, we need to substitute
Eqs. (4.16) and (4.17) in Eqs. (4.7) and (4.8), respectively.
& When
& we do that
[refer to Sec. 17.2, Unit 17, BPHCT-133], we find that E and B fields will
satisfy Maxwell’s equation if and only if these are related to each other as
under:
& k &
B (kˆ u E)
Z
& &
or kˆ u E c B
Z
because the velocity of light, c .
k
& &
So, we can write the relation between the magnitudes of E and B as
&
E Z
& c
B k
Eq. (4.20) indicates
Z that the magnitude of
or E0 B0 (4.20)
k electric field exceeds
that of magnetic field in
Further, owing to the transverse nature of the electromagnetic wave, we can electromagnetic waves.
write the electric and magnetic fields associated with an electromagnetic wave (However, this situation
propagating in z-direction as prevails for non-
& relativistic motion of the
E yˆ E 0 sin (kz Zt ) (4.21) charge.) So, for most
& terrestrial situations,
B xˆ B0 sin (kz Zt ) (4.22)
electromagnetic
where E 0 and B0 are constants. Note that we have taken the electric and waves are essentially
magnetic fields along y and x directions, respectively because the electrical
electromagnetic wave is propagating along z-direction and it is a transverse phenomenon in so far
as their interaction
wave.
with matter is
The relation between E 0 and B0 given by Eq. (4.20) signifies the following: concerned.

x Recall from Unit 1 that (Z/k) is equal to speed of the wave; for
electromagnetic wave speed is c, the speed of light.
& &
x Since the magnitudes of E and B field vectors differ only by a real
number, c, the electric and magnetic field vectors should be in-phase. This 109
Block 1 & Waves – An Introduction
&
means that, if E becomes zero (or maximum) at some instant, B must
also necessarily be zero (or maximum) at that instant, and so on. This also
shows that neither electric nor magnetic wave can exist without the other.
An electric field varying in time sets up a space-time varying magnetic
field, which, in turn produces an electric field varying in space and time,
and so on. We cannot separate them. This mutually supporting role results
in the generation of electromagnetic waves. The pictorial representation of
fields of an electromagnetic wave (propagating along the positive z-
direction) is shown in Fig. 4.1. Note that electric and magnetic fields are
oriented at right angles to one another and to the direction of wave motion.

Fig. 4.1: The electric and magnetic fields associated with a plane
electromagnetic wave.
Before proceeding further, answer an SAQ.

SAQ 3 – Nature of electromagnetic wave

a) Compare sound waves and light waves and list two differences and two
similarities between them.
b) If the amplitude of the electric field associated with an electromagnetic
wave is doubled, by what factor will the amplitude of the associated
magnetic field change?

So far, you have studied how Maxwell’s equations predict the existence of
electromagnetic waves, how he concluded that light was an electromagnetic
wave. You have also learnt about the transverse nature of electromagnetic
wave. You now know that light is an electromagnetic wave. Though the origin
of electromagnetic waves is different from those of mechanical waves such as
transverse waves on a string and sound waves in air, it has all the
characteristics of a wave. The electromagnetic waves are characterised by
wave parameters such as amplitude, wavelength, frequency and phase.
These waves obey the superposition principle and transport energy
(electromagnetic energy) in space. Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory gives a
satisfactory explanation of most of the optical phenomena such as
interference, diffraction and polarisation. You will learn Maxwell’s
electromagnetic theory in further detail if you pursue higher studies in physics.

However, much before Maxwell proposed the electromagnetic theory of light,

successful attempts were made by physicists like Huygens and Fresnel to
develop a wave model of light. In this course, to keep the discussion simpler,
we shall use the wave model of light based on Huygens principle to
110 understand the phenomena of interference and diffraction.
Unit 4 Electromagnetic Wave
Huygens was the most notable physicist who contributed to the development
of wave model using the concepts of secondary wavelets and wavefront. You
will now learn Huygens principle. But, before that, let us recall the important
points of this section.
& &
x The wave equation for the & E and B field vectors are
& w 2E
2E P 0 H 0
wt 2&
& w 2B
2B P 0 H 0
wt 2
x The speed of electromagnetic wave in vacuum is equal to the speed of
light. This fact prompted Maxwell to predict that light is an
electromagnetic wave.
x The electromagnetic waves & are
& transverse in nature.
x The magnitude of the E and B fields associated with electromagnetic
wave in free space is related to each other as
Z
E 0 cB0 B0
k

4.3 HUYGENS PRINCIPLE

Huygens principle provides a basis to understand the propagation of waves. It
applies to mechanical as well as electromagnetic waves. According to this
principle,
every point on a wavefront behaves like a source of spherical
secondary wavelets such that the wavefront at some later time is the
envelop of these wavelets.
So, there are two central concepts in this principle: wavefront and secondary
wavelets.
To understand Huygens principle and its application to the propagation of
waves, you first need to know what a wavefront and secondary wavelet are.
4.3.1 Wavefronts and their Properties
To understand what a wavefront is, consider waves generated on a water
surface when we drop a pebble (Fig. 4.2). The disturbance created by the
pebble on the water surface propagates as wave. The wave on the water
surface is a two-dimensional wave and it propagates in the form of concentric
Fig. 4.2: Waves on a
circles having the centre at the point where the dropped pebble touches the
water surface.
water surface. All the water particles on a given circle are in the same phase
because they are all at the same distance from the centre (source of the
wave). In other words, these particles are said to be in same phase because
their state of motion is same (refer to Sec. 1.2 of Unit 1 to recall the meaning
of the state of motion). The locus of all such points which are in the same
phase is called a wavefront. So, the circles representing 2-D waves on a
water surface are called the wavefronts of the wave.
Can you guess what would be the shape of wavefronts of 3-D waves
generated by a point source such as a point source of sound waves? The
111
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
wavefronts will be spherical centred at the source. Recall from Sec. 1.4 of
Unit 1 that if the point source of wave is at a sufficiently large distance, the
spherical waves can be approximated as plane waves and the wavefronts of
the plane waves are planes perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
waves. The wavefronts of spherical and plane waves are depicted in Fig. 4.3.

Fig. 4.3: a) Spherical; b) plane wavefronts.

Huygens principle also states that any point on a wavefront serves as a

source of waves and these point sources generate spherical waves. These
point sources on a wavefront are called secondary sources of waves and the
waves generated by them are called secondary wavelets. The spherical
wavelets propagate with the same speed as that of the wave.
Now, let us apply Huygens principle and the concepts of wavefronts and
secondary wavelets to describe the propagation of electromagnetic wave.
Consider a point source, S which is generating 3- D waves. Suppose AB
represents a part of the spherical wavefront of the wave at some time, say t 1.
Now, to construct the wavefront of the wave at some later time, say t 2 ( ! t1 ),
assume that points a, b, c, d, and e on the wavefront AB are the secondary
sources which generate spherical secondary wavelets. That is, spherical
waves are being generated by each of these secondary sources.

Fig. 4.4: Constructing wavefronts using Huygens principle.

The secondary wavelets generated by point sources a, b, c, d and e
propagate away from their respective sources with the same velocity, c as that
of the electromagnetic wave. In the time interval, 't ( t 2 t1 ) the spherical
secondary wavelets will travel a distance equal to c't. So, we can construct
the wavefronts of each of these secondary wavelets by drawing a circle of
radius c't centred at each point sources a, b, c, d and e, as shown in Fig. 4.4.
112
Unit 4 Electromagnetic Wave
The envelop AcBc of these circles in the forward direction is the new wavefront
of the wave generated by the source S. The straight lines originating from the
source and perpendicular to the wavefront is called ray. A ray of light gives the
direction of propagation of light. Note that the wavefront and ray are,
respectively, imaginary surface and imaginary line constructed on the
basis of Huygens principle.
With the help of the method described above for constructing wavefronts for a
spherical wave using Huygens principle, you can construct wavefronts for a
plane wave. Note that wavefronts of a plane wave are planes perpendicular to
the direction of propagation of the wave.
Properties of Wavefronts
The wavefronts have following properties:
1. Wavefront is an imaginary surface constructed by joining all the points
having the same phase at a given instant of time.
2. The shape of the wavefront depends on the nature of wave emanating
from a source.
3. Wavefronts propagate with the speed of the wave.
4. Wavefronts are always normal to the rays.
5. Wavefronts do not propagate in the backward direction.
These properties are satisfied by the wavefronts associated with light waves.
Although Huygens principle provided wave model based explanations for
phenomena like reflection and refraction of light, it could not give satisfactory
explanation for phenomena like rectilinear propagation of light and polarisation
of light. Later on, Huygens principle was modified by Fresnel by adding the
concept of superposition or interference of waves. The modified Huygens
principle, called Huygens-Fresnel principle, could successfully account for the
experimental observations related to rectilinear propagation and diffraction of
light. You will learnt more about this principle and how it account for diffraction
of light later in this course.
Let us now sum up what you have learnt in this unit.

4.4 SUMMARY

Concept Description

Wave equation The wave equations for electric and magnetic fields, obtained on the basis of
Maxwell’s equations are:
&
& w 2E
2E P0H0
wt 2
&
& w 2B
and 2B P0H0 2
wt
& &
These wave equations indicate that the time varying E and B fields constitute
an electromagnetic wave.
The speed of the electromagnetic wave in vacuum is given by 1/(P 0 H 0 ) which
is equal to the speed of light. Thus, light is an electromagnetic wave.
113
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
& &
Transverse The mathematical expressions for E and B field constituting an
nature of electromagnetic wave must satisfy the respective wave equations & as
& as well
electromagnetic Maxwell’s equations. These conditions are met only when the E and B fields
waves are perpendicular to the direction of propagation of electromagnetic wave. That
is, electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.

For an electromagnetic wave propagating along the positive z-direction, the

electric and magnetic fields can be expressed as
&
E yˆ E0 sin (kz Zt )
&
and B xˆ H0 sin (kz Zt )
& &
The magnitudes of E field and B field constituting an electromagnetic wave in
vacuum are related by the relation

Z
E0 cB0 B0
k

Huygens The wave model of light is based on the Huygens principle.

principle
According to this principle, every point on a wavefront behaves like a source of
spherical secondary wavelets and the wavefront at some later time is the
envelop of these wavelets.

Wavefront is the locus of all points which are in the same phase.

Wavefronts propagate in forward direction with the velocity of the wave.

4.5 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

& &
1. Write the expression for the E and B fields of plane electromagnetic
wave propagating in the positive z-direction in vacuum such that its
electric field is in the positive x-direction . The amplitude of the magnetic
field associated with the wave is 300 nT and the frequency of the wave is
8.5 GHz.

2. The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave is 400 & nm. The wave is

travelling along the positive y-direction and its E field is along the
z-direction. Determine the angular frequency Z and wave number k of the
wave. If the electric field amplitude is 500 Vm1, calculate the amplitude
of the magnetic field.
&
3. The E field of a plane electromagnetic wave travelling in vacuum is given
by
&
E xˆ [230 sin(1.20 u 10 7 z 3.6 u 1015 t )] Vm1

Determine the frequency and wavelength of the wave. Does the

electromagnetic wave correspond to visible light?
114
Unit 4 Electromagnetic Wave
4. The amplitude of electric field associated with an electromagnetic wave is
110 Vm1 and the frequency of the wave is 60 MHz. Determine the
amplitude of the associated magnetic field, and angular frequency, wave
number and wavelength of the wave.

4.6 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions
1. As per the problem, the wavelength O, of the electromagnetic wave is

O 450 nm 450 u 10 9 m

The electromagnetic wave propagates in vacuum with the speed of light,

c 3 u 10 8 ms 1. And, we know that the speed of electromagnetic wave is
given by

c 3 u 108 ms 1
c Of f 6.66 u 1014 s1
O 450 u 109 m

Angular frequency, Z 2Sf 2 u 3.14 u 6.66 u 1014 s1 4.1u 1015 s1

2S 2 u 3.14
Wave number, k 1.4 u 10 7 m 1
O 450 u 10 9 m
&
2. The expression for the magnetic field B associated with the
electromagnetic wave propagating along the positive z-direction is given
as
& &
B B0 sin(kz Zt ) (i)
&
This expression for B must satisfy Maxwell’s equation,
& &
. B 0 (ii)
&
Substituting the value of B from Eq. (i) in Eq. (ii), we can write the LHS as
§ˆ w ˆ w ˆ w · ˆ
¨x y z ¸ ( xB0 x yˆ B0 y zˆ B0z ) sin (kz Zt )
© wx wy wz ¹
w w
B0 x [sin (kz Zt )] B0 y [sin (kz Zt )]
wx wy
w
B0 z [sin (kz Zt )]
wz
From the above, we note that Maxwell’s equation given by Eq. (ii) will be
satisfied if and only if
B0z 0
&
The above expression for the z component of the B field of an
electromagnetic& wave indicates that the z-component of the magnetic field
is zero. Thus, B field is perpendicular to the direction (z-direction) of
115
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
propagation of the electromagnetic wave. This is possible only if
electromagnetic wave is transverse.

3. a) Sound waves are responsible for hearing whereas light waves

(electromagnetic waves) are responsible for seeing. The two
differences between these two waves are:

i) Sound is a mechanical wave which requires a material medium for

its propagation whereas light, being electromagnetic wave, can
propagate in vacuum as well.

ii) Sound waves are longitudinal whereas light wave are transverse
in nature.

The similarities between sound waves and light waves are:

i) Both the sound and light waves are characterised by the wave
parameters such as amplitude, wavelength, frequency and phase.

ii)
The propagation of both sound waves and light waves is governed
by wave equations.
& &
b) The amplitudes of electric field E and magnetic field B associated
with electromagnetic wave are related to each other as

E0 cB0
&
So, if the amplitude E 0 of the E field is doubled, the amplitude of the
&
B field will also be doubled.

Terminal Questions
& &
1. The E and B fields associated with the electromagnetic wave propagating
in z-direction are given as
& &
E E0 sin(kz Zt ) xˆ E0 sin(kz Zt )
& &
B B0 sin(kz Zt ) yˆ B0 sin(kz Zt )
&
As per the problem, amplitude B0 of the B field is 300 nT, and frequency
of the wave is 8.5 GHz. So,

Z 2Sf 2 u 3.14 u 8.5 u 109 Hz 5.3 u 1010 s1

Since the wave is travelling in vacuum, its speed c 3 u 108 ms 1. So,

c 3 u 10 8 ms 1
O 0.03 m
f 8.5 u 10 9 s 1

So,

2S 2 u 3.14
k 2.1u 10 2 m 1
O 0.03 m
116
Unit 4 Electromagnetic Wave
The magnitude of electric field

E0 c B0 90 Vm1
& &
So, the expression for E and B fields are
&
E xˆ ^(90 Vm1) sin[( 2.1 u 102m1)z (5.3 u 1010 s1)t ]`
&
B yˆ ^(300 nT) sin[( 2.1 u 102m1)z (5.3 u 1010 s1)t ]`

2. As per the problem, wavelength O of the electromagnetic wave is 400 nm.

So, its frequency, f is

c 3 u 108 ms 1
f 7.5 u 1014 s1
O 400 u 10 9 m

So, the angular frequency of the wave is

Z 2Sf 2 u 3.14 u 7.5 u 1014 s1 4.7 u 1015 s1

And, the wave number, k is

2S 2 u 3.14
k 1.6 u 10 7 m 1
O 400 u 10 9 m
& &
The amplitude of E and B fields are related as

E0 500 Vm1
B0 1.67 u 10 6 T
c 3 u 108 ms 1

3. As per the problem,

&
E xˆ [230 sin(1.20 u 107 z 3.6 u 1015 t )] Vm1

The frequency of the wave is

Z 3.6 u 1015 s1

f 5.7 u 1014 s1
2S 2 u 3.14

And, the wavelength is

2S 2 u 3.14
O 5.2 u 10 7 m
k 1.2 u 107 m1

Since the wavelength, O is 5.2 u 107 m 520 u 109 m 520 nm, the
electromagnetic wave is in the range of wavelength for visible light.

The expression for the associated magnetic field is

&
B yˆ [B0 sin(1.20 u 107 z 3.6 u 1015 t )] T

E0 230 Vm1
Since B0 7.6 u 10 7 T
c 3 u 108 ms 1
&
So, B yˆ [(7.6 u 107 ) sin(1.20 u 107 z 3.6 u 1015 t )] T
117
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
4. The amplitude of the magnetic field associated with electromagnetic wave
is

E0 110 Vm1
B0 360 nT
c 3 u 108 ms 1

Angular frequency, Z 2Sf 2 u 3.14 u (60 u 106 )s1 3.77 u 108 s1

3.77 u 108 s1

Wave number, k Z/ c 1.25 m1
3 u 108 ms 1

2S 2 u 3.14
Wavelength, O 5.02 m
k 1.25 m1

118
Unit 5 Polarisation of Light

UNIT 5
We see two images of an object when it is
observed through certain crystals. This is
caused due to birefringence or double
refraction. Such crystals are called
POLARISATION OF
birefringent crystals and are used for
producing polarised light. LIGHT
(Source of picture: wikimedia.org)

Structure
5.1 Introduction 5.4 Principles of Producing Linearly Polarised
Expected Learning Outcomes Light
5.2 What is Polarisation? Ideal Polariser: Malus’s Law
Polarisation by Reflection: Brewster’s Law
5.3 Simple States of Polarised Light
Polarisation by Double Refraction
Linear Polarisation
Selective Absorption: Dichroism
Circular Polarisation
Elliptical Polarisation 5.5 Wave Plates: Circular and Elliptical Polarisers
5.6 Summary
5.7 Terminal Questions
5.8 Solutions and Answers

STUDY GUIDE
In this unit, you will study polarisation of light. Polarisation of light is an important phenomenon because it
is an experimental evidence of transverse nature of light. In Unit 4, you have learnt that light waves are
transverse in nature because it is an electromagnetic wave. This means that the electric and magnetic
fields associated with light waves are perpendicular to its direction of propagation. The transverse nature
of the mechanical waves on a string is easy & to visualise.
& But, we cannot ‘see’ the transverse nature of
light waves because it is the variation of E and B fields in space and time. The transverse nature and
hence polarisation of light is inferred on the basis of experiments. If you revise the propagation of
transverse wave on a string from Unit 1, it will help you understand polarisation and transverse nature of
light better. You should also revise vector algebra studied in second semester course BPHCT-133
because we will use expressions of electric field and magnetic field in vector form. In addition, you need
to focus on the geometry of various optical components needed for producing polarised light. Try to solve
SAQs and TQs yourself first before looking at their solutions and answers.

“Physics is the belief that a simple and consistent description of Niels Bohr
nature is possible.”

119
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous four units of this course, you have studied about mechanical
waves and electromagnetic waves. You now have fairly good understanding
of wave motion and how do we describe waves graphically as well as
mathematically. In Unit 4, you learnt that light is also a wave phenomenon;
light is an electromagnetic wave. Therefore, we can apply the concepts
related to wave motion such as superposition of waves for the analysis of
optical phenomena such as interference and diffraction.
In Unit 4, you &also learnt that Maxwell’s
& equations and the wave equations for
electric field (E) and magnetic field (B) led us to conclude that
electromagnetic
& &waves (including light) are transverse in nature. This means
that the E and B fields associated with the electromagnetic waves are
perpendicular to its direction of propagation. The experimentally observed
phenomenon of polarisation of light requires that light should be a
transverse wave. So, Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory of light did explain
this experimental observation. In this unit, you will study polarisation of light
applying the concepts of wave motion and electromagnetic waves studied so
far.
You must have seen people using antiglare goggles as also antiglare
windshields for their cars. Do you know that polarisation of light has something
to do with these? Polarisation of light also plays a vital role in designing sky
light filters for cameras and numerous optical instruments including the
polarising microscope and polarimeter. All these optical devices and
equipment are based on polarisation of light.
We begin this unit with an explanation as to what we mean by polarisation and
polarised waves in general in Sec. 5.2. You will learn what distinguishes the
polarised light from unpolarised light. The polarisation of light is understood on
the basis of the principle of superposition of waves. In Sec. 5.3, you will learn
that, depending upon the phase relation between the two superposing linearly
polarised light waves, we can have three distinct states of polarisations. These
states of polarisation are called linear, circular and elliptical. You will also learn
that linear and circular polarisations are the special cases of elliptical
polarisation. In Sec. 5.4, you will learn Malus’s law which defines an ideal
polariser and Brewster’s law which prescribes the condition under which we
can obtain linearly polarised light due to reflection. These laws enable us to
devise methods and optical components for producing linearly polarised light.
In addition, in this section, you will also learn about the properties such as
double refraction (or birefringence) and selective absorption of certain
materials which are used for producing polarised light. In Sec. 5.5, you will
learn about optical components called half wave plate and quarter wave plate
which are used for producing polarised light.
With this unit, we come to the end of Block 1 of the course. In the next Block,
which comprises three units, you will learn about interference of light.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
explain what is linearly, circularly and elliptically polarised state of light;
describe how light can be polarised by reflection;
120
Unit 5 Polarisation of Light
solve simple problems based on Malus’s law and Brewster’s law;
explain how optical birefringence is used in production of polarised light;
describe the construction and working of Nicol prism;
explain the production of linearly polarised light due to dichroism; and
understand the working of half wave plate and quarter wave plate.

5.2 WHAT IS POLARISATION?

You have learnt in Unit 4 that light is an electromagnetic wave and the
electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature. This means that the electric
and magnetic fields associated with the light wave are perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. When the electric (or magnetic) field variations in
a light wave are in a fixed plane, we say that the light is polarised.
To visualise the polarisation phenomenon, let us consider a transverse wave
on a string. Refer to Fig. 5.1 which depicts a transverse wave travelling along
a string. From Fig. 5.1a, you will note that the string vibrates only in the
vertical plane. That is, vibrations of the particles of the string are confined to
just one single plane. Such a wave is said to be linearly (or plane)
polarised. How would you classify waves shown in Fig. 5.1b and c? The
wave shown in Fig. 5.1b is also plane polarised since vibrations are confined
to the horizontal plane. But, the wave in Fig. 5.1c is unpolarised because
simultaneous vibrations in more than one plane are present. However, it can
be polarised by placing a slit in its path as in Fig. 5.1d. When the first slit (slit
1) is oriented vertically, horizontal vibrations are cut off. This means that only
vertical vibrations are allowed to pass so that the wave is linearly or plane
polarised. What happens when a horizontal slit (slit 2) is placed beyond the
vertical slit (slit 1) in the path of propagation of the wave? In that situation,
both the horizontal as well as vertical components (of the incident wave) will
be blocked. And the wave amplitude will reduce to zero as shown in Fig. 5.1d
beyond slit 2.

Slit 2

Slit 1

Fig. 5.1: a) A vertically plane polarised transverse wave on a string; b) a

horizontally plane polarised transverse wave; c) an unpolarised wave;
d) the wave in (c) becomes plane polarised after passing through slit 1
and the wave amplitude reduces to zero if another slit (slit 2), oriented
perpendicular to slit 1 is introduced.

The polarisation is a property which applies only to transverse waves.

Can you guess why is it so? Why longitudinal waves cannot be polarised? In a
transverse wave, the oscillations of the particles of the medium can be in any 121
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
direction in the plane perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
When the oscillation are confined to only one direction, say by means of
placing a slit in the path of the wave (Fig. 5.1d), the wave is said to be plane
polarised. In contrast, in case of longitudinal waves, such as sound waves, the
direction of oscillations of the particles of the medium is always along the
direction to wave propagation. So, longitudinal waves do not exhibit
polarisation.

Fig. 5.2: Schematic diagram of the apparatus for observing polarisation of light.
Let us now consider what do we mean by polarisation of visible light. Refer to
Fig. 5.2 which depicts a typical experimental arrangement to observe
polarisation. The light from a source, say an electric bulb, is made to pass
through a polariser P, which works for light waves in the same way as slit 1 in
A polariser is an optical Fig. 5.1 works for mechanical wave. The light waves emerging from the bulb is
device which converts a unpolarised. It is observed that the intensity of light emerging out of P reduces
beam of unpolarised light to about 50%. It is also observed that rotating P in its own plane introduces
into a beam of polarised
no further change in light intensity.
light. A polariser polarises
light waves by permitting Now, if a second identical polariser called analyser, A is introduced in the
only those electric field path of light so that its transmission axis is parallel to P, the intensity of light
vectors, associated with from the bulb remains unaffected. But, rotating A in its own plane has a
the light waves, to pass
dramatic effect! For 90q rotation with respect to the transmission axis of P, the
through which are parallel
light is nearly cut-off.
to its (polariser’s)
transmission axis. You may ask: How do we explain this experimental observation in terms
of electromagnetic theory? As you learnt in Unit 4, electromagnetic nature
of light demands complete description of associated electric (and magnetic)
field vectors and the way it varies with respect to the direction of propagation.
For the arrangement shown in Fig. 5.2, the electric field vector of the light
emitted by the source can have all orientations
& in the yz-plane. Such light is
called unpolarised light; that is, the E field vector keeps changing its
orientation in a random manner in the plane perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation. The light wave propagates as such till it reaches
& the
polariser P, which allows essentially unhindered passage of E field vector
oriented parallel to its transmission axis. If the transmission axis is along y-
axis, the electric field along y-direction (E y ) passes through it unaffected. In
addition, the y-components of electric field vectors inclined to y-axis can also
pass through P. Thus, after passing through the polariser P, the electric
vectors oriented only along y-axis will be present. When electric vector
122
Unit 5 Polarisation of Light
oscillates along a straight line in a plane perpendicular to the direction
of propagation, the light is said to be linearly or plane polarised. The
plane polarised light wave further travels to the analyser A, which is identical
to P.&When A is at 90q with respect to P, it can allow
& only the z-components of
the E field to pass. Since only y-components of E field are present in the
wave incident on A, no light is transmitted by A.
So, on the basis of the above qualitative description of polarisation, we may
conclude that:
1. No polarisation of longitudinal waves occurs as the vibrations of the
particles of the medium are along the direction of propagation of the waves
only.
2. The transverse nature of light is responsible for its polarisation.
You may now like to know: Do natural (or ordinary) light sources emit
polarised light? Answer to this question is ‘yes’ as well as ‘no’! You know
that emission of light involves a large number of randomly oriented atomic (or
molecular) emitters. Every individual excited atom radiates polarised waves
for about 10 8 s. These waves form a resultant wave of given polarisation
which persists for the lifetime of the excited atom. At the same time, other
atoms (molecules) also emit light waves, whose resultant states of polarisation
may be quite different. Because of this randomness, every orientation of
electric vector in space is equally probable in the light emitted by ordinary
sources. That is, electric vectors associated with light waves from an ordinary
source are oriented in all directions in a plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation and thus there is a completely unpredictable change in the overall
polarisation. Moreover, due to such rapid changes, individual resultant
polarisation states become almost indiscernible. The light is then said to be
unpolarised.
The visible light emitted by ordinary sources does not correspond to either of
these extremes. The oscillations of the associated electric field vectors are
neither completely regular nor completely irregular. That is, light from any
source is partially polarised. We ascibe a degree of polarisation to partially
polarised light. The degree of polarisation is one for completely polarised light
and zero for unpolarised light.
The next logical step perhaps would be to know various types of polarised
light. Let us learn about this aspect now.
5.3 SIMPLE STATES OF POLARISED LIGHT
You now know that in electromagnetic theory, light propagation is depicted as
In a right handed
evolution of electric field vector in a plane perpendicular to the direction of
coordinate system, if a
transmission. For unpolarised light, spatial variation of electric field at any right handed screw is
given time is more or less irregular. For plane or linearly polarised light, the turned so that it rotates
tip of electric vector oscillates up
& and down in a straight line in the same the x-axis towards the
plane. The space variation of E field for &linearly polarised light wave is shown y-axis, the direction of
in Fig. 5.3a. Note that the orientation of E field is fixed (along the y-direction) advance of the screw
represents the positive
although its magnitude and sign vary with time. Thus, in this case, the electric
z-axis.
field resides in what is known as plane of polarisation or the plane of
vibration (shown by dotted line in Fig. 5.3a) The reference plane shows& the
path followed by the tip of the electric vector as time passes. The tip of E field 123
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
vector executes one full cycle as one full wavelength passes through the
reference plane.
In addition to linear polarisation, there are two other states of polarisation,
namely circular
& polarisation and elliptical polarisation. The path followed
by the tip of E , as seen in the reference plane as time passes, for these
states of polarisation are shown in Fig. 5.3b and c respectively.

Fig. 5.3: Spatial variation of electric field vector for a) linearly polarised light;
The yz-plane (or x = 0 note that, in the reference plane, the bold face arrow indicates the path
plane) in Fig. 5.3 is the taken by the tip of the electric field vector as time passes; b) and c)
plane of polarisation of show the path taken by the tip of the electric field vector for circularly
the wave. We can identify and elliptically polarised light.
other states of The states of polarisation namely linear, circular and elliptical are the outcome
polarisation by looking at
of the superposition of two light waves whose eclectic field vectors are
the trajectories of the
tip of the electric field mutually perpendicular and the waves has same frequency and direction of
vector as the wave pass propagation. Let us now mathematically analyse how such superposition gives
through the reference rise to linearly, circularly or elliptically polarised light.
plane. You should always
5.3.1 Linear Polarisation
look at the reference
plane from the side away Suppose that two light waves are propagating along the z-direction. Let their
from the source (looking electric field vectors be mutually perpendicular, i.e. we choose these along the
back at the source) for x and y-axes. So, from Unit 4, you may recall that the electric field vectors
the definitions to be
associated with these light waves can be represented as
unique. &
E1 (z, t ) xˆ E01 cos(kz Zt ) (5.1)
&
and E 2 (z, t ) yˆ E02 cos(kz Zt I) (5.2)
You should note that the
where x̂ and ŷ are unit vectors along
& the &x and y-axes, respectively. E 01 and
addition of a positive I in
the phase (kz Zt ) E02 are the maximum values of E1 and E 2 , respectively, and I is the phase
& difference between the two waves.
means E 2 ( z, t ) lags
& From Unit 2, you may recall that the nature of the resultant wave due to the
E1 ( z, t ) for I > 0 and
superposition of these two waves is determined by the phase difference
vice-versa.
between them and the value of the ratio E02 / E01. Mathematically, we can
write electric field vector of the resultant wave due to the superposition of
these two waves as
& & &
E (z, t ) E1 (z, t ) E2 ( z, t )
xˆ E01 cos(kz Zt ) yˆ E02 cos(kz Zt I) (5.3)
124
Unit 5 Polarisation of Light
Let us first take the simplest case where the phase difference, I is zero or an
integral multiple of r 2S. That is, when in-phase waves are superposed,
Eq. (5.3) takes the form
&
E (z, t ) ( xˆ E01 yˆ E 02 ) cos (kz Zt ) (5.4)

From Eq. (.5.4), we note that the amplitude of the resultant wave is
2 E 2 and the electric field oscillations in the reference frame make an
E01 02
angle T tan1 (E02 / E01) with the x-axis.

For the special case of in-phase waves of equal amplitude (E01 E02 E0 ), When the amplitudes
of superposing waves
the resultant wave has amplitude equal to 2 E0 and the associated electric are equal, i.e.
vector is oriented at 45q with the x-axis (see the margin remark). So, we may E 01 E 02 E 0 , the
conclude that when two in-phase linearly polarised light waves are amplitude of the
superposed, the resultant wave has fixed orientation as well as resultant electric field
&
amplitude. That is, it too is linearly polarised, as depicted in Fig. 5.4a. In the E is [Eq. (5.4)]:
&
plane of observation, you will see a single resultant E oscillating
& sinusoidally
( E 0 ) 2 (E 0 ) 2
in time along an inclined line (Fig. 5.4b). The tip of the E - field progresses
through one complete cycle as the wave advances along the z-axis through 2 E0
one wavelength.
and
If we reverse this process, we can say that any linearly polarised light can E 02 E0
be visualised as a combination of two linearly polarised light with planes tan T 1
E 01 E0
of polarisation parallel to x = 0 and y = 0 planes. (This is similar to resolving
a vector in a plane along two mutually perpendicular directions.) In the tan 45q
subsequent sections, you will use this result frequently. or T 45q

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.4: a) Schematic representation of a linearly polarised light wave due to
superposition of two linearly polarised light waves; b) the orientation
&
and movement of the E - field of the resultant light wave as time
passes.
If the phase difference between the two superposing orthogonal linearly
polarised light waves is an odd integral multiple of r S, the resultant wave will
again be linearly polarised. You should convince yourself that the electric field
vector of the resultant wave in this case is given as
&
E (z, t ) (xˆ E01 yˆ E02 ) cos (kz Zt ) (5.5)
125
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
What will be the orientation of the resultant electric vector in the reference
plane for this case? To know the answer of this question, work-out the
following SAQ.

SAQ 1 - Linearly polarised light

Depict the orientation of electric field vector defined by Eq. (5.5) in the
reference plane.

5.3.2 Circular Polarisation

We now investigate the nature of the resultant light wave arising due to
superposition of two orthogonal plane polarised light waves whose amplitudes
are equal (E01 E02 E0 ) but phases differ by S/2, i.e. their relative phase
cos(T) cos T
S
§ S T · sin T difference I 2nS , n 0, r 1, r 2,... For n = 0, we can rewrite Eqs. (5.1)
cos ¨ ¸ 2
©2 ¹
and (5.2) as
&
E1 (z, t ) xˆ E0 cos (kz Zt ) (5.6a)
&
E 2 (z, t ) yˆ E0 sin (kz Zt ) (5.6b)

The resultant wave due to the superposition of the above linearly polarised
light waves is given by
&
E (z, t ) E0 [xˆ cos (kz Zt ) yˆ sin (kz Zt )] (5.7)
&
In Eq. (5.7), you may note that the scalar amplitude of the electric field E of
the resultant wave is constant ( E0 ) but its orientation varies with time. To
convince yourself about the value of the scalar amplitude of the resultant
&
electric field E as given by Eq. (5.7), go through the following example.

XAMPLE 5.11: AMPLITUDE OF THE RESULTANT

ELECTRIC FIELD

Show that the scalar amplitude of the electric field of the resultant wave
given by Eq. (5.7) is equal to E0 .

SOLUTION From vector algebra, you know that the magnitude of a

&
vector A is given as
& & &
A ( A.A)1 / 2

So, from Eq. (5.7), we can write that

& & &
E (E.E)1 / 2

>E0 [xˆ cos(kx Zt ) yˆ sin (kz Zt )] E0 [xˆ cos(kx Zt )

yˆ sin (kz Zt )]@
1/ 2

(E02 )1/ 2 >cos2 (kx Zt ) sin2 (kz Zt )@

1/ 2

because xˆ xˆ 1 and xˆ yˆ 0 yˆ xˆ
&
So, E E0
126
Unit 5 Polarisation of Light
&
To determine the trajectory along which the tip of electric field E of the
resultant wave moves, we can readily combine the scalar parts of Eqs. (5.6a)
and (5.6b) to yield
2 2
§ E1 · § E2 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ 1 (5.8)
© E0 ¹ © E0 ¹
which is the equation of a circle. Thus, we may conclude that the orientation
of resultant electric vector changes continuously and its tip moves along a
circle as the wave propagates (time passes). In the reference plane, therefore,
we will observe a dot (tip of the electric field vector) moving along a circle.
&
This means that E is not restricted to a single plane. The question now
arises: What is the direction of rotation? Obviously there are two possibilities:
clockwise and counter-clockwise. To know which of these is relevant here, we
&
tabulate E at different space points at a given time say, t = 0, using Eq. (5.7).
&
The tabulated values of E are as under:

Location O O 3O O 5O 3O 7O
z=0 z z z z z z z z=O
in space 8 4 8 2 8 4 8
Resultant
xˆ yˆ yˆ xˆ xˆ yˆ xˆ yˆ
Electric xˆ E 0 E0 yˆ E 0 E0 xˆ E 0 E0 yˆ E 0 E0 xˆ E 0
& 2 2 2 2
field, E
&
The orientations of electric field E at different values of z are depicted in
Fig. 5.5. If you position yourself in the reference plane and observe the
&
evolution of E from z = O to z = 0 (backward towards source), you will find that
&
the tip of E rotates clockwise. Such a light wave is said to be right-
circularly polarised or right circular light. The electric field makes one
complete rotation as the wave advances through one wavelength.

Fig. 5.5: Rotation of the electric field vector in a right-circularly polarised light
wave.
S
For phase difference I 2nS with n = 0, r 1, r 2, …, Eq. (5.7) becomes
2
&
E (z, t ) E0 >xˆ cos (kz Zt ) yˆ sin (kz Zt )@ (5.9)
127
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction

SAQ 2 - Electric field vector of resultant light wave

S
Using Eqs. (5.1) and (5.2) and I 2nS ; n 0, r 1, r 2,, derive
2
Eq. (5.9).
&
Eq. (5.9) shows that the E vector rotates counter-clockwise in the reference
frame. (Before proceeding further you should convince & yourself about the
validity of this statement by tabulating the values of E at t = 0 for different
space points, and drawing a figure like Fig. 5.5) Such a light wave is called
left-circular polarised light or left-circular light.
Can you now guess as to what will happens if two oppositely polarised circular
waves of equal amplitude are superposed? To know the outcome of such
superposition, you should add Eqs. (5.7) and (5.9). Doing that, you will obtain
the expression for the electric field of the resultant light wave as given below:
&
E 2E0 xˆ cos(kz Zt ) (5.10)

Eq. (5.10) is similar to Eq. (5.1) which represents a linearly polarised light
wave. Thus, we conclude that superposition of two oppositely polarised
circular light waves (of same amplitude) results in a linearly or plane
polarised light wave.
5.3.3 Elliptical Polarisation
Let us now consider the most general case by relaxing the conditions on
amplitude and phase difference between the two superposing orthogonal
linearly polarised light waves. Physically, we expect that beside its rotation,
even the magnitude of resultant
& electric field vector will change. This means
that the tip of the resultant E should trace out an ellipse in the reference plane
as the wave propagates.
To analyse this mathematically, we write the scalar part of Eq. (5.2) in
expanded form:
E2
cos(kz Zt ) cos I sin (kz Zt ) sin I
E02
On substituting the value to cos(kz Zt ) from Eq. (5.1), we get
E2 E1
cos I sin (kz Zt ) sin I
E02 E01
E2 E
or 1 cos I sin (kz Zt ) sin I (5.11)
E02 E01

Further, the scalar part of Eq. (5.1) can be written as

E1
cos (kz Zt )
E 01
So, we can write
1
sin (kz Zt ) >1 (E1 / E01)2 @2
because sin x 1 cos2 x
128
Unit 5 Polarisation of Light
Thus, substituting the above expression for sin (kz Zt ) in Eq. (5.11), we get
1
E2 E
1 cos I
E02 E01
> @
1 (E1 / E01)2 2 sin I

Squaring both sides of the above expression and rearranging the terms, we
get
2
§ E2 ·
¨
E
1 cos I ¸ >1 (E1 / E01)2 @sin2 I
© E02 E01 ¹
2 2
§ E2 · § E · § E ·§ E ·
or ¨ ¸ ¨ 1 ¸ 2 ¨ 1 ¸ ¨ 2 ¸ cos I sin2 I (5.12)
© 02 ¹
E © 01 ¹
E © E01 ¹ © E02 ¹
Eq. (5.12) defines an ellipse whose principal axis is inclined with the Fig. 5.6: Schematic
(E1, E 2 ) coordinate system (Fig. 5.6). The angle of inclination, say D, is given diagram of
by elliptically polarised
2E01 E02 cos I light wherein the tip
tan 2D (5.13) of the resultant
2 E2
E01 02 electric field vector
For D = 0 or equivalently I r S / 2, r 3S / 2,..., Eq. (5.12) reduces to traces an ellipse.
2 2
§ E1 · §E ·
¨ ¸ ¨ 2 ¸ 1 (5.14)
© E01 ¹ © E02 ¹
Eq. (5.14) defines an ellipse whose principal axes are aligned with the
coordinate axes. So, we discover that elliptical polarisation results from the
superposition of two linearly polarised light waves of unequal amplitude and
arbitrary phase difference between them. It is interesting to note that the linear
and circular polarisations, discussed in the earlier sections, are special cases
of elliptical polarisation. You should solve the following SAQ to show that it is
indeed the case.

SAQ 3 - Linear and circular polarisation from elliptical

polarisation
Starting with Eq. (5.12), show that linear and circular polarisation states are
special cases of elliptical polarisation.

Before proceeding further, let us recall the important points discussed so far.

x Polarisation of light is due to its transverse nature.

x When the electric field vector associated with a light wave oscillates
along a straight line in a plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of light, it is said to be linearly or plane polarised light.
x When two linearly polarised light waves whose electric field vectors are
mutually perpendicular are superposed, we obtain linearly, circularly
and elliptically polarised light depending upon the phase difference
between them and the relation between their amplitudes.
x Linear and circular polarisations are the special cases of elliptical
polarisation.

Now that you know what is polarised light and what are the different states of
polarisation, the next logical step is to know the principles and techniques to 129
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
obtain polarised light. First, let us discuss the principles of producing linearly
polarised light.
5.4 PRINCIPLES OF PRODUCING LINEARLY
POLARISED LIGHT
The most important optical component in any polarised light producing
arrangement is a polariser. Polariser changes the unpolarised natural light
into polarised light. An ideal linear polariser is one which reduces the
intensity of an incident unpolarised light beam by exactly 50 percent. A
linear polariser produces linearly or plane polarised light.
When unpolarised light is incident on an ideal polariser, the outgoing light is in
a define polarisation state ( P - state) with an orientation parallel to the
transmission axis of the polariser. That is, the polariser somehow discards all
except one particular polarisation state. You would like to know: How do we
determine whether or not a device is a linear polariser? The law which
provides us necessary tool is Malus’s law. Let us learn about it now.
5.4.1 Ideal Polariser: Malus’s Law
&
Refer to Fig. 5.7. Unpolarised natural light indicated by E field in all direction
in the reference plane R1, is incident on an ideal polariser, P whose
transmission axis, shown by dotted line, makes an angle T with the y-axis. For
this arrangement, only the electric field parallel to the transmission axis of the
polariser will be transmitted as shown in reference plane R 2 . This polarised
light is incident on an identical ideal polariser, called analyser, A whose
transmission axis is vertical; that is, along the y-axis. Suppose that there is no
absorption of light in the material of either the polariser or analyser.

Fig. 5.7: A linear polariser.

&
Under these conditions, if E is the amplitude of the electric field E transmitted
by the polariser, only its component E cosT parallel to the transmission axis of
the analyser would pass through the analyser. Thus, the intensity of the
polarised light reaching the detector (reference plane, R3 ) is given by
I (T) I (0) cos2 T (5.15)
where T is the angle between the transmission axes of the polariser, P and the
analyser, A. The maximum intensity I(0) occurs when the transmission axis of
the polariser and the analyser are parallel.
130
Unit 5 Polarisation of Light
Eq. (5.15) constitutes what is known as Malus’s law. Malus law can be used
to check whether an optical device is an ideal linear polariser or not. Study the
following example.

XAMPLE 5.2: IDEAL POLARISER

A beam of vertically polarised light is incident on a linear polariser. It is

observed that the intensity of the light emerging out of the polariser is
25 percent of the incident intensity when the angle between the
transmission axis of the polariser and the vertical is 60$ . Is it an ideal
polariser?
SOLUTION Let us assume that the linear polariser is an ideal polariser.
It should, therefore, obey Malus’s law:
I (T) I (0) cos2 T
As per the problem, the angle between the vertical (polarisation direction of
the vertically polarised light) and the transmission axis of polariser is 60$ .
So,
I (0 )
I (60$ ) I (0) cos2 (60)
4
So, the intensity of the emergent light is one-fourth or 25% of the intensity,
I(0) of the incident light as given in the problem. Thus, the linear polariser
is an ideal polariser.

Now, before proceeding further, you may like to solve an SAQ.

SAQ 4 - Application of Malus’s law

Unpolarised light is incident on two polarising sheets placed one over another.
What must be the angle between their transmission axes if the intensity of light The phenomenon of
polarisation of light
transmitted finally is one-third of the intensity of the incident light? Assume that
due to reflection was
each polarising sheet acts as an ideal polariser. studied by Malus. One
evening, he was
So far, we have discussed the criteria to decide whether a polariser is an ideal examining a calcite
linear polariser or not. Polarised light can be produced using a variety of crystal while standing
physical mechanisms: reflection, birefringence (or double refraction), at the window of his
scattering and dichroism (or selective absorption). You will now learn about house in Luxembourg.
some of these in detail. The image of the Sun
was reflected towards
5.4.2 Polarisation by Reflection: Brewster’s Law him from the windows
of Luxembourg
Reflection of light from a dielectric like plastic or glass is one of the most Palace. When he
common methods of obtaining polarised light. You may have noticed the glare looked at the image
across a window pane or the sheen on the surface of a billiard ball or book through the calcite
crystal, he was
jacket. It is due to reflection at the surface and the reflected light is partially
amused at
polarised. However, to understand why reflected light is partially polarised, we disappearance of one
will consider laboratory situations. of the double images
Suppose that an unpolarised light wave is incident on an interface between as he rotated the
crystal.
two different media at an angle Ti as shown in Fig. 5.8a. Note that we have
represented unpolarised light by the symbol which indicates two 131
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
orthogonal components of the associated electric field. The dot (x) indicates
electric field component perpendicular to the plane of incidence and arrow
(l) indicates electric field component parallel to the plane of incidence (that
is, plane of the paper). This representation of unpolarised light is due to the
fact that we can represent an incoming unpolarised light as made up of two
orthogonal, equal amplitude linearly polarised light having their respective
electric field vectors parallel and perpendicular to plane of incidence.

Fig. 5.8: a) Unpolarised light beam incident at angle Ti at the interface of two
optically different media; b) when the incidence angle is equal to
Brewster’s angle, the reflected light is linearly or plane polarised.

When the unpolarised light is incident at a particular angle, the reflected light
is linearly polarised and the transmitted light is partially polarised as shown in
Fig. 5.8b. This incidence angle, TB is called Brewster angle. The Brewster
angle is also called polarising angle. It is also observed that when the angle
of incidence is equal to Brewster angle, the reflected and transmitted rays are
perpendicular to each other. This provides us with one of the most convenient
methods for producing polarised light. These observations can be understood
on the basis of Snell’s law of refraction (Fig. 5.8b):
n1 sin TB n2 sin Tr
where n1 and n 2 are the refractive indices of the media at whose interface
S
light undergoes reflection. Since T r T B , it readily follows that
2
n1 sin TB n2 cos TB
n2
or tan T B (5.16)
n1
That is, the tangent of Brewster angle is equal to the ratio of the refractive
indices of the media at whose interface incident light is reflected. When the
incident beam is in air (n1 1) and the transmitting medium is glass
(n2 1.5), the Brewster angle is nearly 56q. For air-water interface, like the
surface of a pond or a lake T B is 53q. This means that when the sun is 37q
above the horizontal, the light reflected by a calm pond or lake should be
completely linearly polarised.
We, however, encounter some problems in utilizing this phenomenon to
construct an effective polariser on account of two reasons:
i) The reflected beam, although completely polarised, is weak.
ii) The transmitted beam, although strong, is only partially polarised.
132
Unit 5 Polarisation of Light
These shortcomings are overcome by using reflection from a pile of plates.
You can fabricate such a device with glass plates for the visible light, silver
chloride plates for the infrared, and quartz plates for the ultraviolet region. It is
an easy matter to construct a crude arrangement of this sort with a dozen or
so microscope slides (Fig. 5.9).
Before proceeding further, you may like to solve an SAQ.

SAQ 5 - Polarisation by reflection

A plate of flint glass (refractive index 1.67) is immersed in water (refractive Fig. 5.9: Polarisation
index 1.33). Calculate the Brewster angle for internal as well as external of light by a pile of
plates.
reflection at an interface.

Having studied how reflection of light can be used to produce polarised light,
you may be tempted to know whether or not the phenomenon of refraction can
also be used for the same? Refraction of light in isotropic crystals like NaCl or
non-crystalline substances like glass, water or air does not lead to polarisation
of light. However, there are crystalline substances such as calcite and
cellophane which are optically anisotropic. That is, their optical properties are
not the same in all directions. When light passes through such crystalline
substances, we observe what is known as double refraction or
birefringence. Let us now learn how the property of birefringence exhibited
by anisotropic crystals is used to produce polarised light.

5.4.3 Polarisation by Double Refraction

To understand the meaning of double refraction or birefringence, mark a
black dot on a piece of paper and observe it through a glass plate. You will
see only one dot. Now, observe the dot through a calcite crystal. You will be
surprised at the remarkable observation: instead of one, two grey dots
appear, as shown in Fig. 5.10. Further, rotation of the crystal will cause one of
the dots to remain stationary while the other appears to move along a circle
about it. Similarly, if you place a calcite crystal on your book, you will see two
images of each letter.
Fig. 5.10: Double
You may ask: Why does this happen? It is because the calcite crystal splits refraction of a light
the incident light beam into two beams. This phenomenon of splitting of a light beam by calcite
beam into two is known as double refraction or birefringence. Materials crystal.
exhibiting this property are said to be birefringent. We bring you the
excitement of Bartholinus, who discovered birefringence, in his words:
In some of the books,
Greatly prized by all men is diamond, and many are the joys which you may find that
similar treasures bring, such as precious stones and pearls … but ordinary and
he, who, on the other hand, prefers the knowledge of unusual extraordinary rays are
phenomena to these delights, he will, I hope, have no less joy in a being denoted by bold
new sort of body, namely, a transparent crystal, recently brought to letters O and E. We
have used small letters
us from Iceland, which perhaps is one of the greatest wonders that
(o- and e-) to avoid
nature has produced. As my investigation of this crystal proceeded confusion with the
there showed itself a wonderful and extraordinary phenomenon: notation for the electric
objects which are looked at through the crystal do not show, as in field.
the case of other transparent bodies, a single refracted image, but
they appear double.
133
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
Before we discuss polarisation of light due double refraction, let us first
familiarise ourself with some of the concepts related to this phenomenon.
The two refracted beams into which incident light splits have different angles
of refraction. The distinguishing feature of these two refracted light beams is
that one of these obeys Snell’s law. It is called the ordinary ray (o-ray) in
accordance with the nomenclature given by Bartholinus. The other beam does
not obey Snell’s law and is called the extraordinary ray (e-ray). That is, a
birefringent crystal displays two distinct indices of refraction.
Another important concept is that of optic axis, which signifies some special
directions in a birefringent crystal along which two refractive indices are equal.
This implies that both o- and e-rays in the direction of optic axis propagate
with same velocity. You may now like to know: Does optic axis refer to any
particular line through the crystal? No, the optic axis refers to a direction.
To understand the concept of optic axis, refer to Fig. 5.11 which shows a
Fig. 5.11: Calcite calcite crystal, also known as Iceland spar (CaCO 3 ). It is transparent to
crystal. The line AAc visible light and generally used in the shape of rhombohedra bounded by six
shows the direction parallelograms with angles 102$ and 78$ (Fig. 5.11). At corners A and H, the
of the optic axis. angle of each of the three faces is obtuse and these points are known as blunt
corners. A line passing through one of the blunt corners and is equally
inclined to all the three edges meeting at that point gives the direction of
optic axis. Also, any line parallel to this line is also known as optic axis. This
means that for any given point in the crystal, an optic axis may be drawn
which will be parallel to that for any other point. For example, AAc and broken
lines parallel to AAc shown in Fig. 5.11 are the optic axes for a calcite crystal.
When unpolarised light is incident perpendicular to these special directions
called optic axis, both the o- and e-rays travel in the same direction with
different velocities.
In addition to optic axis, two more geometrical concepts are useful in the
context of double refraction by birefringent crystals like calcite. One is the
concept of principal section which is a plane containing optic axis and
perpendicular to the opposite faces of the crystal. Since there are six faces in
Table 5.1: Refractive the crystal, for every point there are three principal sections. A principal
indices of some uniaxial section always cuts the surface of calcite crystal in parallelogram with angles
birefringent crystals for 109 $ and 71$ . Another concept is that of principal plane. The principal plane
light of wavelength 5893 Å
for o-ray is a plane containing optic axis and the o-ray, and the principal plane
Crystal no ne for e-ray is the plane containing optic axis and e-ray.
Birefringent crystals which posses only one optic axis are called uniaxial
Tourmaline 1.669 1.638
crystals. And, crystals having two optic axes are called biaxial crystals.
Calcite 1.6584 1.4864 Calcite, quartz and ice are examples of uniaxial crystals and mica is a biaxial

Quartz 1.5443 1.5534 crystal. Most of the polarisation devices are made of uniaxial crystals.

Sodium 1.5854 1.3368 Further, the uniaxial crystal for which the refractive index for o-ray (no ) is
Nitrate more than the refractive index for the e-ray (ne ) is called negative uniaxial
crystal. On the other hand, if ne ! no , we have a positive uniaxial crystal.
Ice 1.309 1.313
The difference, 'n ne no is a measure of birefringence. The values of
n o and ne for same uniaxial crystals are given in Table 5.1.
With this background knowledge of the geometrical concepts associated with
birefringent crystals, we are now in a position to discuss how unpolarised light
incident on a uniaxial crystal gets polarised? We know that when unpolarised
134
Unit 5 Polarisation of Light
light beam enters a calcite crystal, it splits into the o- and e-rays. Now, refer to
Fig. 5.12a which shows a calcite crystal. ABCD is one of the principal sections
of the crystal which contains the optic axis and is normal to the faces BECF
and AHDG. When unpolarised light is incident on the crystal, it splits into e-ray
and o-ray: the electric field of e-ray vibrate in the plane containing the optic
axis and the electric field of o-ray vibrates perpendicular to it, as shown in Fig.
5.12b. We may, therefore, conclude that due to double refraction, the
unpolarised light beam splits into two components which are plane polarised.
This is the basic mechanism of producing polarised light using a birefringent
crystal.

Fig. 5.12: a) ABCD is one of the principal sections of the calcite crystal;
b) unpolarised light beam passing through a principal section of the
calcite crystal.
Huygens explained many aspects of double refraction in calcite on the basis
of wave theory. To appreciate Huygens explanation, refer to Fig. 5.13. Since
the o-ray obeys Snell’s law, it propagates with uniform velocity in all directions
in the crystal. As a result, the wave surfaces corresponding to o-ray are
spherical. However, the e-rays propagates with different velocities in different
directions in the crystal and hence the resulting wave surface is an ellipsoid of
revolution, i.e., a spheroid. Further, to reconcile with the fact that both the o-
and e-rays travel with the same velocity along the optic axis, both the wave
surfaces were assumed to touch each other at the two extremities of the optic
axis. These features are depicted in Fig. 5.13. You may now like to know the
nature of wave surfaces for o- and e-waves in a positive uniaxial crystals. This Fig. 5.13: o- and e-
is subject matter of TQ 1. wave surfaces in
negative uniaxial
Now, before proceeding further, let us recapitulate the important points crystal (calcite).
discussed so far in this section.

x An ideal polariser reduces the intensity of unpolarised light by

50 percent. Malus’s law provides a basis to determine whether a
polariser is an ideal polariser or not.
x When a beam of unpolarised light is incident at Brewster’s angle on a
reflecting surface, the reflected beam is plane polarised.
x Birefringence is a phenomenon in which a beam of light is split into
two beams. It is a property of the material and such materials are called
birefringent materials.
x The o-rays obeys Snell’s law of refraction whereas e-ray do not.
x Optic axis is a direction in a birefringent crystal along which o- and e-
rays propagate with same velocity.
135
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
From the above discussion it follows that, due to double refraction, & an
unpolarised light wave splits into o- and e-components with their E -vibrations
perpendicular to each other. This splitting of unpolarised light into two linearly
polarised light gives us an opportunity to produce linearly polarised light by
selective absorption of one of the polarisation-states. This is readily done by a
device, called Nicol prism, which removes the o-ray through total internal
reflection. It was designed by William Nicol in 1828. You will learn about it
now.
Nicol Prism
Nicol prism is made from a naturally occurring crystal of calcite. To understand
its construction, refer to Fig. 5.14a which shows a crystal ADEGFHBC whose
length is three times its breadth. ABCD is one of the principal sections with
angle ABC equal to 71$ . The end faces AB and CD are cut in such a way that
they make angle 68$ and 112$ instead of 71$ and 109 $ as shown in Fig.
5.14b. The resulting crystal is then cut into two pieces along a plane passing
through the two blunt corners and perpendicular to the principal section. The
cut surfaces are polished to optical flatness and then cemented together with
a layer of a non-refringent material such as Canada Balsam.

Fig. 5.14: a) Nicol prism; b) principal section ABCD of the Nicol prism.

You may ask: Why is Canada Balsam used as cementing material? Well, we
will address this question in a short while.
To understand the working of Nicol prism, let a ray PQ of unpolarised light be
incident on its face AB. This ray splits into o- and e-rays. Now, to make the
light emerging from Nicol prism linearly polarised, the o-ray is removed by the
process of total internal reflection.
When the o-ray is incident on the cut surface, it is travelling from optically
denser calcite to rarer Canada Balsam medium. For sodium light, refractive
index of Canada Balsam is 1.55, which is midway between refractive indices
for o-ray (no 1.66) and the e-ray (ne 1.48) in calcite. Thus, it is an
optically rarer medium with respect to o-ray and denser for e-ray. Further, the
critical angle for total internal reflection of o-ray is sin 1(1.55 / 1.66) 69q.
So, if the o-ray is incident on Canada Balsam surface at critical angle for total
internal reflection, it will be removed from emergent ray. The angle of
incidence on Canada Balsam depends on the angle which AB makes with
blunt edge BC and also on the breadth and length ratio of the crystal. For this
reason, the length of the crystal is chosen thrice its breadth and natural angle
of 70$ of the calcite crystal is reduced to 68$ . The reduction in angle ensures
that o-ray is incident on Canada Balsam at an angle greater than critical angle
(69$ ) so that it is totally internally reflected. The emergent light will, therefore,
136
be made up only of plane polarised e-ray.
Unit 5 Polarisation of Light
Though Nicol prism is a useful device for obtaining plane polarised light, it has
the following limitations:
1. It can be used for polarisation of visible light only.
2. e-ray also can get totally reflected by the Canada Balsam surface if it is
travelling along the optic axis. Why? It is so because in this situation, the
refractive index for e-ray will be same as for o-ray (i.e. greater than the
refractive index for Canada Balsam).
With time, a number of modifications have been incorporated in the basic
design of the Nicol prism to overcome some of these limitations. However, we
will not go into these details.
So far you have studied about production of linearly polarised light by
reflection and double refraction. Other methods employed to produce linearly
polarised light are selective absorption (or dichroism) and scattering. We will
here discuss only dichroism and that too in brief.

5.4.4 Selective Absorption: Dichroism

As you know, unpolarised light wave can be regarded as made up of two
orthogonal, linearly polarised light waves. Many naturally occurring and man
made materials have the property of selective absorption of one of these two
(o- and e-) rays; the other passes through without much attenuation. This
property of selective absorption is known as dichroism. Materials exhibiting
this property are said to be dichroic materials. The net result of passing an
unpolarised light through dichroic material is the production of linearly
polarised light beam. A particularly simple dichroic device is the so-called
Wire-Grid polariser. You will learn about it now.
The Wire-Grid Polariser
The wire-grid polariser consists of a grid of parallel conducting wires, as
shown in Fig. 5.15. Suppose that unpolarised light is incident on the grid from
the right. It can be considered as made up of two orthogonal P-states: Px and
Py in the reference plane R z . The y-component of the electric field drives the
electrons of each wire and generates a current. It produces (Joule) heating of
the wire. The net result is that energy is transferred from the field to the wire
grid. In addition, electrons accelerating along the y-direction radiate in the
forward as well as backward directions. The incident wave tends to be
cancelled by the wave re-radiated in the backward direction. As a result,
transmission of y-component of field is almost blocked. Fig. 5.15: The wire-
grid polariser.
However, the x-component of field is essentially unaltered as it propagates
through the grid and the light coming out of the wire-grid is linearly polarised.
The wire-grid polariser almost completely attenuates the light due to Py
polarisation state (or the y-component) when the spacing between the wires is
less than or equal to the wavelength of the incident wave. You must realise
that this restriction is rather stringent for the fabrication of a wire-grid polariser
for visible light (O ~ 5 u 10 7 m).

An easy way out of this difficulty in the fabrication of the grid polariser is to
employ long chair polymer molecules made up of atoms which provide high
electrical conductivity along the length of the chain. These chains of polymer 137
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
molecules behave similar to the wires in the wire-grid polariser. The alignment
of these chains are almost parallel to each other. Because of high electrical
conductivity, the electric vector of unpolarised light parallel to the chain gets
absorbed. And the P-state perpendicular to these chains passes through.
These chemically synthesized polarisers are fabricated in the form of plastic
sheets and are known as polaroids. Since the spacing between these
molecular chains in a polaroid is small compared to the optical wavelength,
such polaroids are extremely effective in producing linearly polarised light.
Dichroic Crystals
Some naturally occurring crystalline materials are inherently dichroic due to
anisotropy in their structure. One of the best known dichroic materials is
tourmaline, a precious stone often used in jewellery. Tourmalines are
essentially
& boron silicates of differing chemical composition. The component
of E field perpendicular to the principal axis is strongly absorbed by the
sample. Thicker the crystal, more complete will be the absorption. A plate cut
from a tourmaline crystal parallel to its optic axis acts as a linear polariser.
This is illustrated in Fig. 5.16.
Fig. 5.16: Tourmaline We shall now consider a class of optical elements known as wave plates
crystal polariser. which serve to change the polarisation state of the incident light wave. A wave
plate introduces a phase lag between the two P-states by a predetermined
amount. That is, the relative phase difference between the two emerging
components is different from its initial value. This concept can be used to
convert a given polarisation state into any other and in so doing it is possible
even to produce circular or elliptic polarisation as well. This is the subject
matter of the next section.

5.5 WAVE PLATES: CIRCULAR AND ELLIPTICAL

POLARISERS
Consider a plane wave incident on a calcite crystal. It splits into o- and e-
waves. Since calcite is a negative uniaxial crystal, no ! ne and v (velocity of
e-wave) > v A (velocity of o-wave) implying that the e-ray travels faster than
the o-ray. After traversing the calcite crystal of thickness d, the path difference
In case of positive
uniaxial crystal, ne ! no between them is given by
and hence the path ' d ( n o ne )
difference will be and the relative phase difference between o- and e-rays is
d (ne n0 ). In fact the
2S 2S
general expression for G ' (no ne ) d (5.18)
O O
the path difference is
d no ne . Though, while entering the crystal, both the components were in phase.
The state of polarisation of emerging light depends on phase difference G,
apart from the amplitudes of incoming orthogonal field components. Let us
now consider some specific cases:
i) When the phase difference, G = 2mS; where m is an integer, the relative
path difference is mO. A device which induces a path difference between
the two orthogonal field vibrations is integral multiples of O is called the
full- wave plate. It introduces no observable effect on the polarisation of
the incident beam. That is, the field vibrations of the emergent light will be
138 identical with the field vibrations of the incident light.
Unit 5 Polarisation of Light

ii) When G = (2m + 1) S, the relative path difference will be §¨ m ·¸ O. Such

1
© 2¹
crystals are called half-wave plates.
S § m 1 · O . Such
iii) When G = (2m + 1) , the relative path difference will be ¨ ¸
2 © 2¹ 2
a birefringent sheet is called quarter-wave plate.
When linearly polarised light traverses a quarter-wave plate, the emergent
light will, in general, be elliptical.
Thus, we may conclude that the path difference between the o- and e-
waves in a birefringent device depends on its thickness.
You should now solve the following SAQ.

SAQ 6 - Thickness of a wave-plate

Calculate the thickness of a quarter wave-plate for light of wavelength 5890 Å.

The refractive indices for o- and e-rays are 1.55 and 1.54 respectively.

We now summarise what you have learnt in this unit.

5.6 SUMMARY

Concept Description

Polarised light Visible light can be linearly, circularly or elliptically polarised. All these
polarisation states arise due to superposition of two linearly (or plane) polarised
light waves characterised by different amplitudes and phases.

States of The electric field vectors of two linearly polarised light beams propagating along
polarisation z-axis can be represented as
&
E1 (z, t ) xˆ E01 cos(kz Zt )
&
E 2 (z, t ) yˆ E02 cos(kz Zt I)
where E01 and E 02 are the amplitudes of the two waves and I is the phase
difference between them. Superposition of these two polarised waves will result
in
Linearly polarised light if I = 0 or an integral multiple of r 2S
Circularly polarised light if I = S/2 and E01 E02
Elliptically polarised light if I = S/2 and E01 z E 02

Ideal linear According to Malus’s law, when the transmission axes of polariser and the
polariser analyser are at an angle T, the intensity of the polarised light reaching the
detector is given by I (T) I (0) cos2 T where, I (0) is the intensity of the
polarised light when T = 0.
Brewster’s law When natural light strikes an interface at Brewster’s angle, TB tan 1(n2 / n1 ),
where n1 and n 2 are the refractive indices of medium of incidence and
transmission, the reflected light is linearly polarised. Brewster’s angle is also
called polarising angle.
139
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
Birefringence When light is incident on a calcite crystal, it splits into two. The phenomenon is
known as double refraction or birefringence. These two refracted beams are
known as o- and e-rays. Snell’s law holds for o-rays (ordinary rays) and does
not hold for e-ray (extraordinary ray).
Optic axis In a birefringent material, the o- and the e-rays travel in the same direction with
same velocity along the optic axis. However, in a direction perpendicular to the
optic axis, they travels with different velocities. The electric field vibrations for o-
and the e-rays are mutually perpendicular.
Nicol prism The phenomenon of double refraction is used for producing linearly polarised
light. Nicol prism works on this principle. In the Nicol prism, the o-ray undergo
total internal reflection at the interface and the transmitted beam consists of
only electric field vibrations corresponding to e-ray and hence the transmitted
beam is linearly polarised.
Dichroism Selective absorption (or dichroism) of the electric field component with
particular orientations by a dichroic material can also be used for producing
linearly polarised light. Tourmaline is an example of dichroic material.

Wave-plates For a calcite crystal of thickness d, the path difference between o- and e-rays is
given by ' d no ne .
The corresponding phase difference is
2S 2S
G ' d no ne
O O
When the phase difference G = 2mS where m is an integer, the relative path
difference between the o- and e-rays will be mO. Such crystals are called full-
wave plate. When G = (2m + 1) S, path difference will be O/2 and such crystals
O
act as half-wave plate. And when G (2m 1) , path difference will be O/4 (for
2
m = 0) and such crystals are called quarter-wave plate.

5.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. In sub-section 5.4.3, you studied about propagation of o- and e-waves in a
negative uniaxial crystal (calcite). Draw a diagram and describe the
propagation of o- and e-waves in a positive uniaxial crystal (quartz) for
normal incidence.
2. A beam of light is incident on a polariser-analyser set up. When the
transmission axes of the polariser and analyser are parallel, the intensity
of light emerging from the analyser is 0.6 Wm 2 . What will the intensity
be when the angle between the transmission axes of the polariser and
analyser is 45q?
3. A block of glass (n = 1.5) is immersed in water (n = 1.3). a) Calculate the
polarising angle for a beam of light incident from glass onto the glass-
water surface. b) Calculate the polarising angle for a beam of light incident
from the water onto the glass-water surface.
4. For a certain crystal, n0 1.54 and ne 1.55 for light of wavelength
6 u 10 7 m. Calculate the least thickness of a quarter-wave plate made
from the crystal for use with light of this wavelength.
140
Unit 5 Polarisation of Light
5.8 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1. The plane of vibration of the electric vector defined by Eq. (5.5) is rotated
with respect to that shown in the Fig. 5.4. This is signified by the negative
sign before ŷ in the parentheses and is depicted in Fig. 5.17.
2. The electric fields of two orthogonal, linearly polarised light waves of equal
amplitudes propagating along z-direction is
&
E1 (z, t ) xˆ E0 cos(kz Zt ) Fig. 5.17
&
E 2 (z, t ) yˆ E0 cos(kz Zt I)
When they superpose, the electric field of the resultant light wave is
& & & S
E ( z, t ) E1(z,t) E 2 ( z, t ) E 0 ª«xˆ cos(kz Zt ) yˆ cos(kz Zt )º»
¬ 2 ¼
E0 >x cos(kz Zt ) y sin(kz Zt )@
ˆ ˆ
3. We know from Eq. (5.12) that
2 2
§ E2 · § E1 · § E 2 · § E1 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ 2¨ ¸¨ ¸ cos I sin 2 I (i)
© E 02 ¹ © E 01 ¹ © E 02 ¹ © E 01 ¹
If we choose I = 0 in (i), we get
2 2
§ E2 · § E1 · § E 2 · § E1 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ 2¨ ¸¨ ¸ 0
© E 02 ¹ © E 01 ¹ © E 02 ¹ © E 01 ¹
which can be written in a compact form:
2
§ E2 E ·
¨ 1 ¸ 0
© E 02 E 01 ¹
E 02
or E2 E1 (ii)
E 01
This defines a straight line (y = mx) with slope E02 / E01. In other words,
elliptically polarised light reduces to linearly polarised light for
I nS (n 0, r 1,,r2,...).
When I = S/2 and E01 E02 E0 , Eq. (5.12) reduces to
2 2
§ E2 · § E1 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ 1
© E0 ¹ © E0 ¹
which defines a circle ( x 2 y 2 a 2 ) of radius E 0 .
4. Since both polarising sheets are ideal, the intensity of the incident
unpolarised beam, I, will reduce to half after passing through one of them
as shown in the Fig. 5.18. After passing through the second polarising
sheet, we are told that the intensity reduces to one third of original value.

Fig. 5.18: Unpolarised light beam of intensity I passing through two polarisers.
141
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
From Malus’s law we know that
I (T) I (0) cos2 T
Here I (T) I / 3 and I (0) 1 / 2. Therefore
cos2 T (2 / 3) 0.666

or T cos1(.666 )1/ 2 35.3q

That is, the angle between the transmission axes of two polarisers is about
35q.
5. For external reflection
n 2 1.67
tan T B
n1 1.33

T B tan 1 §¨
1.67 ·
¸ TB 51.47q
© 1.33 ¹
For internal reflection
n 2 1.33
tan T B
n1 1.67
TB 38.53q
6. The path difference produced between the o- and e-rays of a birefringent
crystal of thickness d is ' d no ne . And, corresponding relative
phase difference is given by
2S 2S
G ' d no ne
O O
The phase difference produced by a quarter-wave plate, G S/2
On comparing the above expressions for the phase difference, we have
q
O 5890 A 5.89 u 10 7 m
d 1.36 u 10 5 m
4 (no ne ) 4 u (1.55 1.54) 0.0432

Terminal Questions
1. In case of negative uniaxial crystal (calcite), e-ray travels faster than the o-
ray and hence no ! ne . Therefore, when a light beam is incident normally
upon a calcite crystal, whose optic axis is parallel to the refracting surface
and lies in the plane of incidence, o-wave has a spherical wavefront and
the e-wave has an spheroidal wavefront.

Fig. 5.19: a) o- and e-wave surfaces in a positive uniaxial crystal (quartz);

b) propagation of o- and e-waves in quartz.
142
Unit 5 Polarisation of Light
In case of positive uniaxial crystals like quartz, the e-ray travels slower
than the o-ray. Therefore, the spherical wavefront corresponding to o-ray
will be outside the spheroidal wavefront corresponding to e-ray
(Fig. 5.19a). Since the optical properties of birefringent crystal are
symmetrical with respect to its optic axis, the axis of revolution of the
spheroid must coincide with the optic axis of the crystal. When a light
beam falls on a positive uniaxial crystal, with its optic axis in the plane of
incidence and parallel to the refracting surface, the wavefront for o- and e-
waves are shown in Fig. 5.19b.

In the above mentioned case, EE and OO are the refracted wavefronts for
e- and o-rays, respectively, at the same instant of time. They are parallel
to each other and travel in the same direction which is perpendicular to the
refracting surface AN. These two wavefronts, however, will travel with
different velocities. As a result, a path difference will be introduced
between the o- and the e-rays on emergence, but there is no separation
between the two beams. In principle, we can construct quarter-wave plate,
half-wave plate etc. using positive uniaxial crystal as well.

2. According to Malus’s law, the intensity of light passing through a polariser-

analyser set up is given as

I (T) I (0) cos2 T

where T is the angle between the transmission axes of the polariser and
analyser. As per the problem, when T = 0, intensity is 0.65 Wm 2 . So,
I (0) 0.65 Wm 2 .

When the angle T = 45q, we have

I (45q) I (0) cos2 T (0.65 Wm 2 ) u cos2 (45q) 0.3 Wm 2

3. Polarising angle, T B is given as

n2
tan T B
n1

a) For glass to water, n1 1.5 and n2 1.3.

So, TB tan 1(1.3 / 1.5) 40.6q

b) For water to glass, n1 1.3 and n2 1.5.

So, TB tan 1(1.5 / 1.3) 48.9q

4. In a birefringent crystal of thickness d, the path difference between the o-

and e-rays is d ne no . As per the problem, ne ! no . So we can write
' d ne no and the corresponding phase difference between the o-
and e-rays is

2S
G d ne no
O
143
Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
Since a quarter wave-plate gives rise to a phase difference of S/2, we can
write

S 2S O
d ne no d
2 O 4 ne no

We have

no 1.54, ne 1.55 and O 6 u 10 7 m.

Hence,

6 u 10 7 m 6 u 10 7 m
d 1.65 u 105 m.
4 u (1.55 154) 0.0364

That is, the quarter-wave plate should be 1.65 u 105 m thick.

144

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Block-1 (2)

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WAVES AND OPTICS

Block Preparation Team

Block Production Team

Unit 1 Wave Motion 9

Unit 2 Superposition of Waves 35

Unit 3 Acoustic Wave 65

Unit 4 Electromagnetic Wave 101

Unit 5 Polarisation of Light 119

Further Readings 223

We wish you success.

Expected Learning Outcomes

The pulse generated

SAQ 1 – Characteristics of mechanical waves

Fill in the blanks:

SAQ 2 – Calculating wave parameter

Fig. 1.5: Snapshots of a wave travelling in positive x-direction at a) t = 0;

So, to describe the motion of the disturbance or the wave, we replace t by (t –

We can also rewrite this equation as:

Any one of the Eqs. (1.9a to c) gives a complete mathematical

y ( x, t ) a sin (Zt  kx) (1.9d)

Eqs. (1.9a to d) provide us equivalent descriptions of a wave moving in the

SAQ 3 – Mathematical representation of a wave and wave

On solving SAQ 3, you know that a wave can be represented by a variety of

Similarly, the waves travelling in the negative x-direction can be represented

XAMPLE 1.1: CALCULATING WAVE PARAMETERS

SAQ 4 – Calculating parameters of a wave

x When a mechanical wave propagates in a medium, two distinct motions

One of the important characteristics of waves is that it transports energy. You

1.4 ENERGY TRANSPORTED BY WAVES

'r ('x )2  ('y )2

So, d (P.E.) T [ {('x )2  ('y )2 }1 / 2  'x ]

XAMPLE 1.22: POWER TRANSPORTED BY A

A progressive transverse wave is travelling on a string of length 3.0 m and

We would now like you to work out an SAQ.

SAQ 5 – Power of a mechanical wave

A transverse wave is propagating on a string of length 1.0 m and mass 500 g.

In the context of waves, intensity of waves is another useful parameter. From

1.5 INTENSITY OF WAVES

SAQ 6 – Calculating the intensity of a wave

Let us now summarize what you have learnt in this unit.

1.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

2. A harmonic wave on a string is given as

y ( x, t ) (6.5 mm) sin[(1.42 m 1)x  (3.86 s 1t )]

Determine the wavelength, frequency, speed, time period and direction of

1.8 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

On comparing Eq. (i) with Eq. (1.10d) with x = 0, we get amplitude,

5. The power of a progressive wave is given by Eq. (1.24):

As per the problem, f 50 s1 and a 8 u 10 3 m. The linear mass

? The velocity, v of the wave

6. We note from Sec. 1.5 that the intensity of wave is

Comparing with standard equation for wave travelling in positive x-

We have, k 1.42 m1 and Z 3.86 s1

Direction of propagation is positive x-direction.

Yet another important phenomenon resulting due to superposition of waves of

In Sec. 2.5, we generalise the phenomenon of beats and introduce the

In the next unit, you will study about acoustic waves.

Expected Learning Outcomes

2.2 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES

To understand the principle of superposition of waves, it is convenient to

Our discussion of superposition of waves has so far been qualitative.

3. Identical waves travelling in opposite directions.

4. Same amplitudes and phases but different frequencies.

Let us apply the superposition principle to each case.

1. Superposition of two waves having the same angular frequency,

Mathematically, we represent these waves as

(a1  a2 ) sin(kx  Zt ) (2.2)

2. Superposition of two waves having a finite phase difference but

When such waves superpose, we observe the phenomenon of

3. Superposition of identical waves propagating in opposite directions.

The waves can be represented mathematically as

and y 2 ( x, t ) a sin(kx  Zt ) (2.4)

4. Superposition of two waves of slightly different frequencies but

The waves can be represented mathematically as

y1 ( x, t ) a sin(kx  Z1t ) (2.5)

When such waves superpose, beats are produced. Although the

y ( x, t ) a sin (Zt kx) (1.9d)

'r ('x )2 ('y )2

So, d (P.E.) T [ {('x )2 ('y )2 }1 / 2 'x ]

y ( x, t ) (6.5 mm) sin[(1.42 m 1)x (3.86 s 1t )]

As per the problem, f 50 s1 and a 8 u 10 3 m. The linear mass

We have, k 1.42 m1 and Z 3.86 s1

(a1 a2 ) sin(kx Zt ) (2.2)

and y 2 ( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt ) (2.4)

y1 ( x, t ) a sin(kx Z1t ) (2.5)

SOLUTION From the initial location of pulses, we note that at t = 0, the

y1 ( x, t ) a sin (kx Zt ) (2.7)

y 2 ( x, t ) a sin (kx Zt ) (2.8)

a sin (kx Zt ) a sin (kx Zt )

or y ( x, t ) (2a sin kx) cos Zt (2.9) y ( x, t ) y i ( x, t ) y r ( x, t )

y 2 ( x, t ) (0.016 ) sin §¨ 20t ·¸

describe how sound waves are produced by vibrating objects;