Roll No.

Group No. and Department:

Student Name:
Lab report-1
Aim of the lab:-

Equipment:

Ques 1. What are the common Math operations you can perform in an oscilloscope?
Answer:

Ques 2. Mention 3 advantages of a digital storage oscilloscope over an analog oscilloscope.

What advantage does an analog oscilloscope have over a digital one?
Answer:

Ques 3. If an oscilloscope has a sweep setting of 10ms/div, and 2500 points/sweep, what is
the sampling rate?
Answer:

Ques 4. Using a 25 kHz sinusoidal signal from the function generator, observe it with
oscilloscope time settings of 100ms/div, 10ms/div, 1ms/div. Determine the apparent
frequency of the signal in each case.
Answer:

Ques 5. If the power supply voltage is set to 30 volts, and the current limit set to 10mA, then
what will be voltage across a resistor that varies from 0 Ohms to 220 Ohms? What is the
current?
Answer:
 Lab 2: Characterisation of First Order System

Objective: To characterise the LM 35 temperature sensor

2.1 Introduction
Any sub-system which may be a sensor, actuator or even a mathematical operation can
be characterized in terms of their input-output relation. In this lab practical we will use
an electronic temperature sensor and determine its system characteristics.

LM35 is a single chip integrated circuit temperature sensor. The temperature sensor is a
silicon bandgap temperature sensor, in which the forward junction voltage of a PN junction
varies as a function of temperature and current through the junction. The IC LM35 has
additional electronic circuitry to convert the temperature sensitive semiconductor junction
voltage into an output proportional to the temperature in deg C.

2.1.1 Temperature sensor system:

The semiconductor temperature sensor is encased in a plastic package for field use. This
casing conducts the temperature on the outside of the casing and the sensor and this involves
a time dependence of the temperature change of the semiconductor sensor. Fig.2.1.1 shows a
representation of the semiconductor sensor inside the plastic casing. In LM35 used in this lab,
3 electrical leads are provided for connection. Two leads are for the power supply to bias the
electronics. A supply voltage of 5V may be given - be very careful to observe the polarity of
the supply voltage. The centre lead is the output voltage, and the output is given by the
equation: Vo = 0.01 · T where T is the temperature in deg C.

Figure 2.1.1: Semiconductor temperature sensor embedded in a plastic casing

Thermal conduction
If the temperature at the surface of the casing is T1, the temperature of the sensor, T2,
depends on the properties and dimensions of the intervening material and is given by the
equation:
 𝜏! −𝜏 " 𝜔 " 𝜏 " (𝜏 " − 𝜔 " )
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐺 = ' " + = '
(𝜏 + 𝜔 " )" (𝜏 " + 𝜔 " )" (𝜏 " + 𝜔 " )"
𝐺 # = 20 log$% 𝐺
𝜔
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 = −
𝜏

This is the equation of a first-order system, and we should perform dynamic characterization
to obtain the transfer function of the sensor.

2.2 Report submission

1. Objectives
2. To determine the transfer function and the order of the system.
3. Find Gain and phase of the system
3 To draw bode plot for the system
 Lab - 3
Estimation of various control parameters for first order control system

Bode plot of a first order system:

𝜏! −𝜏 " 𝜔 " 𝜏 " (𝜏 " − 𝜔 " )

𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐺 = ' + = '
(𝜏 " + 𝜔 " )" (𝜏 " + 𝜔 " )" (𝜏 " + 𝜔 " )"
𝐺 # = 20 log$% 𝐺
𝜔
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 = −
𝜏
$
Break / corner frequency: The asymptotes intersect at 𝜔 = 𝜔& , and verify that 𝜔 = 𝜔& = '
known as the break frequency or corner frequency.
Nyquist diagram:
$
Example of TF: 𝐺(𝑠) = "()$
$
Amplitude ratio = |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)| =
*√("-)! )$

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜙 = − tan/$ (2𝜔)

$
Fig. Nyquist diagram for G(s)= "()$ Re(G(j𝜔)) and Imag(G(j𝜔))

Time Constant (τ): The time constant of a first-order system represents the time it takes for
the system's output to reach approximately 63.2% of its final steady-state value when
subjected to a step input. It is typically denoted by the symbol τ and is measured in seconds
(s). A smaller time constant indicates a faster response, while a larger time constant indicates
a slower response.

Steady-State Value (Final value): The steady-state value represents the output value that the
system approaches as time goes to infinity when subjected to a constant input or disturbance.
It is often denoted as "Yss" and can be measured in various units, depending on the specific
system being analysed.

Initial Condition: You can measure the initial conditions of a first-order system, which
include the initial value of the output (Y0) and the initial value of the input (U0). These
values determine the system's response at the starting point.

Response Time: The response time of a first-order system is the time it takes for the output
to reach a specific percentage (e.g., 95%, 99%) of the steady-state value in response to a step
input. It can be calculated using the time constant (τ).

Rise Time: The rise time is the time it takes for the output of the system to rise from 10% to
90% of the steady-state value in response to a step input. It provides an indication of how
quickly the system responds to changes in the input.

Overshoot: In some cases, first-order systems can exhibit overshoot, which is a temporary
increase in the output above the steady-state value before settling down. Overshoot is
typically expressed as a percentage of the steady-state value and can be measured if present.
Settling Time: The settling time is the time it takes for the system's output to stay within a
certain percentage (e.g., 5%) of the steady-state value after a step input. It is a measure of
how quickly the system reaches and maintains a stable state.

Time Response Curve: You can also measure and analyse the entire time response curve of a
first-order system, which shows how the output evolves over time in response to various
inputs or disturbances.

Submission:
1.
Parameter Case-1 (Hot Water) Case-1 (Cold Water)
Time constant (τ)
Break / corner frequency
Steady-State Value (Final Value)
Initial Condition Unit Step (𝑇01201034 ) = Unit Step (𝑇01201034 ) =
Response Time
Rise Time
Overshoot
Settling Time
Time Response Curve
Nyquist diagram

2. Nyquist Plot
3. Equipment used
 Lab Manual Experiment - 4
Time Response Modelling and Experimental Validation of a Second Order
Plant: Pendulum System

Aim: The qualitative response depends primarily on the natural frequency, 𝜔n, and the
damping ratio, 𝜉. Both 𝜉 and 𝜔! are functions of system parameters. The objective of this
experiment is to model a standard second-order system and to find out the system parameters.

Theory to estimate the Bode plot:

𝐼𝜃̈ + 𝑏𝜃̇ = 𝑇(𝑡) + 𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
For 𝜃 to be very small,
𝐼𝜃̈ + 𝑏𝜃̇ − 𝑚𝑔𝑙𝜃 = 𝑇(𝑡)
𝜃̇(0)
𝑠 ! 𝐼𝜃(𝑠) − 𝜃(0) − + 𝑏𝑠𝜃(𝑠) − 𝑏𝜃(0) − 𝑚𝑔𝑙𝜃(𝑠) = 𝑇(𝑠)
𝑠
Considering all initial conditions as zero:
𝜃(𝑠)(𝑠 ! 𝐼 + 𝑏𝑠 − 𝑚𝑔𝑙) = 𝑇(𝑠)
1
𝜃(𝑠) 𝑚𝑙 !
𝑇𝐹 = =
𝑇(𝑠) 𝑠 ! + 𝑐𝑠 − 𝑔
𝑙
# %
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜔"! = $ , 𝑐 = &$!
1 1
𝑇𝐹 = 𝑚𝑙 !
= 𝑚𝑙 !

−𝜔 ! + 𝑐𝑗𝜔 − 𝜔"! −(𝜔 ! + 𝜔"! ) + 𝑐𝑗𝜔

1 (𝜔! + 𝜔"! ) + (𝑐𝑗𝜔) 1 @(𝜔! + 𝜔"! ) + 𝑐𝑗𝜔A

𝑇𝐹 = !
× ! = !× !
𝑚𝑙 @−(𝜔 ! + 𝜔"! )A + (𝑐𝑗𝜔)! 𝑚𝑙 @−(𝜔 ! + 𝜔"! )A − (𝑐𝜔)!

𝜃(𝑠) −1 (𝜔! + 𝜔"! ) −1 𝑐𝜔

𝑇𝐹 = =B !× ! C+𝑗B ! C
𝑇(𝑠) 𝑚𝑙 @(𝜔 ! + 𝜔"! )A + (𝑐𝜔)! 𝑚𝑙 @(𝜔 ! + 𝜔"! )A! + (𝑐𝜔)!
TF = Re + Imag
G = ERe! + 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔!

On log scale, 𝐺 ' = 20 log() 𝐺

! !
−1 (𝜔 ! + 𝜔"! ) −1 𝑐𝜔
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐺 = NB ! × ! C +B ! C
𝑚𝑙 @(𝜔 ! + 𝜔"! )A + (𝑐𝜔)! 𝑚𝑙 @(𝜔 ! + 𝜔 ! )A! + (𝑐𝜔)!
"

𝐺 ' = 20 log() (𝐺)

−1 𝑐𝜔
B ! C
𝑚𝑙 @(𝜔 ! + 𝜔 ! )A! + (𝑐𝜔)!
"
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 =
−1 (𝜔 ! + 𝜔"! )
B !× C
𝑚𝑙 !
@(𝜔 ! + 𝜔"! )A + (𝑐𝜔)!
−1 𝑐𝜔
B C
𝑚𝑙! @(𝜔 ! + 𝜔 ! )A! + (𝑐𝜔)!
"
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝜙 = tan*(
−1 (𝜔 ! + 𝜔"! )
B !× C
𝑚𝑙 !
@(𝜔 + 𝜔 ! )A + (𝑐𝜔)!
!
"
Estimation of Natural frequency, damping from plot:
Viscous damping models are accepted in case of Pendulum [Ref:1], which may be represented by
𝑐𝑡
𝛼+ = 𝛼+,( 𝑒𝑥𝑝 Y− Z
2𝐼
The damping constant, ‘c’ can be calculated experimentally from this equation.

Time period ‘T’

&"
! = log !
&"#$

!
'=
‘T’ 2) % + ! %
+& = +' 1 − ' %
X"#$
X"

Fig. Damping in Pendulum system

Ref: Sherman Ip, “Modelling Damping for a Pendulum” 2010.

3. Material Required:
1. Pendulum system with known weight
2. Oscilloscope
3. Potentiometer

Procedure:
1. Give some initial conditions to the pendulum setup
2. Get the angular position using oscilloscope
3. Draw bode plot for the pendulum setup
3. Find the time period, natural frequency, damping ratio, critical damping from the system.
 Experiment-5

Control for first-order temperature system

Objective: (i) For the Temperature controller (considering𝑘𝑝 ), the system and the sensor find out the
following:

Damping ratio, Natural Frequency, Damped frequency, Rise time, Maximum overshoot and steady-
state error.

(ii) Use PI Control

Control system for the first order is given as:

𝐺𝑐 (𝑠):Controller Transfer function

𝐺𝑝 (𝑠): Plant (system) Transfer function

𝐻(𝑠): Transfer function

𝑐 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐺𝑝 (𝑠)
Overall TF: 𝐺(𝑠) = 1+𝐻(𝑠)𝐺
𝑐 (𝑠)𝐺𝑝 (𝑠)

Sensor transfer function (already discussed in Exp-3):

𝑑𝑇 ℎ𝐴
= (𝑇∞ − 𝑇)
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑐
𝑠𝑇(𝑠) − 𝑇(0) + 𝜏𝑇(𝑠) = 𝜏𝑇∞ (𝑠)
𝑇(𝑠)(𝑠 + 𝜏) = 𝜏𝑇∞ (𝑠)
𝑇(𝑠) 𝜏
= = 𝑇𝐹 = 𝐻(𝑠)
𝑇∞ (𝑠) 𝑠 + 𝜏
𝜏
𝑇𝐹(𝜔) =
𝑗𝜔 + 𝜏

Controller transfer function:

𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑘𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝑘𝐼 ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝑘𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝑘𝐼
𝑉(𝑠) = 𝑘𝑝 𝐸(𝑠) + 𝐸(𝑠) + 𝑘𝑑 𝑠𝐸(𝑠)
𝑠
𝑉(𝑠) 𝑘𝐼
𝑇𝐹 = = 𝑘𝑝 + + 𝑘𝑑 𝑠 = 𝐺𝑐 (𝑠)
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑠

Plant Transfer function:

𝑉(𝑡)2
𝑃=
𝑅
 𝑑𝑇 𝑉(𝑡)2
𝐶 = − 𝑈𝑎 (𝑇(𝑡) − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
𝐶𝑠𝑇(𝑠) − 𝐶𝑇(0) = 𝑃(𝑠) = 𝐼 2 (𝑠)𝑅
1
𝐶𝑠𝑇(𝑠) − 𝐶𝑇(0) = 𝑉 2 (𝑠) − 𝑈𝑎 𝑇(𝑠) + 𝑈𝑎 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏
𝑅
1 2
(𝑅 𝑉 (𝑠) − 𝑈𝑎 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 + 𝐶𝑇(0))
𝑇(𝑠) =
𝐶𝑠 + 𝑈𝑎
1
𝑇(𝑠) + 𝑘1
𝐺𝑝 (𝑠) = = 𝑅
𝑉(𝑠) 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑈𝑎
Overall transfer function:-
1
Only with Proportional Control (𝐾𝑝 ): k=1, 𝜏 ′ = 𝜏

𝐺𝑐 (𝑠)𝐺𝑝 (𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠) =
1 + 𝐻(𝑠)𝐺𝑐 (𝑠)𝐺𝑝 (𝑠)
1
𝑅 + 𝑘1
(𝐶𝑠 + 𝑈 . 𝑘𝑝 ) 𝑘1′
𝑎 ( .𝑘 )
𝐶𝑠 + 𝑈𝑎 𝑝
𝐺(𝑠) = =
1 𝑘′ 𝜏
𝑅 + 𝑘1 𝜏 1 + 𝐶𝑠 +1 𝑈 . 𝑘𝑝 . 𝑠 + 𝜏
1 + 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑈 . 𝑘𝑝 . 𝑠 + 𝜏 𝑎
𝑎
𝑘1′ 𝑘𝑝 (𝐶𝑠 + 𝑈𝑎 )(𝑠 + 𝜏) 𝑘1′ 𝑘𝑝 (𝑠 + 𝜏)
𝐺(𝑠) = . ′ =
𝐶𝑠 + 𝑈𝑎 (𝑘1 𝑘𝑝 𝜏) + (𝐶𝑠 + 𝑈𝑎 )(𝑠 + 𝜏) (𝐶𝑠 + 𝑈𝑎 )(𝑠 + 𝜏) + (𝑘1′ 𝑘𝑝 𝜏)
𝑘1′ 𝑘𝑝 (𝑠 + 𝜏)
𝐺(𝑠) = 2
𝐶𝑠 + 𝑠(𝐶𝜏 + 𝑈𝑎 ) + 𝜏𝑈𝑎 + (𝑘1′ 𝑘𝑝 𝜏)

Fig. With P control (P=1)

Find the following parameters and present in report in this format:-
System with PI Controller:-
1
𝑅 + 𝑘1 𝑘
( . (𝑘𝑝 + 𝐼 )) 𝑘′ 𝑘
𝐶𝑠 + 𝑈𝑎 𝑠 (𝐶𝑠 +1 𝑈 . (𝑘𝑝 + 𝑘𝑝 + 𝑠𝐼 ))
𝑎
𝐺(𝑠) = =
1 𝑘′ 𝑘 𝜏
𝑅
+ 𝑘1 𝑘 𝜏 1 + 𝐶𝑠 +1 𝑈 . (𝑘𝑝 + 𝑠𝐼 ). 𝑠 + 𝜏
1 + 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑈 . (𝑘𝑝 + 𝑠𝐼 ). 𝑠 + 𝜏 𝑎
𝑎

Fig.2 Demonstration of PI controller with 𝑘𝑝 = Fig.2(b) Demonstration of PI controller

1, 𝑘𝐼 = 2, set point (yellow) over P Controller (white)

This gives third order system and the poles. This is an improvement over the other types of
controllers discussed so far. Since the transfer function is a third-order system and has a pole, it
requires other methods like dominant pole analysis and root locus methods to analyse. It can also be
tuned using approximate trial and error approaches to achieve the desired characteristics (use
sliders below).

The drawback of the 𝐼-Controller:- When error does not decrease (in case of sustainable error), 𝐼
controller becomes so high that it sometimes increases the voltage and burns the system. So 𝐼 is
generally kept low.

PID Controller:

Fig. Comparision of PID controller (PID) vs PI Controller (white)

Report submission:-

1. Get the overall Transfer Function (TF) including PID controller

2. Find the Damping ratio, Natural Frequency, Damped frequency, Rise time, Maximum
overshoot, and steady-state error wrt arbitrary values of 𝑘𝑝 , 𝑘𝐼 , 𝑘𝐷 (use the above format).
 Control Engineering Lab Experiment
Tuning of the PID Controller
The following steps are followed for PID tuning
Step 1:- Model the system and find the Transfer Function (TF).
"
As an example let us take the transfer function, 𝐺! (𝑠) = "! #"#$

𝐺! (𝑠)𝐺% (𝑠)
𝑇𝐹 =
1 + 𝐺! (𝑠)𝐺% (𝑠)
"
Let 𝐺! (𝑠) = "! #"#$
Considering only proportional controller, 𝑘!
𝐾! 𝑠
𝑠 &+𝑠+1 𝐾! 𝑠
𝑇𝐹 = = &
𝐾! 𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑠 + 1 + 𝐾! 𝑠
1+ &
𝑠 +𝑠+1

Step-2:- Use Routh-criteria to find 𝐾! for marginal stability value:

Example:

For the above example: 𝑠 & + 𝑠 + 1 + 𝐾! 𝑠

𝑠& 1 1
$
𝑠 1+𝐾! 0
'
𝑠

(1+𝐾! ) = 0
𝐾! = −1
The system is marginally stable at 𝐾! = −1

Zeigler Nicolas Rule:

 ×"! ×"!
×"!

Report to submit with:

"
1. Take a Plant with, 𝐺! (𝑠) = ( " # #( ! #(
" $" ! "#(#
𝑎' : Last digit of your roll number
𝑎$ : Second last digit of your roll number
2. Find 𝐾! for marginally stable system using Routh Criteria
3. Simulate the system in Simulink (.slx file provided)
4. Add picture of the simulated model in your report
5. Find optimum 𝐾! , 𝐾) , 𝐾* using Zeigler Nicolas Algorithm.