Carefully to Carry MAY 2008

Measurement of bulk cargoes

Draught surveys – practice
 The master of a vessel should be advised in adequate time that a draught “The carrier shall
survey will be taking place. If it is an initial light ship survey, he should be properly and care-
fully load, handle,
requested, subject to the safety of the vessel, to ensure that individual ballast stow, carry, keep,
tanks are either fully pressed up or empty – that the vessel is upright, and care for and dis-
with a trim which is within the limits of the tank calibration tables. charge the goods
carried.”
 When draught surveys are undertaken by independent surveyors, co-operation
Hague Rules,
of the ship’s officers is essential.
Articles iii, Rule 2
 Independent surveys should be undertaken together, during the relative
survey sections, with the vessel’s chief officer and chief engineer or their
appointed respective deputies.

 Before undertaking the survey, it is recommended that the surveyor makes Carefully to Carry
time to inspect a general arrangement plan in order to confirm the number and Advisory Committee
position of the various ballast, fresh water and oil bunker tanks on the vessel.
This report was produced by the Care-
 Equipment which may be used in the survey: fully to Carry Committee – the UK P&I
Club’s advisory committee on cargo
Strong torch matters. The aim of the Carefully to
Patent draught mark indicator or measuring devices (draught tubes, Carry Committee is to reduce claims
indicators etc) through contemporaneous advice to
the Club’s Members through the most
Calibrated Inclinometer or manometer
efficient means available.
Steel tape measure with plumb bob / stainless steel sounding tape with
brass plumb bob (preferably calibrated) The committee was established in
1961 and has produced many articles
Sea water sampling bucket or can of sufficient volume
on cargoes that cause claims and
Calibrated patent draught survey hydrometer other cargo related issues such as
hold washing, cargo securing, and
Calibrated salinity refractometer
ventilation.
Ballast water-sampling device
Computer / calculator. The quality of advice given has
established Carefully to Carry as a key
source of guidance for shipowners
Reading the draught marks and ships’ officers. In addition, the
articles have frequently been the
 At the time of reading the draught marks, the vessel should be upright with a
source of expertise in negotiations
minimum of trim. The trim at survey should never exceed the maximum trim for over the settlement of claims and have
which corrections may be included in the vessel’s stability book. also been relied on in court hearings.

 The vessel should ideally be lying in still, calm water. Otherwise errors, without In 2002 all articles were revised and
ease of correction, from reading the draught marks can result. For example: published in book form as well as on
disk. All articles are also available to
- Vessels lying at exposed berths or anchorages where wave and swell surface Members on the Club website. Visit
disturbance is almost inevitable; even to the extent that the vessel may be the Carefully to Carry section in the
rolling and pitching. In these circumstances it is usual to assess the actual Loss Prevention area of the Club
mean water level over a number of readings to be at two-thirds of the distance website www.ukpandi.com for more
information, or contact the Loss
between the lowest and highest levels of water as seen against the draught
Prevention Department.
marks. Some experts advocate that, after studying wave patterns, a mean
of the average highest and lowest draught readings should be used.
 - Vessels which are lying at a river berth or in tidal
conditions when strong currents are running. Under
these conditions the draught marks should ideally be
read over periods of slack water (provided that at a
low water slack there is sufficient under-keel clearance).
- Currents of appreciable strengths are likely to cause
the vessel to change trim or pitch slightly and/or sink
bodily into the water from her static draught (‘squat’).
This phenomenon becomes more pronounced in
shallow waters (shallow water effect).
- Strong currents will result in raised water levels against
the leading edge of a stationary vessel lying in flowing
water. This is especially true when the flow is in the
direction of a vessel’s bulbous bow.

 Draught marks must be read on both sides of the vessel:

forward port and starboard; amidships port and starboard,
and; aft port and starboard or, alternatively, if additional
marks are displayed on large vessels at all the designated
positions.

Should draught marks not be in place amidships, distances

from the deck line to the water line on both sides of the
vessel must be measured. The amidships draughts can
then be calculated from load line and freeboard data
extracted from the vessel’s stability booklet.

 Draught marks should be read with the observer as

Above: Manometer showing plastic tubing (30-40 m long), fitted at each end
close to the water line as is safe and reasonably possible,
with a valve and scale.The valves are to allow the water in the tube to be
in order to reduce parallax error.
retained without any air bubbles in it when the device is not in use.
 Although it is common practice to read the offside draught
marks from a rope ladder, a launch or small boat provides Below: Manometer, showing scale and water level.When a scale is fitted and
a more stable environment and brings the observer to a used for the reading care must be taken that the scale is fixed at the same
safer position closer to the water line. height on each side.

 A vessel’s remote draught gauge should never be used

for surveys, due to lack of the necessary accuracy and
the possibility of errors, which may accumulate over the
working life of the instrument.

 When adverse weather conditions are being experienced,

access to the offside draught marks may prove difficult
or impossible. At these times the draughts on the nearside
can be read and the offside draughts calculated using
a manometer (Addendum 1).

This method should never be used when the offside

draughts can be safely observed and accurately read.
If, as a final resort, this method cannot be undertaken,
the use of a fully calibrated inclinometer, graduated to
minutes of arc, is strongly recommended. The type of
inclinometer fitted to vessels is not usually of sufficient
accuracy to be used.

Density of the water in which the vessel

is floating
 It is prudent to obtain samples of water in which the
vessel is floating at, or very close to, the time at which
the draught marks are read. This is particularly relevant
when the vessel is lying at a estuarial or river berth when
density of the water may be changing, due to the ebb
or flow of the tide.

 Depending upon the length of the vessel under survey,

a number of samples, say between one and three, should
 be taken. In order to overcome the problem of layering, The relative density of the contents may be calculated
the samples should be obtained using a closed sampling using the following formula:
can at a depth of approximately half the existing draught
RD of tank contents at survey =
of the vessel. Alternatively, a slowfilling container can be
(Old oil volume x Old RD) + (New bunker volume x New RD)
used to obtain an average sample from keel to waterline.
Total volume of oil in tank
 When reading the hydrometer floating in the sample of  After completion of the bunker survey the totals of each oil
water, the eye of the observer should be as close to the found must be agreed with the chief engineer and the master.
water level as possible, to avoid parallax errors and also
to avoid further errors due to the meniscus (Addendum 2).
Calculations & associated corrections
Ballast water tanks of vessel’s displacement from draught
readings
 Ballast water tanks including peaks, even those said to be
empty, must be carefully sounded or proven to be full by  Before extracting hydrostatic data from the vessel’s
pressing up and overflowing from all air pipes when local stability book, care should be taken by surveyors to
regulations permit. If the ballast hold contains ballast water, familiarise themselves with the format and methods used
this compartment must not be fully pressed up but be care- to display the various particulars, especially the means of
fully sounded and the weights of the water carefully calculated. depicting positions of Lcf (longtitudinal centre of flotation) etc,
relative to amidships or alternatively the after perpendicular.
 Spaces such as the duct keel and voids – especially those of
the lower stools situated at the base of transverse bulkheads,  When using a recommended draught survey computer
between cargo holds – must be checked when safe to do so, programme or alternatively calculating directly from data
and proved in same condition at initial and final surveys. extracted from the hydrostatic particulars contained
within the vessel’s stability book it is essential that the
These voids often contain the manhole access covers to data is carefully and properly interpolated or, in what
the adjacent double-bottom tanks. If these covers are not should prove to be a rare event, extrapolated.
totally watertight, then the voids will flood, or partially flood,
during ballasting or pressing up of the tanks, potentially  As mentioned below, one of the areas where significant
resulting in huge errors in the lightship or ballast survey. errors often result is from the incorrect application of the sign
in respect of the position of the Lcf (in the first trim correction).
 As noted above, the calculation of the weight of ballast
water is undoubtedly the most usual source of errors which  When undertaking initial and final ‘displacement draught
may result in very large, and unacceptable, inaccuracies of surveys’ to establish weight(s) of cargo loaded, or
the cargo quantity as calculated by draught survey.
 alternatively unloaded, the difference between the net
displacement weights provides the ‘total cargo’ quantity.
Nonetheless it is recommended for a cross check that,
Density of the ballast water
at the light ship/ballast survey, the vessel’s light ship
 It should be established, with the chief officer, where the weight is deducted from net displacement found. The
various ballast tanks were filled. If from a single source, resultant then provides the vessel’s ‘constant’ at that
the sea, a few random samples of the water will confirm time. These unknown weights might also be termed the
its density. If from different sources, docks or rivers, etc vessel’s ‘stores variable’. Although variable, for a number
samples must be taken from the tanks containing water of reasons as later discussed, it should serve as a guide
from these various sources and relevant densities of the to the accuracy of the light ship/ballast survey.
water in individual tanks established.
Comparison between ‘stores variable’ quantities, or mean
 Do not overflow the tanks substantially to obtain samples thereof, established at previous surveys should be treated
unless local regulations permit; instead use sampling with caution unless the variable is a direct comparison
equipment suitable for tanks that are only partially filled. that can be made. For example, all surveys include a
check and a record of the engine lubricating oil held in
 When small samples are obtained, use a salinity refracto- storage tank(s), etc. Occasionally, surveyors report a
meter to establish density (see below). When larger samples ‘negative’ stores variable which is theoretically impossible
have been obtained, a draught survey hydrometer may be unless, in extremely rare instances, the vessel had been
used. See details above. subject to modification, and large quantities of structural
steel removed, without being subject to a further inclining
Establishing the correct weights of experiment and commensurate correction of the relevant
oils on board data contained in the vessel’s stability book.

 This can be established either by sounding or ullaging of Charterparties often contain reference to an approximate
the tanks or, in the case of the engine room daily service quantity for the vessel’s ‘constant’, which may well create
and settling tanks, by reading the gauges. a discussion between master and surveyor should the
constant found by survey to be substantially larger than
 The volumes of oils in each and every tank should be that quoted by the owners. The surveyor, after relevant
measured and recorded. checks, should remain confident in the figure obtained,
but always record on documents issued to the master
 The relative densities of the most recently delivered oils on and clients, any unusual factors or difficulties experienced
board can be obtained from the bunker delivery certificates. during survey. These include any differences between
However bunkers are almost inevitably mixed with oils surveyors, should owners, charterers or shippers each
already on board, the densities of which are likely to differ. appoint separate survey companies to act on their behalf.
Documentation measurement errors which could effect the quantity of
cargo recorded by survey as being loaded or discharged.
 At completion of survey, a ‘survey work sheet’ or computer
printout should be placed on board the vessel recording The final report should include details of any defect or
the data and calculations used to obtain the cargo loaded/ circumstance regarding weather, surface water, tides/
unloaded quantity. This document is usually produced by currents or on board conditions which the surveyor considers
individual survey companies, or by shipping companies for might well influence the result adversely.
use by their officers.
Cumulative errors
A formal ‘survey report’ should be submitted to clients at a
later date. Specific formal documentation has been drawn  Errors can occur when reading and correcting the
up, amongst others by IMO, United Nations Economic draughts. The final fully corrected 3/4 mean draught
Commission for Europe and various P&I Clubs. should be within +/- 10 mm of the true mean draught.

 The formal report document should not only include  Errors of calculation. The main error to be avoided in
details of the survey, but also: Dates and times of surveys. this section is that of incorrectly positioning the LCF
relative to LBP/2 the amidship point.
Vessel particulars.
Ship’s location.  Error of the water density in which the vessel is floating.
Weather conditions (and whether these were within Always ensure an average sample, or alternatively the
acceptable limits). average of a number of water samples are obtained and
Sea conditions (and whether these were within acceptable the correct type of certificated hydrometer is used to
limits). obtain the density.

Tidal/current conditions (and whether these were within  Sounding of tanks. Leaving aside documented tables
acceptable limits). which may not be accurate, the way of avoiding the main
errors in this section of the survey is by ensuring, as best
A record of any difficulties or defects in a ship’s document- possible, that all volumes of liquids, especially ballast
ation or equipment which might cause the calculated weight water, on board are both correctly quantified and attributed
by draught displacement survey to be outside acceptable with correct densities. These factors, particularly when
limits of normal draught survey measurement error. applied to ballast water, undoubtedly contribute to the
largest number and degree of errors likely to be encountered
Expert opinion in draught surveying.
Surveys must be carried out to the very best of the surveyors’ Bearing these reservations in mind, a well conducted draught
ability, with each part of the survey conducted as accurately survey under reasonable prevailing conditions is capable
as possible in order to minimize procedural and/or of achieving an absolute accuracy of +/- 0.5%

Worked example
From the following information calculate the corrections to perpendiculars and the draughts at the perpendiculars.
Also calculate the true trim.

Vessel LBP 181.8 metres Density at the time of draught reading 1.0185 t/m3

port side stbd side distance marks from perp.

Forward draughts; 4.61m 4.65m Fd = 2.94 m aft
Midships draughts 4.93m 5.10m Md = 1.44 m aft
Aft draughts 5.58m 5.60m Ad = 7.30 m forward

Forward mean = (4.61 + 4.65) / 2 = 4.63m

Midships mean = (4.93 + 5.10) / 2 = 5.015m
Aft mean = (5.58 + 5.6) / 2 = 5.59m

So apparent trim is: 5.59 - 4.63 = 0.96m

And LBM is: 181.8 - 2.94 - 7.30 = 171.56m

Forward corr’n = Apparent trim x Fd = 0.96 x -2.94 = -0.0165m

LBM 171.56

Midships corr’n = Apparent trim x Md = 0.96 x -1.44 = -0.0081m

LBM 171.56

Aft corr’n = Apparent trim x Ad = 0.96 x 7.3 = +0.0408m

LBM 171.56
Now:
Forward draught is 4.63 – 0.0165 m = 4.6135 m
Midships draught is 5.015 – 0.0081 m = 5.0069 m
Aft draught is 5.59 + 0.0408 m = 5.6308 m
True trim is 5.6308 – 4.6135 m = 1.0173 metres = 101.73 cm

¾ mean draught = (6 x 5.0069) + 4.6135 + 5.6308 = 5.0357 m

8

From the original survey the following data was given in the vessels hydrostatic particulars:

Scale density of hydrostatic particulars 1.025 t/m3

Draught Displacement Tpc Lcf Draught Mctc Draught Mctc

5.00 19743 42.32 -4.354 5.50 445.5 4.50 434.9

5.10 20167 42.37 -4.289 5.60 446.6 4.60 435.9

The stability book stated that a negative (-) sign for Lcf indicated forward of midships.
Interpolating the data from the table (it is easier to use centimetres in the interpolation rather than metres)
The difference in the tabulated draughts is 10 cm and the draught we are looking for is 3.57 cm more than 5 metres
Therefore:

Displacement for 5.0357 m draught = 19743 + (20167-19743) x 3.57 = 19894.37

10
Tpc for 5.0357m draught = 42.32 + (42.37-42.32) x 3.57 = 42.338
10
Lcf for 5.0357m draught = - 4.354 + (4.354-4.289) x 3.57 = - 4.331 (for’d of mid)
10
Mctc for 5.0357 +50cms = 445.5 + (446.6-445.5) x 3.57 = 445.89
10
Mctc for 5.0357 – 50cms = 434.9 + (435.9-434.9) x 3.57 = 435.26
10

Therefore (dm~dz) = 10.63

The first trim correction is = 101.73 x –4.331 x 42.338 = - 102.61tonnes

181.8
Second trim correction = 1.01732 x 50 x 10.63 = +3.03 tonnes
181.8

Then vessels displacement at a density of 1.025 t/m3 is calculated as follows

Displacement for 5.0357m = 19894.37 tonnes

First trim correction = -102.61 tonnes
Second trim correction = +3.03 tonnes
Corrected displacement in salt water = 19794.79 tonnes

This is the weight of the ship at the draught if it was in salt water of density 1.025 t/m3, which is the density of
the ship’s hydrostatic scale.

However it is floating in water of apparent density 1.0185 t/m3.

So true displacement = 19794.79 x 1.0185 = 19669.26 tonnes

1.025
Draught surveys – theory The weight of an empty ship consists of three elements
Draught surveying is a commercially acceptable form of
1. Empty ship FIXED ITEM
weighing that is based on Archimedes Principle, which
2. Stores CONSIDERED FIXED
states that anything that floats will displace an amount of
3. Ballast oil and fresh water CHANGEABLE
the liquid it is floating in that is equal to its own weight.
Empty net weight = Empty ship + Stores
Briefly, the weight of the ship is determined both before
and after loading and allowances made for differences in
The weight of a loaded ship consists of four elements
ballast water and other changeable items. The difference
between these two weights is the weight of the cargo.
1. Empty ship FIXED ITEM
2. Stores CONSIDERED FIXED
In order to do this the depth that the ship is floating at is
3. Ballast oil and fresh water CHANGEABLE
assessed from the ‘draught marks’ and the vessels stability
4. Cargo FIXED ITEM
book is consulted to obtain the hydrostatic particulars
such as the ‘displacement’ and other necessary data.
Loaded net weight = Empty ship + Stores + Cargo
Several corrections are required and the quantities of
Therefore the cargo weight is the difference in the net
ballast and other consumable items need to be assessed
weights.
so as to obtain the net weights as follows.

Archimedes Principle
Archimedes Principle states that, when a body is wholly or
zero kg
partially immersed in a fluid, it appears to suffer a loss in
mass equal to the mass of fluid it displaces. Mass is the
amount of matter that a body contains and is expressed in
kilograms and tonnes. However, for the purposes of draught
surveying, weight can be assumed to be the same as mass. Volume
1m3
If a solid block of volume 1 m3 and weight 4,000 kg is Water
immersed in fresh water it will appear to suffer a loss in Weight level
500 kg
weight of 1,000 kg.

This can be verified by suspending it from a spring balance,

which would indicate a weight of 3,000 kg. There is, there- Buoyancy force 500 kg
fore, a supporting force acting upwards that, in this case, is
1,000 kg. This is the ‘buoyancy force’. The volume of water displaced is still the same at 1 m3. However the weight
displaced by the block is obviously 1 m3, as this is the acting downwards is now only 500 kg and, once released,
volume of the block, and 1 m3 of fresh water has a weight the block will rise until the buoyancy force acting upwards is
of 1,000 kg, and that is the buoyancy force. Therefore equal to the weight acting downwards.
the buoyancy force is equal to the weight of water displaced.
This will be when the block is in equilibrium at a point when
the underwater volume is equal to 0.5 m3, which is half the
depth of the block, and the point at which the weight of
water displaced is equal to 500 kg. A spring balance will
3,000 kg
now indicate zero weight.
Water level
In the above explanation of Archimedes Principle, the block
Volume was immersed in fresh water. However, had it been salt
1m3 water the volume of the underwater part of the block would
Weight have been less as the density of salt water is greater than
4,000 kg that of fresh water, meaning for equal volumes the salt water
is heavier, and thus a lesser volume of it would need to have
been displaced for the block to float.
Buoyancy force 1,000 kg
From the above it can be seen that the weight of a ship can
be calculated from its underwater volume and the density of
The same solid block hollowed out, until its weight is the liquid in which it is floating.
reduced to 500 kg, and then immersed in the same fresh
ater will now float. This is because it still has the same In order to calculate this volume it is necessary to know how
volume of 1 m3 but its weight is now only 500 kg. deep the ship is floating in the water as the deeper the
‘draught’, as it is called, the greater the weight of the ship.
If the block is completely immersed, the buoyancy force will Also the density of the water that the ship is floating in needs
still be 1,000 kg as before, because the volume of water to be measured at the same time as the draughts are read.
Density Metric marks
Density is mass per unit volume at a given temperature. The photo shows some draught
As already stated weight can be considered the same as marks in the metric system. The
mass as far as draught surveying is concerned. Therefore picture shows depths from 8.49
the weight of the block above is its underwater volume metres to 9.64 metres. The water
multiplied by the density of the liquid in which it is floating. level is at 8.49 metres as half
the width of the top of the ‘4’ is
Weight in vacuum visible above the water level (the number is made from 2 cm
wide steel plate). Some numbers are easier to assess than
The density of a substance can be determined by weighing others. For example, in the diagram each pair of lines is 2
a unit volume, which in the case of the metric system is a cm apart and it can be seen that the assessment of the
cubic metre. If a quantity of liquid – for example, fresh water depth is easy when the water level is across the ‘8’. The
or sea water – is weighed on a balance or on a weighbridge ‘6’ and the ‘9M’ in the picture would also have the same
against the equivalent of brass weights then the atmosphere easy to read features.
will exercise an upward thrust upon the water much greater
than the upward thrust exercised on the smaller volume of Some small coasters are often only marked at the midships
brass weights. This ‘air buoyancy’ effect is in fact the same point with a designated line (again 2cm wide) called the
as the buoyancy force for a body immersed in a fluid, as deck line. The upper edge of this is at a known distance
explained in the Archimedes’ Principle. However, this time from the keel (’K’) which is the summation of the vessels
the fluid is air, which has a density of 0.00125 t/m3 (the official summer freeboard and summer draught. Draughts
density of dry sea air at sea level is about 1/800th of the are then calculated by measuring the actual freeboard
density of fresh water, ie 1.25 kg/m3). If the weight of the (distance of the upper edge of the deck line from the water
unit volume is corrected for this ‘air buoyancy’ effect, the level) with a measuring tape and deducting it from the ‘K’.
result is weight in vacuum which is equivalent to mass. For
all practical purposes it is accepted that the density of fresh
water is 1000 kg/m3 and that of sea water 1025 kg/m3. The stability book
All ships are provided with a stability book, which includes
Apparent density a section of hydrostatic particulars giving data for different
draughts. Included in these are Displacement, Tpc, Lcf
It is commercial practice to make no allowance for air and Mctc. Each of these is required in order to calculate
buoyancy so that commercial weights are normally weights the survey and they are tabulated for any given draught.
in air. Weight in air per unit volume is known as apparent Taking each in turn:
density and this should be the criteria used for all draught
surveys as, after all, the ship is in air not in a vacuum.
Displacement ()
The Zeal Draught Survey Hydrometer reads ‘apparent Displacement is the weight of the ship. It is the underwater
density in air kg/Lt @150 C’ and is an industry standard volume multiplied by a density. In the majority of cases the
accepted worldwide. standard density used is 1.025 although there are many
other in use such as 1.027, 1.000, 1.02522 etc. In order
to obtain the volume the displacement is divided by
Reading the draughts
whichever density has been used to compile the data.
Draught marks (the depth at which the ship is floating) are
so constructed as to make the reading of them simple.
Metric marks are 10 cm high and are placed 10 cm apart.
Tpc
The steel plate they are made from is 2 cm wide. There are Represents ‘tonnes per centimetre’ of immersion. It is the
still a few ships using the ‘Imperial’ system but they are now weight that must be loaded or discharged in order to change
few and far between. However for the sake of reference, the ships mean draught by one centimetre.
the Imperial system has numbers that are six inches high
and located six inches apart with the numbers constructed Lcf
from one inch wide steel plate. Represents ‘longitudinal centre of flotation’. It is the position
about which the ship will trim when weights are loaded or
discharged. It is the geometric centre of the water-plane,
and will move as the shape of the water-plane changes
when weights are loaded or discharged.

The water-plane is the area of the ships hull that would

be visible if the ship was cut off at the waterline.

Mctc
This stands for ’moment to change trim 1 centimetre’. It is
the moment required to change the trim of the vessel by
one centimetre (a ‘moment’ is weight x distance). Mctc is
used in the second trim correction.

Other necessary data provided within the stability book

are the following:
Light ship distances of the midships or aft draught marks from the
relevant perpendicular (the midships perpendicular is
The weight of the ship complete in all respects when empty,
located at LBP/2).
but with full equipment, engine spares, water in the boiler
and lubricating oil in the engine.
Each of these corrections is applied according to the
following rule:
Deadweight If the direction of the displacement of the draught marks
The weight a ship can carry. Deadweight includes any fuel, from the relevant perpendicular is the same as the
water, ballast, passengers, crew and stores. It is the direction of the trim, then the correction applied to the
difference between light ship and displacement at any observed draught is negative, otherwise it is positive.
draught. ‘Cargo carrying capacity’, therefore, depends on
the amount of fuel water and ballast remaining on completion

of loading, and any additions which will be required by the
3/4 mean draught
ship on passage to its final port of discharge. Ships bend (hog or sag) due to the distribution of the
weights in the various holds and tanks on board. The ship
is assumed to bend as a parabola and the area below a
LBP parabola, in a circumscribing rectangle, is equal to twice the
Represents ‘length between perpendiculars’. A ship is built area above the parabola, or in other words the area under
to plans and the plans are drawn around two perpendicular the parabola is two-thirds the total area. The mathematics of
lines that represent the forward (FP) and aft (AP) extremities this fact is not important from the point of view of draught
of the section of the ship from which the volume is calculated. surveying. What is important, is to understand the effect
The remaining two sections of the ship, the small part of it has on a ship that is hogged or sagged (hogged is when
the bow and stern sections, called the appendages, are the vessel is deflected upwards in its central section, and
added in afterward. sagged is the opposite).

The forward perpendicular is considered to be where the

load water line (summer load line) cuts the line of the fore-
side of the bow. The aft perpendicular is where it cuts the
aft edge of the rudder post, or in the case of most modern
W Boxed shaped vessel L
vessels where no rudder post is fitted, the centre line of
the rudder stock. Aft Middle draught Forward
draught draught
A F
Calculating a ship’s draught
The mean draught at which the ship is floating cannot be e.g. If a box-shaped barge’s draught readings produce an
calculated by simple average because ships are not rect- arithmetical mean of the forward and aft draughts that is
angular, or box like, in shape and because they bend due more than the middle draught then this indicates that the
to the distribution of weight on board. The draughts them- barge is hogged. Utilising the maths of the parabola, the
selves also need to be corrected before they can be used. lost section of volume (yellow area in the diagram) is 2/3
of the box that encloses it. To calculate the effect of this
the following formula would be used:
Perpendicular corrections
Mean adjusted draught = (4 x Middle) + Forward + Aft
As mentioned above, ships volumes are calculated around
6
the section of the vessel that lies between the forward and (4/6 of the middle draught is 2/3 or 66.67%)
aft perpendiculars (FP and AP). When a ship is built the
draught marks are located at convenient positions on the The resulting draught calculated is the mean draught
hull and these will not always be at the perpendiculars. For adjusted to compensate for the deflection in the barge
calculation purposes, the draughts at the perpendiculars structure. This is known as the two-thirds mean correction,
are required and this is done with the use of similar triangles. and was derived directly from ‘Simpson’s First Rule’ for
The actual trim of the vessel, in relation to the length of finding an area under a curve. This is fine for a box shape,
the vessel between the draught marks, is one of a pair of but ships are very rarely box shaped.
similar triangles. The other is the correction in relation to
the distance the draught marks are displaced from the Calculations have shown that the most likely amount of
relevant perpendicular. Therefore these two triangles can correction required for hog or sag on a conventionally
be used to correct the draught mark readings to what they shaped ship is threequarters or 75 %. The formula for
would be at the perpendiculars. For example: this is called the 3/4 mean draught and is as follows:

Forward Corr’n = Apparent Trim x Fd 3/4 mean draught = (6 x Middle) + Forward + Aft)
8
LBM (6/8 of the middle draught is 3/4 or 75%)

Where: This is the draught used to enter the ships hydrostatic tables
Apparent trim = trim at the draught marks. and obtain the displacement of the ship. However, the
Fd = distance of forward draught marks from Perpendicular displacement scale in the ships stability book is calculated for
LBM = length between draught marks the ship on an even keel and in an upright condition; that
is without any trim or list. Ships rarely appear in that state,
The calculation of the aft and, sometimes, a midships although it has been known. Therefore, two corrections are
correction uses the same formula but substitutes the now required to give the true displacement.
First trim correction, (layer correction) The above corrections are in metres and can be applied
Sometimes called the ‘A’ correction to the 3/4 mean draughts to give the true mean draught.
However, the normal method used is to calculate the
A ship trims about the longitudinal centre of flotation (Lcf).
correction in tonnes. The displacement is taken out of the
This is the geometric centre of the water plane at any time.
tables for the 3/4 mean draught and the layer correction
The water plane is the area of the ship shape if it were cut
applied as a negative or positive correction in tonnes by
off at the water line. It obviously changes as draught increases
using the Tpc at that draught (Tpc is the number of tonnes
as the shape becomes more rounded aft while remaining
required to sink the ship one centimetre).
more pointed at the bow. A diagram will explain this better.
This is the first trim correction, and is calculated using the
Lcf when empty following formula:
First trim correction = Trim (in centimetres) x Lcf x Tpc
LBP
Lcf when loaded
Where Lcf is measured in metres from amidships,

The position of Lcf is crucial to the calculation of the draught The correction is applied according to the following rule:
survey. The ‘true mean draught’ is the draught at the Lcf If the Lcf and trim are in the same direction the correction
and not the draught amidships; unless, of course, Lcf is is positive and alternatively when they are in opposite
positioned at amidships. directions the correction is negative.

Consider the following diagrams.
Position of Lcf
AP FP The understanding of how Lcf moves is crucial. In the
L Lcf W above formula it is measured from amidships and it is
True mean Amidships absolutely essential that it is understood which side of
draught draught amidships it is. There have been more incorrect draught
LB survey results obtained due to getting this detail wrong
than anything else.
In the above diagram the ship is on an even keel and the
draught at the Lcf is the same as the draught at amidships. The position of Lcf, in the hydrostatic particulars, is
However, if a weight within the ship is moved further aft, the indicated by three main methods. These are:
ship will trim about the Lcf so that she is deeper aft and not 1.Either with a minus (-) sign or a plus (+) sign, indicating
so deep forward; as in the next diagram. The displacement a direction from amidships (see below).
will not have changed, as the trim is achieved by moving a
weight already on board and the draught at the Lcf remains 2.Or labelled with the letters ‘a’ or ‘f’ (sometimes ‘aft’ or
the same. ‘ford’) indicating aft or forward of amidships.

Distance of Lcf from FP 3.Or as a distance from the aft perpendicular (in which
A amidships case the distance and direction from amidships can be
LBP easily calculated by use of the LBP/2).
W Trim
Lcf The latter is the clearest method.
Mean of forward Layer correction
and aft draughts
Amidships draught The use of (-) and (+) signs can be very confusing depending
on what the compiler of the tables meant by their use. In
In the above diagram the change to the forward draught is Russian and in Korean shipyards (-) means aft of amidships
greater than the change to the aft draught because the but they also refer to aft trim as (-). The European convention
ship is trimming about the Lcf and the draught at the Lcf is is to use (+) to mean aft of amidships and aft trim. The
greater than the draught amidships, which is the mean of main reason for errors in applying the Lcf in the first trim
the forward and aft draughts. In order to obtain the true correction are an obsession with the (+) or (-) signs as
mean draught (the draught at the Lcf) a correction needs being mathematical. They are in fact only an indicator of
to be applied to the adjusted mean draught (the 3/4 mean which side of amidships Lcf is located and that depends
draught). This correction is called the layer correction and on the shipbuilder’s logic.
is easily calculated using similar triangles as follows.
Usually the convention used is indicated at the beginning
The green trim triangle is similar to the red layer triangle of the tables or somewhere on the pages listing the data.
as both have two of their sides in the same proportion
and their included angles are equal. Lcf is the centre of the of the vessel’s waterplane area
Therefore: and as such is a function of the shape of the vessel on
Layer correction = Trim x Distance of Lcf from amidships the waterline at any given draught and nothing else.
Because the water plane changes shape to get rounder
LBP
at the aft part, as the ship gets deeper, the Lcf moves aft
In this case the true mean draught is the draught amidships as displacement increases and forward as displacement
plus the layer correction. Had the Lcf been forward of decreases but does not necessarily move through
amidships the correction would have been negative. amidships.
This means that from light to loaded condition Lcf will move Heel correction
either from:
In situations where a substantial heel exists, a correction
 Forward to less forward. should be applied. The effect of heel (or list) is to increase
 Forward to aft. the waterplane area and thus lift the ship out of the water.
 Aft to more aft.

In the absence of reliable information as to the convention

This correction is always positive. 
used in the hydrostatic tables, these facts should help to
Correction (in tonnes) = 6 x (TPC1 ~ TPC2) x (Draught1
determine which side of amidships Lcf lies. Therefore, when
~ Draught2)
displacement is increasing, if the actual number (indicating
Where 1 is port side and 2 is starboard.
the position of Lcf from midships) is decreasing, then it is
forward of amidships (it is getting closer to zero, which is
when it is at amidships) and if it is increasing it is aft of Summary
amidships (it has already passed zero at amidships and is Once both trim corrections, and if required the heel
moving further aft). correction, have been applied to the displacement for the
Note: 3/4 mean draught, we then have the weight of the ship if
A recent anomaly to this rule was found with a ship that was it were in salt water of the same density as the ship’s tables.
completely box shaped except for the bow area. In this rare
case the movement of Lcf was dictated by the shape of the
bow alone,and Lcf initially moved aft and then forward as
Density correction
the vessels draught increased. Once the displacement – obtained from the 3/4mean
draught and the ‘A’, ‘B’ and, if required, heel corrections –
Under normal circumstances, when loading a ship the Lcf has been found it needs to be corrected for the density of
can be expected to be further aft at the final survey than at the the water in which the ship is floating.
initial survey. In some cases (Russian river ships in particular)
the Lcf is always aft of amidships. The opposite situation will The displacement of the vessel, from the ship’s hydrostatic
exist when discharging cargo. Normal circumstances mean tables, is calculated at the density used to compile the tables.
that the draught is greater after loading or, conversely, less When divided by this density, it gives the volume of the ship.
after discharge. This may not always be the case, as a ship This volume is then multiplied by the density of the water
could load a small parcel of cargo and at the same time the ship is floating in to obtain the true weight of the ship.
discharge a greater amount of ballast, thus being less deep
than before loading due to the extra ballast discharged. Therefore:
True displacement =
When Lcf is shown, in the vessels hydrostatics tables, as Displacement in salt water x Density of the dock water
measured from the aft perpendicular, then a simple calculation Density used to compile the ships tables
will give its position in relation to amidships (see 3 above).
Lcf from amidships = LBP/2 – distance from aft perpendicular. The reason for saying ‘density of the ships tables’ is that
some vessels are built in shipyards where 1.020 mt/m3,
1.027 mt/m3 or some other figure may be used for the
Second trim correction, (Nemoto’s hydrostatic particulars. However the norm in 99% of cases
correction) is to calculate tables at a density of 1.025 mt/m3.
Sometimes called the ‘B’ correction
The recorded data for Lcf is for an even keel condition, but Alternative hydrostatic information
as the ship trims the waterplane will change shape. This
There are some vessels that do not have a tabulated value
change of shape involves the waterplane increasing in size
for Lcf. Generally these are small coasters.
aft and decreasing forward, and in this situation the position
of Lcf will change by moving further aft to maintain its
There are two types of table in use. One requires the
geometric position in the centre.
calculation of Lcf from trim factors. The other uses a set of
tables, which give a displacement with inclusive trim and
The new position is not tabulated in the normal hydrostatic
density corrections. In this case the calculation of the
tables and a second trim correction is required to compensate
actual true displacement involves a simple, if long-winded,
for this. It is known as Nemoto’s correction, after the Japanese
interpolation.
naval architect. The correction is a compromise but is reason-
ably accurate up to trims of about 1% of the vessels length.
Trim factors
Second trim correction = Trim2 x 50 x (dm~dz)
Trim factors are derived from the position of Lcf. They are
LBP


a quick way for the vessel’s chief mate to calculate his
final trim when loading the ship.
This correction is always positive.
Because Lcf is not listed in the tables its position has to be
(dm~dz) is the rate of change of Mctc per unit of draught
calculated from the trim factors, which are tabulated as
(1 metre). It is the difference in Mctc for 50 cm above and
‘ford’ and ‘aft’. A formula to calculate the position of Lcf is:
below the mean draught. The derivation of this formula and
the evaluation of the expression dm~dz is not important.
Lcf from aft perpendicular = aft factor x LBP
Mctc, known as the trimming moment, is the moment
ford factor + aft factor
required to change the vessels trim by one centimetre.
Final net weight note of any major changes that take place to the stores
between the initial and final surveys. In other words it can
Regardless of the method used to obtain the true displace-
be considered as a reliable measurement of the ships stores
ment of the ship, the weight of the variable items mentioned
etc for that reasonably short period of time.
at the beginning of this section must be deducted to produce
the net weight. This net weight of the ship is the total weight
(true displacement) minus the ballast fuel and fresh water Measuring the variable quantities
quantities. This should also include any other items that These are the fuel and lubricating oil, the fresh water for the
have been identified and measured such as dirty oil (slops), operation of the vessel and, most important of all, the ballast
swimming pool quantities and shore machinery on board water that is contained in the various tanks in the hull.
for example payloders, bobcats and bulldozers etc. These
latter items sometimes remain on board whilst the survey Fuel and oils are required for the engine and auxiliaries to
is taking place and must be allowed for in the calculation. perform. Fresh water provides drinking, cooking and sanitary
water for the crew, water for the boiler and some engine room
The net weight, in the case of an empty ship survey, will be uses. Ballast is to provide the ship with sufficient weight
the weight of the ship including the ‘constant’. In the case when she is not carrying any cargo. As a general rule of
of a loaded ship, it will be the weight of the ship, the thumb the amount of ballast a ship is able to load is some-
‘constant’ and the cargo. Clearly the weight of the cargo where around 1/3 of her summer deadweight, although some
is the difference between these two weights. small low air draught vessels have been designed with up
to 75% of summer deadweight. Large bulk carriers, that
Constant can carry 150,000 tonnes of cargo, will be provided with
something like 50,000 to 60,000 tonnes of ballast capacity.
Under the heading ‘stability book’, light ship was stated to
be the weight of the empty ship in operational condition.
All these materials are contained in tanks that are distributed
This is:
around the ship. Some diagrams of basic ships structure
The ship, its full equipment, engine room spares, water in
will demonstrate this more clearly.
the boilers to working level and lubricating oil in the engine.
It does not include:
Cross section views of some ship types:
Personnel, cargo, fuel oils, ballast water, fresh water or stores.

The weights of ballast water, fresh water and fuel are

calculated and are known collectively as the ‘deductibles’
or ‘total variables’. Once this total weight is subtracted from
the true displacement, a net weight is left that is either the
ship and stores, or the ship, stores and cargo depending Topside
on whether it is an empty or loaded ship survey. tanks

This stores quantity – the difference between the light ship

weight and the empty ship survey – is often referred to as
the ‘constant’. Constant is a misnomer and it should really Double Cargo hold
bottom tanks
be referred to as a ‘stores variable’.
Basic handy size bulk carrier
A ship’s constant’ may be affected by a variety of changes,
such as under or over stated fuel figures, slops, mud in
ballast tanks, incorrect ballast calibration tables, crew and
stores changes, etc. and it should not be considered a fixed
amount. Also a vessels light ship weight can change over Cargo hold
the years due to a variety of additions and removals from the
structure. These could be due to a variety of factors such
side or
as rebuilding, repairs, additions and modifications. As a wing tanks Double
consequence the vessels constant will include these changes bottom
tanks
unless a new light ship survey is carried out after each
instance. From experience, this usually only happens after
a rebuild or major additions.
Modern multipurpose double skinned vessel
The reason for a survey when the vessel is empty is to
determine this variable quantity (constant). The vessel’s This section is
only square
previous experience of this constant may be the result of section
unreliable and badly carried out surveys. Many surveys trunking
include the lube oil in the constant and others do not. The linking the
combined topsides and
constant can also be affected by understated fuel figures double double bottom
from the chief engineer, who may be keeping a quantity of bottom tanks at the
and forward and
oil ‘up his sleeve’ for a rainy day! topside aft ends of
tanks the tank
However, within reason this stores variable quantity (constant)
Cargo hold
can be considered to remain fixed for the duration of the
ships stay in port. This is assuming that the surveyor takes Modern Cape and Panamax size vessel
Sounding of ballast and fresh water tanks total of any bunkers received between the arrival and
departure surveys. Care should be taken that the final
With only a few exceptions, all tanks on board ships are
quantity is not arrived at by sounding the storage tanks
fitted with a ‘sounding pipe’ which allows access to the tank
– only the original agreed figure, minus consumption and
to obtain a measurement of the depth of liquid inside. This
plus any deliveries should be used. In this way, only the
pipe is usually about 40 to 50 mm in diameter and extends
changes between initial and final surveys will be calculated.
from just above the bottom of the tank to deck level or above.
 Any slops that have been discharged ashore will also
The measurement of the quantity of liquid in the tank is need to be allowed for. A check should be made on the
obtained by the use of a sounding rod or a graduated quantity of slops on board and, in particular, if it is the
dipping tape. To assist in this measurement, water finding ships intention to discharge any ashore.
paste is often used to give a clear mark at the water level.
One paste, in common use, is yellow and changes to red on
contact with water. Other colours of paste can be found or
Calculating volumes
even the use of chalk will show where the water level is. Once the soundings are obtained for all of the ballast tanks
and, if necessary, the fresh water tanks, the volume of water
Many ships have a cargo hold that is also nominated as a in each tank is extracted from the vessels tank calibration
ballast tank when not in use to carry cargo. Sometimes these tables. As with the hydrostatic tables, these also come in a
ballast holds have a designated sounding point, which can be variety of forms. They can be either numerical or in graphic
the bilge-sounding pipe, a separate sounding pipe, or some- form and can sometimes be difficult to interpret. If the ship
times a hole in the hatchcover. Whichever it is, it should be has no trim or heel, i.e. on an even keel and upright, then the
related to a calibration table giving volumes for the soundings. depth of water at the sounding pipe will be the same through-
out the tank. However when any trim or heel is present,
Failing this, the volume is calculated by using the grain which is the usual case, either the volumes or the soundings
capacity of the hold and deducting from it the space will need to be corrected as the water will be deeper in the
remaining in the hatch coaming when the hold is almost full direction of the trim or heel.
with ballast water. To do this the space remaining in the
coaming is measured and deducted from the hold’s grain The type of table can sometimes affect the accuracy of the
capacity. The water level in the hold must be at least up to value extracted. Some tables have built-in trim corrections,
the level of the deck plates for it to be reliable. Grain capacity which give the volumes for each metre, or half metre, of trim and
is the volume of a hold and can be found in the stability book. maybe even for every centimetre of sounding. Others have a
The ballast quantity is the biggest source of errors in a separate table of corrections to be applied to the soundings,
draught survey. It is vital to understand that the object is while some ships’ tables have no trim correction at all. Heel
corrections, if provided, are usually in a separate table that

to measure the change in the amount of ballast
between surveys. give either a correction to the sounding or to the volume.

Sounding tables with volumes for each metre of trim will give
Fresh water reliable quantities, although problems compared to the trim on
Fresh water tanks are either sounded as for other tanks, or completion at the load port in relation to that on arrival at
they are often fitted with water gauges graduated directly the disport can arise (see small trimmed ballast volumes below).
in m3 – which are tonnes, as the density of fresh water can
be assumed to be 1.000. These gauges take the form of Tables with corrections to the soundings will give reliable
transparent plastic tubes fitted to the outside of the tank quantities as long as there is sufficient sounding to which
with the open ends connected to the waterinside. The the correction can be applied (see small trimmed ballast
water finds its own level in the tube. volumes below).

Care has to be taken with the quantities, as most ships now Tables without trim corrections require the vessel, at the
use fresh water for toilet flushing and therefore a lot of the time of the survey, to be as close to even keel as possible,
water that has apparently been used, during the vessels stay otherwise the volumes will be in error. The resultant error
in port, may have been placed in a sewage holding tank. So can be partially compensated for by calculating a correction
a change in the fresh water of say 20 tonnes over a couple to the sounding using the following formula:
of days may only be 5 tonnes that have left the ship. Therefore
the change to the fresh water is only 5 tonnes not 20. Approximate correction to sounding = trim x tank length
2 x LBP
Fuel and oil Some small coasters do not have ballast tables. Therefore
The quantity of fuel and oil on board can be ascertained by when the tanks have been pumped out, but not totally empty
carrying out a bunker survey. However this is not normally of liquids, and only small soundings are found, the volume
necessary, as the amount of oil consumed by the static of any wedge shaped residues can be calculated using the
generators that the ship operates, and any boiler that may following formula.
be in use during the ships stay in port, is small and well-
documented. Therefore, unless the total quantity of fuel is to Volume of wedge = Length of tank x breadth of tank x sounding2
be determined by bunker survey, the procedure is as follows: 2 x vessels trim
 The quantity of fuel oil, diesel oil, lubrication oil and slops
The use of this formula must also be regarded as an approx-
on arrival should be by agreed with the chief engineer.
imation as it depends on the tank being of, or close to,
 The quantity of oils remaining on departure, is calculated by rectangular in shape. The residual quantities must be a
subtracting the daily consumption figure and adding the wedge and not just deeper at the back of the tank.
Volume is a wedge if the length of the tank is greater than: If the tanks have overflowed then samples are easily obtained.
Sounding x LBP Alternatively, it is sometimes possible to use a small hand-
Trim operated siphon device or a hand pump manufactured for
caravan users. Also in modern use is a device called a
Small trimmed ballast volumes ‘salinity refractometer’ that measures density by assessing
the refraction of a small sample of water – the greater the
Consider a ship that has completed loading and with a trim refraction the more dense the water. Only a few drops of
say of one or two metres and soundings of zero water are required, and this can be obtained from the
centimetres in each of the various ballast tanks. This is not sounding tape bob when the tank is checked. These devices
unusual if the vessel has been ableto strip out her ballast are in common use in the food industry and are proving
during loading operations, with a good stern trim promoting useful for surveyors when the overflowing of tanks is not
continuous suction to the ballast pump, and thus producing possible (see addendum 4).
tanks almost devoid of ballast.
Whatever method is chosen, it is important that the density
However, there will still be some ballast, known as the un- of the ballast water is known. This is especially so on large
pumpable residue, remaining in the tank even though the Cape size vessels where individual tanks can contain 5000m3
amount indicated at the sounding point is zero. This amount of water. i.e. 5000 tonnes of fresh water or 5125 tonnes
will be less the greater the trim, and on a ship provided with of salt water if the density were to be 1.025 mt/m3.
the type of table that gives volumes for each metre of trim,
the residual volumes will be small. Should the vessel then
arrive at the disport on an even keel, as is usually the case, Sounding problems
the same tables can give larger volumes of water for the Sounding pipes are usually located at the after end of tanks
same zero sounding. This is because, when the vessel has because the normal trim for a ship is by the stern. There
no trim, any unpumpable residue is considered to cover the are some small coasters in service that are not fitted with
bottom of the tank completely and the volume is therefore sounding pipes but have remote-reading dial gauges in the
greater than when the same zero sounding was found with engine room. Unfortunately, while these are adequate to
the ship trimmed 2 metres by the stern and the remaining inform the crew if the tanks are full or empty, they are not
quantity was wedge shaped. The disparity can affect the sufficiently accurate for draught surveying purposes. This
result of the survey at discharge and indicate a reduction in fact should be highlighted on any survey report stating that
the cargo quantity compared to the loaded weight. only an estimation of the ballast remains was possible. The
report should state that the survey may not be reliable
On the other hand, when the tables have separate because of this fact.
corrections to be applied to the soundings a different
scenario exists. e.g. if the sounding at the load port was Double-bottom ballast tanks cannot be pumped absolutely
zero centimetres and the tabulated correction to the dry due to the nature of their construction and the location
sounding for a stern trim of two metres was minus (-) 9 cm, of the suction pipe, which must be a physical distance above
clearly the corrected sounding is then zero, as it is not the bottom of the tank to allow water to flow into it. This
possible to have a negative sounding. On arrival at the distance is dictated by the capacity of the ballast pump and
disport, now on an even keel, the same situation exists and the cross sectional area of the suction line and this then
the corrected sounding will still be zero as the correction to relates to the quantity of water remaining in the tank (un-
the sounding is now zero. As both cases give the same pumpable residue).
quantity, the ballast on arrival at the disport will be the same
as on departure from the load port. However, the error in It is often preferable to overflow full ballast tanks to prove
the weight of the ballast, on this occasion, will have been at they are completely full, although there is a school of thought
the load port, where a greater quantity of ballast was found that says soundings are a better option. Overflowing of
than was actually on board, because it was not possible to double bottom tanks is the best method as long as it is
correct the sounding beyond the zero mark. permissible; they are in the bottom of the ship and the air
pipe is on the weather deck. Clearly, when water is over-
Recently shipbuilders have recognised this problem and flowing from these tanks, they will be full. Topside tanks,
are providing vessels with separate ‘small quantity residual however, are prone to air pockets when overflowing. This
tables’, which are of the type giving quantities for each depends on the trim, the height of the air pipes and the
metre or half metre of trim. This, of course, reverts to the length of the tank.
problem mentioned above when vessels arrive on an even
Relationship between tank length, air pipe height and trim
keel having completed loading with a stern trim.
Wedge of air

Weight of the ballast Topside

Topside tank 1
The density of the ballast water must be determined in tank 2
order to calculate its true weight. The chief mate may know Water line
the density of the ballast water, but he is usually a busy man X
with other things on his mind. It is sometimes the case that Double bottom tank
ballast has been taken in a tidal river or harbour, where
density changes with the ebb and flow of the tide; different Let height of air pipe = x Then by similar triangles
tanks will then have different densities so each ‘pair’of x = trim
tanks need to be checked for density. If possible take length of tank LBP
samples of the water and measure the density with the Therefore x = trim x length of tank
Zeal hydrometer.
LBP
If the actual height of the air pipe is less than ‘x’ then the tank Condition of vessel at time of survey
may not be full. In the above diagram No 1 topside tank is
It has also been found that ships presenting themselves in
not completely full while No 2 topside is. This is due to the
a suitable condition for draught survey give better results.
relationship between tank length and trim (the double bottom
The criterion for this has been found to be as follows:
will be full as long as the water in the sounding pipe is more
than the distance ‘x’ above the top of the tank).  Ship upright. (No list).
 Ship’s trim as small as possible preferably less than 1%
There are occasions when a ballast tank cannot be sounded. of LBP but not by the head.
This is usually due to damage or a blockage in a sounding
 All ballast tanks to be either completely full or empty
pipe. In these situations, the options are to leave the tank as
(no slack tanks).
it is throughout the survey; either empty or full. In the latter
case it may be possible to overflow it to prove it full at both  Any ballast holds to be empty (if possible).
initial and final surveys. This is the better option, as there is With a small trim, and tanks overflowed, and when the
a definite answer to the quantity of ballast water contained water is coming from both air pipes, the tanks are full to
in the tank. It is usually necessary to do this to a pair of capacity. Large trims cause problems, with overflowing
tanks, as one side being full while the other is empty causes especially where the tank is long, for instance over the
an unacceptable list. length of two hatches.

Taking soundings when the ship is trimmed by the bow can Topside tanks can be difficult to check when the vessel is
lead to large errors as shown below. heavily trimmed or has a list. The shape of a topside tank is
such that the largest amount of water per centimetre of
This is an explanation of why a ship, with a trim of 4.5 metres sounding is within the last few centimetres of the capacity.
and a tank sounding of 6 cms, which was equal to 1 m3, Link that with the fact that many topside tanks are higher
then became 16.7 m3 when the trim was -0.60 metres by nearer the centreline than at the outboard side due to the
the bow (figures taken from an actual table). camber of the deck. Then a list and large trim will make it very
difficult to obtain accurate results, from either sounding or
Situation (1)
overflowing the tanks, hence the reason for the above criteria.
Trim 4.5 metres by the stern
Sounding 6 cms
Quantity from tables 1.0 m3 Sounding pipe Ballast tank condition
This does not just refer to the level of water in the tanks, but
also to the state of the tank with regard to the build up of
mud and silt. Ships trade to places where the water in the
Tank rivers or harbours is heavily contaminated with silt and mud.
On long ballast passages, the silt and mud will settle out of
the ballast water and some will remain in the tank when the
ballast is pumped out. Over a period of time this mud and
Situation (2) silt will harden and tend to block the ability for water to
Trim -0. 60 metres by the bow
drain back to the sounding/dumping valve/suction points
Sounding now zero (0.0m) but water just missing the sounding pipe
Quantity according to the tables is 16.7 m3
in the tanks. Water residues should be able to drain via
the clearance cut outs or drain holes, sometimes called
‘mouse holes’ situated within the structure of double
bottom, side and topside tanks (see diagram on next page).
Sounding pipe
The weight of the mud and silt in the tanks, will remain
constant at both the initial and final survey, and will not affect
the result. However, the ballast calibration and capacity
Tank tables, used to determine how much water is in the tanks,
would now no longer be accurate because the tank capacity
will have been reduced due to the build up of mud. Hence
Situation (3) a 100 m3 tank with 5 m3 of mud in it is now only a 95 m3
But look at this case tank, yet the surveyor is constrained to use the amounts in
Trim still –0.60 metres by the bow the calibration tables. As it is the change to the ballast that
Sounding still zero (0.0m) but now water level same as situation (1) is being measured there will be an error of 5 m3 when
So actual quantity in the tank is only 1.0 m3 even though the tables
100 m3 is used, say, for full and 1 m3 for empty, showing
say it is 16.7 m3
a change in the ballast of 99 m3 when actually it was only
94 m3. There is unfortunately little that can be done about
this, as there is no way of measuring the amount of lost
Sounding pipe
capacity due to the aggregation of mud.

What can be done, however, is try to limit the change to

Tank the ballast by filling or discharging as few of the tanks as
possible during the loading or discharge operations of a
particular parcel. This will not be possible, of course, with
This is why it is very bad practice to take soundings when a full cargo but surveyors should bear this in mind when
a ship is trimmed by the bow. only small parcels are being weighed by draught survey
(e.g. if, say, 5000 tonnes are to be loaded in No. 3 hold, Below is a diagram of a double-bottom structure, which
then try to persuade the vessel to discharge only the should help the understanding of the problems.
ballast at that hold and keep all other tanks the same).

The level of the water in the ballast tanks will, in some ways,
Sounding pipe
determine the level of accuracy of the survey. Slack tanks
that are sounded can sometimes result in poor measurement
Mouse hole
of the quantity inside them. The effect of even a slight move-
ment of the ship, due to wind or waves, is to cause the water
in the sounding pipe to move up and down. If the sounding Lightening
hole
rod is allowed to rest on the bottom of the tank, even briefly,
this will give rise to false soundings if great care is not taken.

What can be done to improve the accuracy of ballast

soundings? One method is to overflow all double-bottom Ballast
ballast tanks, when full, take soundings of the topside tanks suction/filling
and not to have any slack tanks or, if it is necessary say line
for trim, as few slack tanks as possible.

In order to obtain accurate soundings of any slack tanks,

several readings should be taken, not allowing the sounding
rod to rest on the bottom; just touch and remove immediately.
In this way different readings will be found and an average
of them will produce a better result.

ADDENDUM 1
Manometer
In some circumstances the wave and swell activity can be bubbles in it when the device is not in use. This is important,
such that it may be too rough to use a boat or the wave as any entrapped air will prevent the manometer working
damping tube may be difficult or even impossible to position properly. The short sections of 19mm tube are to provide
on the hull. This situation can often be resolved by the use a damping action to the movement of water in the system
of a manometer to measure the list across the deck at that is caused by ship movement.
midships, which is then added to, or subtracted from, the
inboard draught reading to obtain the outboard draught. From the above diagram the starboard draught is equal to
the port draught plus the difference in port and starboard
It is not necessary for the manometer to be fitted with a draughts from the manometer.
scale at the ends as the height of the water in the tube is
measured from the deck on each side using a tape measure. In the event that the manometer is not long enough to reach
In circumstances where the list is large the end of the the vessels sides the true difference can be calculated from
manometer on the low side must be positioned higher than the measured difference by the use of similar triangles. In
the end on the high side to avoid the water in the tube this case the manometer is set to obtain readings at a known
running out. However when a scale is fitted and used for distance apart across the vessel.
the reading care must be taken that the scale is fixed at
the same height on each side. Manometer
Difference
in port/stbd
A simple manometer is constructed from a length of plastic draughts
tubing about 35 to 40 metres long of 10mm outside diameter,
6mm inside diameter, filled with water. On each end is a valve
connected to a short section of 19mm tube. The valves are to Water line
allow the water in the tube to be retained without any air Difference
Port Breadth in port/stbd
draught draughts
Manometer
Difference in
port/stbd
draughts
In the above example:
Water line Difference in port/stbd draughts = Difference in port/stbd readings
Difference Breadth d
Port in port/stbd
draught draughts
Therefore:
Difference in port/stbd draughts = Breadth x Difference in readings
d
ADDENDUM 2
Marine hydrometers Load line hydrometers.
There are two types of hydrometers commonly used in the Load line hydrometers are used to determine the relative
maritime industry. These are: density (specific gravity) of a water sample at a standard
temperature (T1) against a sample of distilled water at a
Draught survey hydrometers standard temperature (T2). The standard temperatures
These instruments are designed to measure the ‘apparent used are usually 15° Celsius (60° F). Relative density is a
density of water’. ratio, a number. They are usually marked ‘RD’ or ‘Sp.Gr.’,
together with the standard temperatures.
For purposes of draught surveys:
When the temperatures of the water and the distilled water
Apparent density (weight in air per unit volume) (t/m3) x samples have a huge variation, a temperature correction
Volume (m3) = Weight (t). must be applied to allow for the expansion of the hydrometer.
These instruments are used to determine the displacement
Load line hydrometers of a vessel at any given waterline in order to comply with
These instruments are designed to determine the ‘relative the requirements of the ‘International Conference on Load
density of water’. Lines, 1966’.

For purposes of load line surveys in determination of a The Convention, at Article 12, permits a vessel to load to
vessel’s displacement: submerge the appropriate load line by an allowance made
proportional to the difference between 1.025 and the actual
Relative density (specific gravity) x Volume (m3) = density in which the vessel is floating. This then is relative
Displacement (m3). density i.e. the Convention refers to ‘density in vacuo’ i.e.
mass per unit volume.
Marine and draught surveyors should be familiar with the
correct usage of both types of instrument so that neither Differences
confusion nor errors occur during draught survey or stability
calculations. The displacement and apparent weight of a vessel have a
relationship, as do the relative and apparent densities of
the water in which the vessel is floating. The difference
Draught survey hydrometers between the relative density (specific gravity) as determined
Modern hydrometers of glass manufacture are calibrated at by the load line hydrometer and the draught survey hydrometer,
standard temperature, 15° Celsius (60° F), and measure the is known as the ‘air buoyancy correction’, and can be
apparent density of the water sample in kilograms per litre accepted, at standard temperatures 15°C/15°C or 60°F/
in air. They are usually marked ‘for draught (or draft) survey’ 60°F, as 0.002 for marine surveys. The density of gases
and ‘medium ST’ (medium surface tension) and graduated depends upon temperature, pressure and moisture content.
in the range 0.990 / 1.040 kg/l.
The density of dry air at sea level is about 1/800 th. of the
These instruments are used to determine the weight in air density of fresh water. i.e. 1.25kg/m3 when under similar
(apparent weight) of a vessel, from which the weight of the conditions of temperature and pressure. It should also be
cargo on board may be calculated. noted that the actual maximum density of fresh water is
999.972 kg/m3 which occurs at a temperature of +40 C.
When manufactured of glass and calibrated at standard The density of fresh water at 1000 C is 958.4 kg/m3.
temperature, a small error results if the hydrometer is not
being used at the designed standard temperature. The correction to be deducted from the relative density of
load line hydrometer to compare with an actual density of
However, it is accepted that no temperature correction is draught survey hydrometer. Example: for a sample of sea-
necessary, as it is compensated at survey by the change water checked by a load line hydrometer reading relative
in volume of the steel vessel itself. The corrections due to density 1.025, a draught survey hydrometer would read an
the ‘coefficients of cubical expansion’ of glass and steel actual density of 1.023 kg/l in air.
are very approximately the same, thus they cancel out.
All hydrometers should be calibrated regularly.
The older types of hydrometer used for draught surveys and
manufactured with brass, or some other metal, are still to Surveyors should only use a hydrometer manufactured
be found on some vessels. These instruments should be for the relevant type of survey being undertaken.
accompanied with a table of corrections and the relevant
temperature correction should always be applied.

It is recommended that the use of a glass hydrometer is

always preferable. The fragile glass hydrometer should be
kept clean and protected.

Draught survey hydrometers should not be used for load

line survey purposes.
ADDENDUM 3
Draught survey certificate
VESSEL: B/L (M/T):
PORT DATE:

ARRIVAL
Aft Mid Ford L ship
Port LBP
Starboard
Mean Tpc
Corr’n to perpendicular Lcf -(ford)
Draught Trim
3/4 mean draught Mct+
Disp @ Mtc-
Trim correction A
Trim correction B Oil
Corrected displacement Fresh water
Density of dock water Ballast
Displacement @ density Other
Variables Total
Nett displacement

DEPARTURE
Aft Mid Ford
Port
Starboard
Mean Tpc
Corr’n to perpendicular Lcf -(ford)
Draught Trim
3/4 mean draught Mct+
Disp @ Mtc-
Trim correction A
Trim correction B Oil
Corrected displacement Fresh water
Density of dock water Ballast
Displacement @ density Other
Variables Total
Nett displacement
CARGO
SURVEYOR

Dist of draught marks Arrival Departure

From aft perpendicular Marks forward of perpendicular +ve
From aft perpendicular
Marks forward of perpendicular +ve
From aft perpendicular
ADDENDUM 4
Salinity refractometers
Salinity refractometers have been used in the aquaculture Typical basic
and food industries for a number of years to check the salinity refractometer
salinity of water samples.

A refractometer uses the fact that light deflects as it passes

through different substances. When passing through water,
the degree of deflection (refraction) is directly related to the
quantity of mineral salts dissolved in the water.

The refractive index of a substance is a measure of how far

light is bent by that substance.

For example, at 20°C the refractive index of distilled water

is 1.333 and the refractive index of sea water (relative
density 1.025, salinity 35 parts per thousand) at the
same temperature is 1.339.

When using a refractometer, a sample is placed on an

optical prism in the sample window. As light passes through
the sample, the rays are bent according to the salinity of
the water casting a shadow on the scale which is visible
through the eyepiece.

Using a basic hand held refractometer.

 The refractometer must be calibrated.

Acknowledgement: DG Marine Ltd
 Ensure the prism is kept clean using a soft cloth.
 Place several drops of distilled water on the prism and
close the cover plate.
If the refractometer meter reads zero, then it is properly
calibrated. If not, rotate the calibration screw until the
shadow boundary lines up with the zero mark.

 Ensure that the sample to be tested will not been

adulterated by rinsing equipment and the prism with
part of the sample water.
 Then place several drops of the sample water on the
prism, ensuring that the refractometer remains level so
that none of the sample run off the prism.
 Close the sample cover.
 Hold instrument towards a strong light source.
 Adjust focus ring until scale is clearly visible.
 Read the scale at the shadow boundary.
 Rinse and clean the instrument before re-use.

Hand held digital refractometers are also available but

are more expensive.

For further information please contact: Loss Prevention Department, Thomas Miller P&I Ltd
Tel: +44 20 7204 2307. Fax +44 20 7283 6517. Email: lossprevention.ukclub@thomasmiller.com