THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
2023/2024 ACADEMIC YEAR LECTURE NOTES

INTRODUCTORY PHYSICS PH 110

CHAPTER 1
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Understand that all physical quantities consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit.
• Distinguish between fundamental and derived physical quantities.
• Describe and understand the different systems of units.
• Explain the most common prefixes in SI units and be able to write them in scientific notation.
• Perform unit conversions both in the SI and other systems of units.
• Formulate dimensional formulae, write dimensional equations, explain and apply the principle
of homogeneity of dimensions to verify various formulations in physics.
• Understand the applications of dimensional analysis.
• Understand the limitations of dimensional analysis.
• Determine the appropriate number of significant figures in both addition and subtraction as well
as multiplication and division calculations.
• Understand the concept of the density of a substance.
• Show an understanding of the concept of order of magnitude.
• Understand the distinction between accuracy and precision.
• Understand the terms associated with errors in measurement and perform error analysis.

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 Figure 1.1 Some measuring instruments that use metric system.

Physics is based on measurement of the physical quantities we use to describe the changes that
take place in our universe. We start then by learning how to measure the physical quantities in
terms of which the laws of physics are expressed. Among these quantities are length, time, mass,
temperature, pressure, and electrical resistance. We use many of these words in everyday speech.
You might say for example, “I will go to any length to help you as long as you do not pressure
me.” In physics, words like length and pressure have precise meanings, which we must not confuse
with everyday meaning in the quoted sentence. As Robert Oppenheimer has written, “Often the
very fact that the words of science are the same as those of our common life and tongue can be
more misleading than enlightening.”

1.1 Units for measurement

The laws of physics are expressed in terms of physical quantities. A physical quantity is any
quantity that can be measured and expressed in form of laws of physics. Hence an accurate
measurement of these quantities becomes necessary and inevitable in establishing the laws of
nature as revealed by experimental observations. In our daily life, we need to express and compare
the magnitude of different quantities; this can be done only by measuring them. Measurement of
any physical quantity involves comparison with a certain basic, arbitrary chosen, internationally
accepted reference standard known as a unit. In other words, we define a physical quantity by
setting up a standard and assigning a unit.

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1.2 Magnitude
The number of times a standard is present in the physical quantity is known as the magnitude of
the physical quantity. In other words, the magnitude of any quantity is a number that indicates
how large or small a measurement of that quantity is in comparison to a given reference value. In
general, a physical quantity is given by
Physical quantity(𝑄) = Magnitude(𝑛) × Unit(𝑢)
Where, 𝑛 represents the numerical value and 𝑢 represents the unit.
1.3 Fundamental quantities
A physical quantity which is independent of any other quantity is called a fundamental quantity.
The unit of a physical quantity which is independent of any other quantity is called a fundamental
unit. In mechanics, units of length, mass and time are taken as fundamental units.

1.4 Derived quantities

The physical quantities which can be derived from other physical quantities are called derived
quantities. All other quantities except the fundamental quantities are derivable. The units of
physical quantities which can be expressed in terms of fundamental units are called derived units.
For example, area, pressure, density and speed are derived quantities and their units are derived
from fundamental units. Note that some derived units have special names e.g. kgm/s2 is Newton
(N) and N/m2 is Pascal (Pa).

1.5 Systems of units

A system of units is a collection of units in which units are chosen as fundamental and all others
are derived from them. This system is also called an absolute system of units. In most systems, the
mass, length and time are considered to be fundamental quantities, and their units are called
fundamental units. The following are some systems of units which are in common use.
1.5.1 C.G.S System
In this system, the unit of length is centimeter, the unit of mass is gram and the unit of time is
second.
1.5.2 F.P.S System
In the F.P.S system, the unit of length is foot, the unit of mass is pound and the unit of time is
second.
1.5.3 M.K.S System
In this system, the unit of length is meter, the unit of mass is kilogram and the unit of time is second.
1.5.4 The International System of Units (SI)
S.I unit is the short name of “System International de units” which means “International system
of units”. This system is an improved and extended version of M.K.S system. Thus, MKS system
was modified with addition of four other quantities. It is a system of units for all fundamental
physical quantities popularly known as the metric system. In SI, there are seven base units. These

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are units of length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, luminous intensity and amount of
substance. Table 1.1 depicts these quantities, their unit names, and their unit symbols.

Table 1.1 The seven independent SI base units

1.6 Prefixes
To express the very large or the very small numbers that we often run into in physics, we use the
so-called scientific notation which employs powers of 10. As a further convenience when dealing
with very large numbers or very small numbers in physics, we often use the prefixes listed in Table
1.2. Each one of these prefixes represents a certain power of 10. Note that the most commonly
used prefixes are shown in bold face type. Some of these prefixes, such as millimeter, centimeter
and kilogram are already familiar to you.

Table 1.2 Prefixes for SI units

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Thus, we can express a particular electric power output as:
1.27 × 109 watts = 1.27 gigawatts = 1.27 GW
and a particular time interval as
2.35 × 10−9 seconds = 2.35 nanoseconds = 2.35 ns
1.7 Conversion of units
We often need to change the units in which a physical quantity is expressed, from one measurement
system to another or to convert within the system. We do that by using a method called chain-link
conversion. In this method, a conversion factor is written as a ratio that is equal to unity. Units
can be treated as algebraic quantities that can cancel each other. Thus, 1 min and 60 s are identical
physical quantities and we can write

This however, does not mean that = 1 or 60 = 1 because the number and the unit must be
treated together. Because multiplying any quantity by unity leaves it unchanged, we can always
introduce such conversion factors where we find it useful. We use the factors in such a way that
the unwanted units cancel out.

1.8 Dimensional analysis

Dimensional analysis is the study of the relation between physical quantities based on their units
and dimensions. These quantities are represented by the letters. For instance, the quantities mass,
length, and time are represented by the letters M, L and T respectively. The letters specify only the
nature of the unit and not the magnitude. The concept of dimensionality is important in
understanding physics and in solving physics problems.
The dimensional formulae of some physical quantities are listed below.

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1.8.1 Principle of homogeneity of dimensions
The principle of homogeneity of dimensions states that an equation is dimensionally correct if the
dimensions of all the terms on either side of the equation are the same. According to this principle,
we can multiply or divide physical quantities with same or different dimensional formulae at our
convenience, however, no such rule applies to addition and subtraction, where only the like
physical quantities can be added or subtracted.
1.8.2 Applications of dimensional analysis
• To find the unit of a physical quantity in a given system of units
• To find the dimensions of physical constant or coefficients.
• It is used to represent the nature of a physical quantity.
• To check the correctness of a given equation or any other physical relation based on the
principle of homogeneity.
• Dimensional analysis can be used to derive formulas.
• To convert a physical quantity from one system to another system.

1.8.3 Limitations of dimensional analysis

• Dimension does not depend on the magnitude
• It does not give information about the dimensional constant.
• This method is applicable only if the relation is of product type. The formula containing
trigonometric functions, exponential functions, logarithmic functions, etc. cannot be derived.
• This method is not suitable if the physical quantity depends on more than three other quantities.
• It gives no information about whether a physical quantity is a scalar or a vector.

1.9 Significant figures

Significant figures in the measured value of physical quantity tell the number of digits in which we
have confidence. The larger the number of significant figures obtained in a measurement, the
greater the accuracy of a measurement. The reverse is also true. The following rules are observed
in counting the number of significant figures in a given measured quantity.

• All non-zero digits are significant.

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• All zeros occurring between two non-zero digits are significant.
• If a number starts with a decimal all the zeros on the left side of the first non-zero digit are not
significant; but all the zeros on the right side of the first non-zero digit are significant.
Examples: 0.0001845 has four significant figures
0.004030 has four significant figures
• If a number has an integral part and a decimal part, all the zeros in the number are significant.
Examples: 30.10 has four significant figures
30.00 has four significant figures
• Where there is no decimal, the last zeros are not significant.

1.10 Rounding off

• If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged.
Examples: x = 7.82 is rounded off to 7.8, again x = 3.94 is rounded off to 3.9, to one decimal place.
• If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the preceding digit is raised by one.
Examples: x = 6.87 is rounded off to 6.9, again x = 12.78 is rounded off to 12.8, to one decimal place
• If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, then the preceding digit is raised by
one.
Examples: x = 16.351 is rounded off to 16.4, again x = 6.758 is rounded off to 6.8, to one decimal
place.
• If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is left unchanged, if it
is even.
Examples: x = 3.250 becomes 3.2 on rounding off, again x = 12.650 becomes 12.6 on rounding off,
to one decimal place.
• If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is raised by one, if it
is odd.
Examples: x = 3.750 becomes 3.8 on rounding off, again x = 16.150 becomes 16.2 on rounding off,
to one decimal place.

1.11 Significant figures in calculation

In an experiment, different physical quantities may be measured. These quantities may be added,
subtracted, multiplied or divided to get the required experimental result. If all the observations
have been made with great accuracy except one observation, then the inaccuracy in the single
observation would affect the accuracy of the final result(s). The following two rules should be
followed to obtain the proper number of significant figures in any calculation.

• The result of an addition or subtraction in the number having different precisions should be
reported to the same number of decimal places as are present in the number having the least
number of decimal places.

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• The answer to a multiplication or division is rounded off to the same number of significant
figures as is possessed by the least precise term used in the calculation.

1.12 Density
The fundamental property of any substance is its density (Greek letter (rho). It is defined as
mass 𝑚 per unit volume .

The density of material shows the denseness of that material in a given area. Density is essentially
a measurement of how tightly matter is packed together. It is a unique physical property of a
particular object. For example, copper has a density of 8.93 g/cm3 or 8.93 x 103 kg/m3. This means
that piece of copper of volume 1 cm3 has mass 8.93 g or that a piece of copper of volume 1 m3 has
mass 8.93 x 103 kg

1.13 Order of magnitude

The order of magnitude tells us about the largeness or smallness of a physical quantity. Order of
magnitude of a quantity is the power of 10 required to represent the quantity. Order of magnitude
is used to make estimates and approximate comparisons in scientific notation. Some examples of
very large and very small numbers that benefit from order of magnitude representation include the
size of an electron, the speed of a supercomputer, the age of the earth etc.
For determining order of magnitude, the value of the quantity has to be rounded off. While rounding
off, we ignore the last digit which is less than 5. If the last digit is 5 or more than 5, the preceding
digit is increased by 1. For example,
1. Speed of light in vacuum = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 ≈ 108 𝑚/𝑠 (as 3 < 5)
2. Mass of an electron = 9 × 10−31 ≈ 10−30 𝑘𝑔 (as 9 > 5)
This calculation is useful as it gives a first orientation before a more standard calculation can be
performed. It is important that realistic assumptions are made.

1.14 Accuracy, precision and errors in measurement

While doing an experiment several errors can enter into the results. Errors occur due to faulty
equipment (Systematic error), carelessness of the experimenter (Gross error) and due to irregular
or random causes (Random error). When we take measurements using various measuring
instruments, various types of errors may creep into the observations. In other words, the result of
every measurement by any measuring instrument contains some uncertainty, referred to as an error.
Uncertainty is the quantitative measure of how much your measured values deviate from the
standard or expected value. The degree of accuracy and precision of a measuring system are related
to the uncertainty in the measurements.

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1.14.1. Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy and precision are two important factors to consider while taking measurements. Both
these terms reflect how close a measurement is to a known or accepted value. Accuracy is the
ability of an instrument to measure the accurate value. In other words, it is the closeness of the
measured value to a standard or true value. Accuracy is obtained by taking small readings, so as to
reduce the error of calculation.
The closeness of two or more measurements to each other is known as precision of a substance.
Suppose you weigh a given substance five times and get 4.5 kg each time, then your measurement
is very precise but not necessarily accurate. Precision is independent of accuracy. In conclusion,
accuracy is the degree of closeness between the measurement and its true value, whereas precision
is the degree to which repeated measurements under the same conditions show the same results.
1.14.2. Errors of measurement
The measured value of a quantity is always somewhat different from its actual value, or true value.
This difference is called error of measurement.
(a) Absolute error
Absolute error in the measurement of a physical quantity is the magnitude of the difference between
the true value and the measured value of the quantity.
Let a physical quantity be measured n times. Let the measured values be 𝑎1, 𝑎2, 𝑎3,…, 𝑎𝑛. The
arithmetic mean of these values is
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 … + 𝑎𝑚
𝑎𝑚 =
𝑛
Usually, 𝑎𝒎 is taken as the true value or accepted value of the quantity, if the same is unknown
otherwise. By definition, absolute errors in the measured values of the quantity are
∆𝑎1 = 𝑎𝑚 − 𝑎1
∆𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑚 − 𝑎2
∆𝑎3 = 𝑎𝑚 − 𝑎3
…………………
∆𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚 − 𝑎𝑛
The absolute errors may be positive in certain cases and negative in certain other cases.
(b) Mean absolute error
It is the arithmetic mean of the magnitudes of absolute errors in all measurements of the quantity.
̅̅̅̅. Thus
It is represented by ∆𝑎

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 |∆𝑎1 | + |∆𝑎2| + |∆𝑎3 | … + |∆𝑎𝑛 |
̅̅̅̅ =
∆𝑎
𝑛
Hence the final result of measurement may be written as 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑚 ± ∆𝑎 ̅̅̅̅ . This implies that any
̅̅̅̅ and 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑚 + ∆𝑎
measurement of the quantity is likely to lie between 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑚 − ∆𝑎 ̅̅̅̅

(c) Relative error or Fractional error

It is defined as the ratio of mean absolute error to the true value. It is given by
̅̅̅̅
Mean absolute error ∆𝑎
Relative error = =
True value 𝑎𝑚
(d) Percent error
It is the relative error expressed as a percentage.
Mean absolute error ̅̅̅̅
∆𝑎
Percent error = × 100% = × 100%
True value 𝑎𝑚
(e) Combination of errors
The following rules are followed in combining errors to get the maximum possible error.
(i) Error in a sum of the quantities
Suppose 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏
Let ∆𝑎 = absolute error in measurement of 𝑎
∆𝑏 = absolute error in measurement of 𝑏
∆𝑥 = absolute error in calculation of 𝑥 i.e., sum of 𝑎 and 𝑏
The maximum absolute error in 𝑥 is ∆𝑥 = ± (∆𝑎 + ∆𝑏)
(ii) Error in a difference of the quantities
Suppose 𝑥 = 𝑎 − 𝑏
The maximum absolute error in 𝑥 is ∆𝑥 = ±(∆𝑎 + ∆𝑏)
(iii) Error in a product of quantities
Suppose 𝑥 = 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏
The maximum absolute error in 𝑥 is given by
∆𝑎 ∆𝑏
∆𝑥 = ±𝑥 ( + )
𝑎 𝑏

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(iv) Error in division of quantities
𝑎
Suppose 𝑥 = 𝑏

The maximum absolute error in 𝑥 is given by

∆𝑎 ∆𝑏
∆𝑥 = ±𝑥 ( + )
𝑎 𝑏

(v) Error in a quantity raised to some power

𝑎𝑚
Suppose 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑛 or 𝑥 =
𝑏𝑛

The maximum absolute error in 𝑥 is given by

∆𝑎 ∆𝑏
∆𝑥 = ±𝑥 [𝑚 ( ) + 𝑛 ( )]
𝑎 𝑏
Note that the quantity which has maximum power must be measured carefully because its
contribution to error is maximum.

EXERCISES
1. A furlong is 220 yards, a mile is 1760 yards or 1609 meters, and a fortnight is 14 days. In 2022,
the Zambian track and field sprinter, Muzala Samukonga, won a gold medal at the 2022
Birmingham Commonwealth Games, when he represented Zambia in the 400 m race. His
average speed was 8.96 meters per second. Express his speed in
(a) kilometre per hour. [32.2 km/hr]
(b) kilometre per minute. [0.54 km/min]
(c) mile per hour. [20.0 mi/hr]
(d) furlong per fortnight. [53875 fur/fort]
2. Astronomical distances are sometimes described in terms of light-years (ly). A light-year is
defined as the distance that light will travel in one year (yr). How far in meters does light travel
in one year? [9.46×1015 m]
3. How many square millimeter blocks could sit in a square meter? [1×106]
4. An astronomical unit (AU) is the average distance of the earth from the sun, approximately
150,000,000 km. The speed of light is about 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠. Express the speed of light in terms
of astronomical units per minute. [0.12 AU/min]
5. In a submarine equipped with ‘sonar’, the time delay between generation of probe wave and
reception of its echo after reflection from enemy submarine is 77 seconds. What is the distance
of the enemy submarine? Speed of sound in water = 1450 m/s. [55.8 km]

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6. Convert 5 × 10−6 𝐽 to the equivalent CGS system. [50g/cm2/s2]
7. If the unit of energy is 5 J, the unit of force is 10 N, and unit of velocity is 0.5 m/s in the new
system, what are the units of length, mass and time in this system of units? [0.5 m; 20 kg; 1 s]
8. A unit of area, often used in measuring land areas, is the hectare, defined as 104 m2. A new
open-pit copper mine in North-Western Province plans to excavate 75 hectares of land, down
to a depth of 26 m, each year. What volume of earth, in cubic kilometers, would be removed
during this time? [0.02(km)3]
9. The velocity 𝑣 of a particle varies with time 𝑡 according to the relation 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑡 2 + 𝑏𝑡 + 𝑐. Find
the dimensions of 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐. [𝑳𝑻−𝟑; 𝑳𝑻−𝟐; 𝑳𝑻−𝟏]
10. The wavelength 𝜆 associated with a moving particle depends on its mass m, velocity v and
Planck’s constant h which is measured in kgm2s-1. Show dimensionally, that
ℎ
𝜆∝
𝑚𝑣
11. A CBU engineering student, uses dimensional analysis to find the distance 𝑑 over which a
signal can be seen clearly in foggy conditions. The student assumes that the distance depends
on the frequency 𝑓 of the signal, the density 𝜌 of the fog, and intensity of light (power/area)
from the signal. Show that

12. Density is defined as mass per unit volume. The density of iron is 7.87 kg/m3, and the mass of
an iron atom is 9.27×10−26 kg. If atoms are cubical and tightly packed,
(a) What is the volume of an iron atom? [1.178 × 10−26 m3]
(b) What is the distance between the centres of two adjacent atoms? [2.28 × 10−9 m]
13. How many grams of copper are required to make a hollow spherical shell with an inner radius
of 5.70 cm and an outer radius of 5.75 cm? Density of copper =8.93 g/cm3. [184 g]
3
14. Estimate the number of atoms in 1 cm of a solid. [1024]
15. The length of a rod as measured in an experiment was found to be 2.48 m, 2.46 m, 2.49 m, 2.50
m and 2.48 m. Find the average length, absolute error and percent error. Express the result with
error limit. [2.48 m; 0.013 m; 0.4 %; (2.48±0.01) m]
16. The sides of a rectangle are (10.5 ± 0.2) cm and (5.2 ± 0.1) cm. Calculate its perimeter with
error limits. [(31.4± 0.6) cm]
17. A body is moving with constant velocity 𝑣 = (20 ± 0.4) 𝑚/𝑠. Calculate its displacement with
error limit after a time 𝑡 = (10 ± 0.2) 𝑠. [(𝟐𝟎𝟎 ± 𝟖) 𝒎]
18. The error in measurement of mass of a body is found to be 3% and in the measurement of
velocity is found to be 2%. What will be maximum possible error in calculation of kinetic
energy? [7%]

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