THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

BEVERLY B SANTOS-BENTRES
• WHAT WOULD LIFE • WHAT DOES
BE WITHOUT CHEMISTRY TELL US
CHEMISTRY? ABOUT COMPOSITION
OF LIFE?
WHAT IS CHEMISTRY?

• “Central Science”
• The study of the composition,
properties and interactions of
matter.
• Chemistry is the science that
deals with the structure and
interactions of matter.
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MATTER AND THE ELEMENTS

• Matter is anything that

occupies space and has
mass.

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THREE STATES OF MATTER:

• Solids are compact and have definite shape and volume such as our bones,
teeth and skin
• Liquids, like our blood plasma assume the shape of their container and
have definite volume.
• Gases do not have definite shape or volume. Examples are oxygen, carbon
dioxide and nitrogen.
CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

• Living or non – living, all forms of matter

are composed of limited number of
building blocks called chemical elements.
• A chemical element is a pure substance
that cannot be broken down by chemical
reactions into a simpler substance. Some
examples of elements are Nitrogen (N),
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Carbon (C), Oxygen (O), Gold (Au) and

Hydrogen (H).
• Our body is composed of 26 different chemical
elements.

• Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen and Nitrogen are

considered as major elements since they constitute
about 96% of our body mass.

• About 3.6% of our body mass is composed of lesser

elements such as phosphorus, potassium, sulphur,
sodium, chlorine, magnesium and iron.

• Trace elements may be present in tiny amounts,

which account for only 0.4% of our body mass, but
they serve important functions in the body. Trace
elements include Aluminium, Boron, Chromium,
Cobalt, Copper, Fluorine, Iodine, Manganese, thoughtco,com
Molybdenum, Selenium, Silicon, Tin, Vanadium and
Zinc.
 THE PERIODIC TABLE
DMITRY MENDELEYEV
• A Russian chemist, who organised
chemical elements into chart,
called periodic table, which we
still use today.

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• If we look at the periodic table, the
elements are organised based on their
atomic number and are arranged in
columns and rows according to their
chemical and physical properties.

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STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

• An atom is the smallest component of

matter, which retains all the characteristics
and chemical properties of an element.

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 TWO REGIONS:

• The central part of an atom, called the

nucleus enclosed the protons and neutrons.
• The outermost region, in which electrons
orbit around the nucleus.
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

1. Protons
• This subatomic particle is contained in the
nucleus with a positive charge and
approximately one atomic mass unit (amu).
2. Neutrons
• Just like protons, neutrons are contained
in the nucleus with one atomic mass unit
(amu), but uncharged. That is why they
were called neutrons, “neutr” means
neutral.
3. Electrons

• Electrons are smaller than protons with

negative charge that surround the nucleus.
Its atomic mass is about 1/1800 amu, so they
do not contribute to the overall atomic mass
of an element. The electrons may not have a
significant contribution to the mass of an
atom, but they contribute greatly to the
charge of an atom.
ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER
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• The number of protons in the nucleus

determines the atomic number (Z) of an
element and is used in distinguishing an
element from another.
• An atom is uncharged or neutral when the
number of protons inside the nucleus is the
same with the number of electrons orbiting its
nucleus. (So, atomic number = # of protons
= # of electrons)
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• The mass number of an element is
the sum of the number of protons
and the number neutrons in the
nucleus. For example, Sodium has a
mass number of 23 since it has 11
protons and 12 neutrons in its
nucleus.
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• Isotopes are atoms of an element with
the same number of protons but differ in
the number of neutrons.
• For instance, Carbon has three isotopes,
12Cor C-12 with six neutrons, 13C or C-13
with seven neutrons, and 14C or C-14
with eight neutrons. pinterest.com
• Radioactive Isotopes or Radioisotopes are isotopes that are unstable,
and thus, they emit energy or particles as they break down into a
more stable form.

• These are very useful in medicine or science, such as carbon dating

and X-ray machines. HOWEVER, excessive exposure to radiation is
DANGEROUS. It can cause radiation sickness and mutations of our
cell’s DNA.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL BONDS

IONS
• Ions are atoms that gained or lost
an electron. Atoms that lost an
electron are positive charge
(cations), whereas atoms that have
gained an electron are negative
charge (anions).

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MOLECULES
• Two or more chemically
bonded atoms.

• Example: O2 is composed of
two atoms of oxygen.

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COMPOUND
• A substance consists of atoms of two
or more different elements.
• CO2 (Carbon dioxide) – is a
compound consist of one carbon and
two oxygen atoms.
• CH4 (Methane) – composed of one
carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms dreamstime.com
CHEMICAL BOND
• An attractive force that keeps atoms
together, whether the electrons are
donated, shared or stolen

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IONIC BOND
▪ This bond is formed when there is an
electrical attraction between two ions
with opposite charges.

▪ Positive ions that are formed by

losing electrons are called cations,
whereas anions are negative ions that
are formed by gaining electrons. For
instance, Na and Cl to form NaCl
(table salt) amazinglife.bio
COVALENT BOND
• Two atoms share their electrons. This type
of chemical found is common in carbon –
based organic molecules like DNA and
proteins. It can also be found in inorganic
molecules, such as water, oxygen and
carbon dioxide.

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TWO TYPES:
1. Nonpolar Covalent Bond
• This bond is form when two atoms of the same
element or different elements share their electrons
equally.

2. Polar Covalent Bond

• The electrons are not equally shared, so they are
more attracted to one nucleus than the other. This
is formed when highly electronegative atom shares
unequal electrons with less electronegative atom.
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HYDROGEN BOND

• Results from attraction of oppositely

partial charged parts of molecules.
This bond commonly occurs between
water molecules and is also
responsible for the zipping of the
DNA double helix together.

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CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• Chemical reactions happen one or
more atoms are joined together or
when old bonds between atoms
split apart.
• Metabolism refers to all the
chemical reactions that occur in the
body.
Reactants
• Reactants are the starting material
and are usually written on the left
side of the chemical equation.

Products
• The results of the reaction and are
usually written on the right side of
the equation.
ENERGY TRANSFER IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
▪ Chemical reactions may either release
or absorb an energy. Endergonic

▪ Exergonic reaction (ex-out) occurs

when energy is released than absorb,
whereas endergonic reaction (end-
within) happens when energy is
Exergonic
absorbed than it is released.

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TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

1. Synthesis Reactions – Anabolism

▪ “Synthesis” means “to put together”.
This reaction occurs when two or
more atoms or molecules are joined
together to form larger or complex
molecules.

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2. Decomposition Reactions – Catabolism
▪ This reaction happens when two complex
molecules are broken down into smaller
atoms, ions, or molecules.
3. Exchange Reactions
• This reaction may consist of both
synthesis and decompositions
reactions

4. Reversible Reactions
▪ In this chemical reaction, a product
can revert or go back to being the
original reactant.
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

▪ Inorganic compounds usually lack carbon and have simple structures,

so their molecules contain only a few atoms and cannot be utilised by
the cells in complex biological functions.

▪ Examples include water, many salts, acids, and bases. Carbon dioxide
(CO2), bicarbonate ion (HCO3) and carbonic acid (H2CO3) are
examples of inorganic compounds that contain carbon.
WATER’S POLARITY
• Water is composed of polar molecules: the hydrogen,
which is slightly positive charge and the oxygen that is
slightly negative charge. The polarity of water
contributes to water’s properties of attraction.

• HYDROPHILIC (Hydro – “water”, -philic – “loving”)

▪ These substances are dissolved readily in water such
as ions, sugar, and salt.

• HYDROPHOBIC (Hydro – “water”, -phobic – “fearing”)

▪ These nonpolar substances are not dissolved in water, which
include fats and oils since they are mostly composed of
hydrogen and carbon, which form nonpolar bonds with pinterest.cm

each other.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

▪ Organic chemistry is the study of organic compounds, containing

carbon and made by living organisms.

▪ Organic molecules are chemical compounds that are composed of

carbon and hydrogen. Biological macromolecules such as
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids are large molecules
that are form from smaller organic molecules and are essential for life.
CARBON
• Carbon has four electrons to share in its
outer shell, thus it can bond with up to four
other atoms or compounds.
• It can form single, double or triple bonds
with other atoms, in chains and rings in
order to form large complex molecules.

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SOURCES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

1. NATURAL SOURCES 2. LABORATORY SYNTHESIS

a. Plants
b. Animals
c. Natural gas and Petroleum
d. Coal
e. Fermentation
 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

SOLUBILITY IN WATER Soluble in organic solvents Soluble

MELTING AND BOILING POINT Lower Higher

STABILITY TOWARDS HEAT Less stable Stable

COMBUSTION Mostly flammable except organic Usually not flammable

halides
IONIZATION Do not ionize in solution Ionizes in solution

ACIDITY/ALKALINITY Low degree High degree

CHEMICAL STRUCTURE Complex Simple

BOND Covalent Ionic

CONDUCTIVITY Good conductor of electricity In molten state or solution

ISOMERISM High Rare

SYNTHESIS OF BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES

A. DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS
▪ This chemical reaction is also known as “condensation
reaction”, in which monomers are link together to
form polymers while losing water. (Dehydration
means “water is lost”).

▪ Monomers are single subunits, which serves as the

building blocks of most macromolecules. When these
monomers combined, they form large molecules
known as polymers, and release water molecules as
by products.
▪ For example, glucose monomers are linked together
to form the disaccharide maltose.
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B. HYDROLYSIS In hydrolysis, polymers are
broken down into monomers, with the
addition of water molecule. “Hydrolysis”
means “to split water”.

▪ For instance, the digestive enzymes in our

stomach break down proteins and other
polymers in the food we have eaten.
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FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
▪ The structures and reactions of organic compounds depend on the
properties of the functional groups.

▪ These atoms are covalently attached to the carbon, which is

considered as the basic structural component or the “backbone” of
macromolecules.

▪ These group play a significant role in the formation of macromolecules

such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.
• CARBON
▪ The fundamental component of biological macromolecules.

• HYDROCARBONS
▪ These are organic molecules composed of entirely carbon and
hydrogen e.g., Methane (CH4)
 MAJOR FUNCTIONAL GROUPS OF ORGANIC
MOLECULES (DERRICKSON AND TORTORA, 2014; BETTS, ET.AL, 2017)
Functional Group Structure Properties /Importance
Hydroxyl -O-H Polar; Involved in dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions

Methyl Nonpolar; found within amino acids

-C-H3
Carbonyl C=O Polar and hydrophilic

Carboxyl O-C-OH Found within fatty acids, amino acids and many other acids

Amino -N-H2 Found in acids

Phosphate -P-O42- Found within phospholipids and nucleotides

Sulfhydryl -S-H Polar and hydrophilic. Found in some amino acids. E.g. cysteine
Help stabilize the shape of proteins.
NOMENCLATURE

• System of naming compounds

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IUPAC RULES IN NAMING HYDROCARBONS

Hydrocarbons Side chain

Number of
are based on type and
carbons
a type. position
 IUPAC RULES IN NAMING ALKANES, ALKENES
AND ALKYNES.

Methane Methyl -CH3

Ethane Ethyl CH2CH3

n- n- CH2CH2CH3
propane propyl
n-butane n-butyl CH2CH2CH2CH3
 PREFIXES: CARBON CHAINS
1- meth 9-non 17-heptadic 30-triacont

2-eth 10-dec 18-octadic 31-hentriacont

3-prop 11-undec 19-nonadec 32-dotriacont

4-but 12-dodec 20-eicos 40-tetracont

5- pent 13-tridec 21-henicos 50-pentacont

6-hex 14-tetradic 22-docos 100-hectane

7-hept 15-pentadic 23-tricos

8-oct 16-hexadec 24-tetracos

 THE BASICS OF ORGANIC NOMENCLATURE: NAMING ALKANES

1. Identify the longest carbon chain of carbon atoms in its

structures.
2. Add prefixes to the name of the longest chain to
indicate the positions and name of substituents. The
position of a substituent is identified by the number of
the carbon atom it is bonded to in the chain.
3. Use appropriate prefixes to indicate more than one of
a particular substituent branch.
4. Number the chain so that the lowest possible number
are assigned to the substituent positions
5. Use commas between substituent numbers and
hyphens between numbers and prefixes
6. Arranged the substituents in alphabetical order.
7. In alkenes and alkynes, the number chain beginning at
the end closest to the double or triple bond.