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Laboratory Title:
Experiment Number: Due Date: Semester:
Subject Code: EEE Subject Name: Section:
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No. Student Name Student Number Student Signature Date

Submitted by:
1 Jahidul Hoque Jewel 20-43382-1
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2 Ajijol Haque Bhuiyan Badhon 23-55302-3
3 Taohidul Islam 23-55382-3
4 Washimul Hasan Nibir 23-55458-3
5

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 Experiment 1 Lab Manual

Experiment name:

To be familiar with the operations of an oscilloscope and measuring corresponding AC quantities from the
waveforms obtained from the oscilloscope.

Introduction:

The purpose of the experiment is:

• To become familiar with the Function Generator and Oscilloscope.
• To measure peak value, peak-to-peak value, average value, rms value, form factor, peak
factor, time period, frequency, and phase difference using an oscilloscope for different types
of wave shapes.

Theory and Methodology:

i) Function Generator: A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment used
to generate different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the
most common waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine, square, triangular, and
sawtooth shapes. These waveforms can be either repetitive or single shots (which require an
internal or external trigger source). Integrated circuits used to generate waveforms may also be
described as function generator ICs. Function generators cover both audio and RF frequencies.

Figure-1: Typical Function Generator and Different Wave shapes

ii) Oscilloscope: The oscilloscope is a device for observing and taking measurements of electrical
signals and waveforms. The analog oscilloscope consists of a cathode ray tube (CRT) which
displays a graph, primarily voltage versus time. It also has one or more amplifiers to supply
voltage signals to the CRT and a time base system for generating the time scale. Some of the
modern digital oscilloscopes use liquid crystal display screens for the same purpose. There are

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 Experiment 1 Lab Manual

three controls for the screen, which are the focus, intensity, and beam finder knobs. Besides the
screen, there is also a vertical section and a horizontal section.
This device allows real-time graphs of voltage versus time to be drawn on the screen. This allows
for studying and comparing various voltage waveforms in circuits. Usually, two waveforms can
be displayed simultaneously. There are two channels for taking input voltage waveform. The
oscilloscope shows the amplitude of voltage waveform along the Y axis and time along the X axis.

Figure 2: An Oscilloscope

Figure 3a: Different Parts of an Oscilloscope

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 Experiment 1 Lab Manual

Figure 3b: Different Parts of a Digital Oscilloscope

Figure 3c: Different Parts of a Digital Oscilloscope

Figure 4: Functional Diagram of Oscilloscope

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 Experiment 1 Lab Manual

iii) Oscilloscope Probe: An oscilloscope probe is a high-quality connector cable that has been
carefully designed not to pick up stray signals originating from radio frequency (RF) or
power lines. They are especially useful when working with low voltage signals or high-frequency
signals which are susceptible to noise pick-up.

Figure 5: Oscilloscope Probe

iv) Basic Operations of an Oscilloscope:

The Trace: The trace is one of the most basic operations of an oscilloscope. The oscilloscope
draws a trace, which is a horizontal line, across the screen. The time base control determines how
quickly the trace (also called a sweep) is drawn. When the voltage becomes negative or positive,
the viewer displays a correspondingly positive or negative jump in the trace on the screen.

Vertical and Horizontal Sensitivity Controls: These controls allow the user to determine
manually the sensitivity, both vertically and horizontally. This allows oscilloscopes to
accommodate a wide range of input amplitudes.

Focus Control: This allows users to adjust the sharpness of the trace. New flat panel models do
this automatically.

Beam Finder: This control prevents the trace from deflecting off-screen or otherwise being
blocked. Because the beam finder prevents the trace from deflecting off-screen, it may temporarily
distort the trace.

Time base Control: This control determines how quickly the oscilloscope draws the trace. This
control allows users to manually select the sweep speed, which is in seconds per unit on the square
grids (graticule) seen on the oscilloscope display.

Intensity Control: The intensity control determines how intensely the trace is drawn. For CRT
models, high intensity is desirable for fast traces, and low speed lower intensity. Speed is
unimportant for LCD models.

Types of Sweeps: There are four types of sweeps: triggered, recurrent, single, and delayed.
Triggered sweeps reset the screen every time the trace reaches the right end of the screen, and are
useful for periodic signals like sine waves. Recurrent and single sweeps are more common on older
models and are less useful for qualitatively observing signals. Delayed sweeps allow users to get
a very detailed look at voltage.
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 Experiment 1 Lab Manual

Theory and Methodology:

If the polarity of voltage changes with time, it is known as an alternating voltage. The current that
such a voltage causes to flow repeatedly changes its direction and is called alternating current.
Sinusoidal alternating voltage: The most commonly encountered type of alternating voltage
varies sinusoidally with time.

here, v = Vm sin ωt
v = value of alternating voltage at time t (called
instantaneous value).
Vm = maximum value of alternating voltage.
ω = angular velocity
Sinusoidal alternating current: A sinusoidal alternating voltage applied in a circuit results in a
sinusoidal alternating current.
where, i = Im sin ωt
v = value of alternating current at time t (called instantaneous value).
Vm = maximum value of alternating current.
ω = angular velocity.
AC Fundamentals:

Wave shape: The shape of the curve is obtained by plotting the instantaneous values of voltage or
current as the ordinate against time as an abscissa (X-axis value) is called waveform or wave shape.

Cycle: One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quantity is called a cycle.
One complete cycle is 2π or 3600.

Time Period: The time required to complete one cycle of the alternating quantity is called a period,
expressed by the symbol T.

Frequency: The no. of cycles per second is called the frequency of the alternating quantity. Unit
is Hertz (Hz). Frequency, f = (1/T) Hz.

Peak Value: The maximum instantaneous value of a function or waveform is called the peak
amplitude. The amplitude of an alternating voltage or current is designated by V m (or Em) or Im.
Peak to Peak Value: It is the sum of the magnitude of the positive peak and negative peak of a
given waveform. For a voltage waveform it is denoted by VP-P = |Vm| + |-Vm| = 2Vm.
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 Experiment 1 Lab Manual

Figure 6: Characterization of a sinusoidal time-varying signal

Average Value: The steady current that transfers across any circuit the same charge as is
transferred by that alternating current during the same time expresses the average value of a
sinusoid. Vavg = 0.636Vm, where Vm is the maximum value of the sinusoid.

RMS Value: The Root Mean Square (RMS) value is the DC equivalent value of an alternating
quantity which is given by that steady current that when flowing through a given circuit for a given
time produces the same heat as produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same
circuit for the same time. Vrms = 0.707Vm, where Vm is the maximum value of the sinusoid. The
digital multimeter (DMM) is used to measure DC currents and voltages. The DMM in the AC
Mode can also be used to measure the RMS value of an AC waveform.

Phase Difference: Phase difference is the difference of phases corresponding to a similar point
of two alternating waves (provided that the frequency of both waves must be the same).

Leading and Lagging Waves: In figure 7, there are two waves, Wave I1 and Wave I2. Wave I1
leads Wave I2 by angle α or Wave I2 lags Wave I1 by angle α.

Figure 7: The phase difference between two waves

Average Value of Alternating Current:

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 Experiment 1 Lab Manual

The average value of alternating current (sinusoidal) is zero over one cycle. It is because the
positive area exactly cancels the negative area. However, during a half-cycle, the average value is
zero. Therefore, whenever the average value of alternating current or voltage is asked, it is
understood as half-cycle.
i = Im sin θ, (θ = ωt)

The average value of the current,

Area of half−cycle
Iav = Base length of half cycle
π 𝜋
∫0 𝑖 dθ ∫0 Im sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2Im
= = =
π 𝜋 𝜋

Iav = 0.637Im

Hence, the half-cycle average value of a.c. is 0.637

times the peak value of a.c.
For positive half-cycle, Iav = + 0.637Im
For negative half-cycle, Iav = - 0.637Im

Similarly, for alternating voltage varying sinusoidally,

Vav = 0.637Vm

Root Mean Square (rms) or Effective Value:

The Root Mean Square (rms) or effective value of an alternating current (or voltage) is equal
to that direct current which results in the same expenditure of energy under the same conditions.
Irms = √𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖 2

Irms = √𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 I𝑚 2 sin2 ω𝑡 (i = Im sin ωt)

Since the value of sin2 ωt varies between 0 and 1, its average value is 1⁄2
I𝑚
Irms = = 0.707Im
√2
V𝑚
Similarly, Vrms = = 0.707Vm
√2

Form Factor and Peak Factor or Crest Factor

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 Experiment 1 Lab Manual

Form factor (FF) is the ratio of the rms value to the average value of a signal.
rms Value
Form Factor = Average Value

The value of the form factor depends upon the waveform of the alternating quantity. Its least value
is 1 (e.g., for square wave, rectangular wave) and may be high as 5 for the other waves. The form
factor for an alternating current or voltage varying sinusoidally is 1.11 i .e.,
0.707 x Maximum value
For a sinusoidal voltage or current, Form Factor = = 1.11
0.637 x Maximum value

Peak factor (PF) is the ratio of maximum value to rms value of a signal. It is also known as the
crest factor (CF).
Maximum value
Peak Factor (or Crest Factor) = rms value

The value of the peak factor also depends upon the waveform of the alternating quantity. For an
alternating voltage varying sinusoidally. Its value is 1.414, i.e., For a sinusoidal voltage or current,
Maximum value
Peak Factor (or Crest Factor) = = 1.414
0.707 x Maximum value

Average values:
Sine wave: Vavg = 0.637Vm
Triangular wave: Vavg = 0.5Vm
Square wave: Vavg = Vm

Measurements from Oscilloscope:

The formula for phase difference measurement
between two waves-
𝑡𝑑
𝜃 = × 3600
𝑇

© Dept. of EEE, Faculty of Engineering, American International University-Bangladesh (AIUB) 8

 Experiment 1 Lab Manual

(a) (b)
Figure 8: Waveform(s) in oscilloscope in (a) single mode and (b) dual mode

In figure 8 (a), Vertical: 2Volts/Div and Horizontal: 0.2ms/Div. 4 divisions peak to peak times
2V/Div. Peak to Peak Value, VP-P = (4Div)×(2V/Div) = 8 V. Peak Value, VP =4 V. Average Value,
Vavg= 0.636×(4V) = 2.544 V. RMS Value, Vrms = 0.707×(4V) = 2.828 V. 5 divisions between "zero
crossing". Time Period, T = (5Div)×(0.2ms/Div) = 1 ms. Frequency, f = (1/T) = (1/1ms) = 1 kHz.

In figure 8 (b), there are two waves, Wave A and Wave B. The phase difference can be calculated
by the equation, θ = [{Phase Shift (no. of div.)/T (no. of div.)}×360˚].
1 division = 5 small divisions, Phase Shift = 1 small division and T = 25 small divisions.
θ = [{(1 small div.)/(25 small div.)}×360˚] = 14.4˚. Wave B leads Wave A by 14.4˚ or Wave A
lags Wave B by 14.4˚.

Apparatus:

1. Function Generator
2. Oscilloscope
3. Probes and Connecting Wires

Precautions:

1.The oscilloscope should be properly triggered and connected

2.Have to give proper channel connection with function generator

3.the oscilloscope probe should properly calibrate

4. All connections should make tightly

Experimental Procedure:
1. The output of the function generator was directly connected to channel 1 of the oscilloscope.
The amplitude of the wave 10V peak to peak was set and the frequency at 1KHz. The sinusoidal
wave shape was selected.
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 Experiment 1 Lab Manual

2. The wave shape was sketched and observed in the oscilloscope. The time period of the wave
was determined, and the frequency was calculated.

3. The frequency was changed to 500Hz and noted what happens to the display of the wave. It
was Repeated when frequency is increased 20 KHz. The wave shapes were drawn for both cases.

4. The peak value, peak-to-peak value, average value, rms value for all three frequencies were
measured.

5. The following table was completed.

Data Table:

Table 1: Data table for the experiment on familiarization with oscilloscope and function generator

Frequency Time Period VP-P VP Vavg Vrms

FF PF
(kHz) (ms) (V) (V) (V) (V)
1 kHz 1 15 7.5 4.76 5.3 1.11 1.42
2 kHz 0.5 17.4 8.7 5.52 6.2 1.12 1.4
4 kHz 0.25 13 6.5 4.13 4.6 1.11 1.4
8 kHz 0.125 20 10 6.35 7.1 1.11 1.4
10 kHz 0.1 10.4 5.2 3.3 3.7 1.12 1.4

Report:
1. Show all necessary calculations.
2. Show the simulation results using PSIM/MultiSIM/PSPICE.
3. Comment on the results.

Discussion:
1.The practical value and the simulated value is slightly different for experimental procedure
2.We did not use the probe to calibrate the oscilloscope.

Conclusion:
To do experiment with ac circuit we should properly utilize function generator and oscilloscope.
So that we can measure frequency, time period peak to peak value Rms value.

Reference:

[1] Russell M. Kerchner, George F. Corcoran, ″Alternating Current Circuits″, 4th Edition, Wiley, New
York, 1960, pp. 48-50.
[2] Robert L. Boylestad, ″Introductory Circuit Analysis″, 10th Edition, Prentice Hall, New York, 2005-
2006, p. 524.
[3] American International University–Bangladesh (AIUB) Electrical Circuit 2(AC) Lab Manual.
[4] Er. R.K. Rajput, ″Alternating Current Machines″, 3rd Edition, Laxmi Publications, New Delhi,
2002, p. (xi).

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 Experiment 1 Lab Manual

© Dept. of EEE, Faculty of Engineering, American International University-Bangladesh (AIUB) 11