Dog

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Doggy" and "Pooch" redirect here. For other uses, see Dog (disambiguation), Doggy
(disambiguation), and Pooch (disambiguation).

Dog

Temporal range: 0.0142–0 Ma

Pre

Pg

Late Pleistocene to present[1]

 Conservation status

Domesticated

Scientific classification

Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Carnivora

Family: Canidae
 Genus: Canis

Species: C. familiaris

Binomial name

Canis familiaris

Linnaeus, 1758[2]

[3]
Synonyms

show

List

The dog (Canis familiaris or Canis lupus familiaris) is a domesticated descendant of

the wolf. Also called the domestic dog, it was selectively bred from an extinct
population of wolves during the Late Pleistocene by hunter-gatherers. The dog was the
first species to be domesticated by humans, over 14,000 years ago and before the
development of agriculture. Experts estimate that due to their long association with
humans, dogs have gained the ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet that would be
inadequate for other canids.

Dogs have been bred for desired behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical
attributes. Dog breeds vary widely in shape, size, and color. They have the same
number of bones (with the exception of the tail), powerful jaws that house around 42
teeth, and well-developed senses of smell, hearing, and sight. Compared to humans,
dogs have an inferior visual acuity, a superior sense of smell, and a relatively large
olfactory cortex. They perform many roles for humans, such as hunting, herding, pulling
loads, protection, companionship, therapy, aiding disabled people, and assisting police
and the military.

Communication in dogs includes eye gaze, facial expression, vocalization, body posture
(including movements of bodies and limbs), and gustatory communication (scents,
pheromones, and taste). They mark their territories by urinating on them, which is more
likely when entering a new environment. Over the millennia, dogs became uniquely
adapted to human behavior; this adaptation includes being able to understand and
communicate with humans. As such, the human–canine bond has been a topic of
frequent study, and dogs' influence on human society has given them the sobriquet of
"man's best friend".

The global dog population is estimated at 700 million to 1 billion, distributed around the
world. The dog is the most popular pet in the United States, present in 34–40% of
households. Developed countries make up approximately 20% of the global dog
population, while around 75% of dogs are estimated to be from developing countries,
mainly in the form of feral and community dogs.

Taxonomy
Further information: Canis lupus dingo § Taxonomic debate – the domestic dog, dingo,
and New Guinea singing dog

Canine phylogeny with ages of divergence

3.50 3.06 2.74
mya mya 1.92 1.62
mya 1.32 Gray wolf
mya mya mya 1.10 (domestic
mya dog)

Coyote

African wolf

Ethiopian wolf

Golden jackal
 Dhole

African wild dog

2.62 Side-striped jackal

mya

Black-backed jackal

Cladogram and divergence of the gray wolf (including the domestic dog) among its
[4]
closest extant relatives

Dogs are domesticated members of the family Canidae. They are classified as a
[5][6]
subspecies of Canis lupus, along with wolves and dingoes. Dogs were
domesticated from wolves over 14,000 years ago by hunter-gatherers, before the
[7][8]
development of agriculture. The remains of the Bonn–Oberkassel dog, buried
alongside humans between 14,000 and 15,000 years ago, are the earliest to be
[9][7]
conclusively identified as a domesticated dog. Genetic studies show that dogs likely
[10]
diverged from wolves between 27,000 and 40,000 years ago. The dingo and the
related New Guinea singing dog resulted from the geographic isolation and feralization
[11][12]
of dogs in Oceania over 8,000 years ago.
 [6]
Dogs, wolves, and dingoes have sometimes been classified as separate species. In
1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist Carl Linnaeus assigned the genus name
[13]
Canis (which is the Latin word for "dog") to the domestic dog, the wolf, and the
golden jackal in his book, Systema Naturae. He classified the domestic dog as Canis
[2]
familiaris and, on the next page, classified the grey wolf as Canis lupus. Linnaeus
considered the dog to be a separate species from the wolf because of its upturning tail
[14]
(cauda recurvata in Latin term), which is not found in any other canid. In the 2005
edition of Mammal Species of the World, mammalogist W. Christopher Wozencraft listed
the wolf as a wild subspecies of Canis lupus and proposed two additional subspecies:
familiaris, as named by Linnaeus in 1758, and dingo, named by Meyer in 1793.
Wozencraft included hallstromi (the New Guinea singing dog) as another name (junior
synonym) for the dingo. This classification was informed by a 1999 mitochondrial DNA
[3]
study.

The classification of dingoes is disputed and a political issue in Australia. Classifying

dingoes as wild dogs simplifies reducing or controlling dingo populations that threaten
livestock. Treating dingoes as a separate species allows conservation programs to
[15]
protect the dingo population. Dingo classification affects wildlife management
[16]
policies, legislation, and societal attitudes. In 2019, a workshop hosted by the
IUCN/Species Survival Commission's Canid Specialist Group considered the dingo and
the New Guinea singing dog to be feral Canis familiaris. Therefore, it did not assess
[17]
them for the IUCN Red List of threatened species.

Domestication

Main article: Domestication of the dog

 Wolves (left) were domesticated by humans into dogs (right)

The earliest remains generally accepted to be those of a domesticated dog were

discovered in Bonn-Oberkassel, Germany. Contextual, isotopic, genetic, and
[18]
morphological evidence shows that this dog was not a local wolf. The dog was dated
to 14,223 years ago and was found buried along with a man and a woman, all three
having been sprayed with red hematite powder and buried under large, thick basalt
[19]
blocks. The dog had died of canine distemper. This timing indicates that the dog was
[20][21] [22]
the first species to be domesticated in the time of hunter-gatherers, which
[1]
predates agriculture. Earlier remains dating back to 30,000 years ago have been
[23]
described as Paleolithic dogs, but their status as dogs or wolves remains debated
because considerable morphological diversity existed among wolves during the Late
[1]
Pleistocene.

DNA sequences show that all ancient and modern dogs share a common ancestry and
descended from an ancient, extinct wolf population that was distinct from any modern
wolf lineage. Some studies have posited that all living wolves are more closely related
[24][22]
to each other than to dogs, while others have suggested that dogs are more
[25]
closely related to modern Eurasian wolves than to American wolves.

The dog is a domestic animal that likely travelled a commensal pathway into
domestication (i.e. humans initially neither benefitted nor were harmed by wild dogs
[23][26]
eating refuse from their camps). The questions of when and where dogs were first
[20]
domesticated remains uncertain. Genetic studies suggest a domestication process
commencing over 25,000 years ago, in one or several wolf populations in either Europe,
[27]
the high Arctic, or eastern Asia. In 2021, a literature review of the current evidence
infers that the dog was domesticated in Siberia 23,000 years ago by ancient North
Siberians, then later dispersed eastward into the Americas and westward across
[18] [18]
Eurasia, with dogs likely accompanying the first humans to inhabit the Americas.
Some studies have suggested that the extinct Japanese wolf is closely related to the
[25]
ancestor of domestic dogs.

In 2018, a study identified 429 genes that differed between modern dogs and modern
wolves. As the differences in these genes could also be found in ancient dog fossils,
these were regarded as being the result of the initial domestication and not from recent
breed formation. These genes are linked to neural crest and central nervous system
development. These genes affect embryogenesis and can confer tameness, smaller
jaws, floppy ears, and diminished craniofacial development, which distinguish
domesticated dogs from wolves and are considered to reflect domestication syndrome.
The study concluded that during early dog domestication, the initial selection was for
behavior. This trait is influenced by those genes which act in the neural crest, which led
[28]
to the phenotypes observed in modern dogs.

Breeds

Main article: Dog breed

Further information: Dog type

[27][29]
There are around 450 official dog breeds, the most of any mammal. Dogs began
[21]
diversifying in the Victorian era, when humans took control of their natural selection.
Most breeds were derived from small numbers of founders within the last 200
[21][27]
years. Since then, dogs have undergone rapid phenotypic change and have been
subjected to artificial selection by humans. The skull, body, and limb proportions
between breeds display more phenotypic diversity than can be found within the entire
order of carnivores. These breeds possess distinct traits related to morphology, which
[21]
include body size, skull shape, tail phenotype, fur type, and colour. As such, humans
have long used dogs for their desirable traits to complete or fulfill a certain work or role.
[21]
Their behavioural traits include guarding, herding, hunting, retrieving, and scent
detection. Their personality traits include hypersocial behavior, boldness, and
[21] [27]
aggression. Present-day dogs are dispersed around the world. An example of this
dispersal is the numerous modern breeds of European lineage during the Victorian
[22]
era.

​
●​
Morphological variation in six dogs
 ●​ ​

​
Phenotypic variation in four dogs

Anatomy and physiology

Main article: Dog anatomy

Size and skeleton

A lateral view of a dog skeleton

Dogs are extremely variable in size, ranging from one of the largest breeds, the Great
Dane, at 50 to 79 kg (110 to 174 lb) and 71 to 81 cm (28 to 32 in), to one of the
smallest, the Chihuahua, at 0.5 to 3 kg (1.1 to 6.6 lb) and 13 to 20 cm (5.1 to 7.9
[30][31]
in). All healthy dogs, regardless of their size and type, have the same amount of
bones (with the exception of the tail), although there is significant skeletal variation
[32][33]
between dogs of different types. The dog's skeleton is well adapted for running;
the vertebrae on the neck and back have extensions for back muscles, consisting of
epaxial muscles and hypaxial muscles, to connect to; the long ribs provide room for the
heart and lungs; and the shoulders are unattached to the skeleton, allowing for
[32][33][34]
flexibility.

Compared to the dog's wolf-like ancestors, selective breeding since domestication has
seen the dog's skeleton increase in size for larger types such as mastiffs and
miniaturised for smaller types such as terriers; dwarfism has been selectively bred for
[33]
some types where short legs are preferred, such as dachshunds and corgis. Most
dogs naturally have 26 vertebrae in their tails, but some with naturally short tails have
[32]
as few as three.

Skulls of different breeds, from left to right: Pug; Boxer; Rottweiler; Wolf; Collie; Standard Poodle.

The dog's skull has identical components regardless of breed type, but there is
[33][35]
significant divergence in terms of skull shape between types. The three basic skull
shapes are the elongated dolichocephalic type as seen in sighthounds, the intermediate
mesocephalic or mesaticephalic type, and the very short and broad brachycephalic type
[33][35]
exemplified by mastiff type skulls. The jaw contains around 42 teeth, and it has
evolved for the consumption of flesh. Dogs use their carnassial teeth to cut food into
[36]
bite-sized chunks, more especially meat.

Senses

Further information: Dog anatomy § Senses

 The left half of the image shows the estimated difference in a dog's vision.

Dogs' senses include vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and magnetoreception. One
[37]
study suggests that dogs can feel small variations in Earth's magnetic field. Dogs
prefer to defecate with their spines aligned in a north–south position in calm magnetic
[38]
field conditions.

[39]
Dogs' vision is dichromatic; their visual world consists of yellows, blues, and grays.
[40]
They have difficulty differentiating between red and green, and much like other
mammals, the dog's eye is composed of two types of cone cells compared to the
human's three. The divergence of the eye axis of dogs ranges from 12 to 25°,
[41][42]
depending on the breed, which can have different retina configurations. The fovea
centralis area of the eye is attached to a nerve fiber, and is the most sensitive to
[43]
photons. Additionally, a study found that dogs' visual acuity was up to eight times
less effective than a human, and their ability to discriminate levels of brightness was
[44]
about two times worse than a human.

While the human brain is dominated by a large visual cortex, the dog brain is dominated
by a large olfactory cortex. Dogs have roughly forty times more smell-sensitive
receptors than humans, ranging from about 125 million to nearly 300 million in some
[45]
dog breeds, such as bloodhounds. This sense of smell is the most prominent sense
of the species; it detects chemical changes in the environment, allowing dogs to
[46]
pinpoint the location of mating partners, potential stressors, resources, etc. Dogs
also have an acute sense of hearing up to four times greater than that of humans. They
can pick up the slightest sounds from about 400 m (1,300 ft) compared to 90 m (300 ft)
[47]
for humans.
Dogs have stiff, deeply embedded hairs known as whiskers that sense atmospheric
changes, vibrations, and objects not visible in low light conditions. The lower most part
of whiskers hold more receptor cells than other hair types, which help in alerting dogs of
objects that could collide with the nose, ears, and jaw. Whiskers likely also facilitate the
[48]
movement of food towards the mouth.

Coat

Main article: Dog coat

The coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties: "double" being common in dogs (as
well as wolves) originating from colder climates, made up of a coarse guard hair and a
soft down hair, or "single", with the topcoat only. Breeds may have an occasional
[49]
"blaze", stripe, or "star" of white fur on their chest or underside. Premature graying
can occur in dogs as early as one year of age; this is associated with impulsive
[50]
behaviors, anxiety behaviors, and fear of unfamiliar noise, people, or animals. Some
dog breeds are hairless, while others have a very thick corded coat. The coats of certain
breeds are often groomed to a characteristic style, for example, the Yorkshire Terrier's
[36]
"show cut".

Dewclaw

A dog's dewclaw is the fifth digit in its forelimb and hind legs. Dewclaws on the forelimbs
are attached by bone and ligament, while the dewclaws on the hind legs are attached
only by skin. Most dogs aren't born with dewclaws in their hind legs, and some are
without them in their forelimbs. Dogs' dewclaws consist of the proximal phalanges and
distal phalanges. Some publications theorize that dewclaws in wolves, who usually do
[51][52]
not have dewclaws, were a sign of hybridization with dogs.

Tail

A dog's tail is the terminal appendage of the vertebral column, which is made up of a
string of 5 to 23 vertebrae enclosed in muscles and skin that support the dog's back
extensor muscles. One of the primary functions of a dog's tail is to communicate their
[53]
emotional state. The tail also helps the dog maintain balance by putting its weight on
the opposite side of the dog's tilt, and it can also help the dog spread its anal gland's
 [54]
scent through the tail's position and movement. Dogs can have a violet gland (or
supracaudal gland) characterized by sebaceous glands on the dorsal surface of their
tails; in some breeds, it may be vestigial or absent. The enlargement of the violet gland
in the tail, which can create a bald spot from hair loss, can be caused by Cushing's
[55]
disease or an excess of sebum from androgens in the sebaceous glands.

A black Standard Schnauzer with a docked tail

A study suggests that dogs show asymmetric tail-wagging responses to different

emotive stimuli. "Stimuli that could be expected to elicit approach tendencies seem to
be associated with [a] higher amplitude of tail-wagging movements to the right
[56][57]
side". Dogs can injure themselves by wagging their tails forcefully; this condition is
[58]
called kennel tail, happy tail, bleeding tail, or splitting tail. In some hunting dogs, the
tail is traditionally docked to avoid injuries. Some dogs can be born without tails
because of a DNA variant in the T gene, which can also result in a congenitally short
[59]
(bobtail) tail. Tail docking is opposed by many veterinary and animal welfare
[60]
organisations such as the American Veterinary Medical Association and the British
[61]
Veterinary Association. Evidence from veterinary practices and questionnaires
showed that around 500 dogs would need to have their tail docked to prevent one
[62]
injury.

Health
Main article: Dog health
Numerous disorders have been known to affect dogs. Some are congenital and others
are acquired. Dogs can acquire upper respiratory tract diseases including diseases that
affect the nasal cavity, the larynx, and the trachea; lower respiratory tract diseases
which includes pulmonary disease and acute respiratory diseases; heart diseases which
includes any cardiovascular inflammation or dysfunction of the heart; haemopoietic
diseases including anaemia and clotting disorders; gastrointestinal disease such as
diarrhoea and gastric dilatation volvulus; hepatic disease such as portosystemic shunts
and liver failure; pancreatic disease such as pancreatitis; renal disease; lower urinary
tract disease such as cystitis and urolithiasis; endocrine disorders such as diabetes
mellitus, Cushing's syndrome, hypoadrenocorticism, and hypothyroidism; nervous
system diseases such as seizures and spinal injury; musculoskeletal disease such as
arthritis and myopathies; dermatological disorders such as alopecia and pyoderma;
ophthalmological diseases such as conjunctivitis, glaucoma, entropion, and progressive
[63]
retinal atrophy; and neoplasia.

Common dog parasites are lice, fleas, fly larvae, ticks, mites, cestodes, nematodes, and
coccidia. Taenia is a notable genus with 5 species in which dogs are the definitive
[64]
host. Additionally, dogs are a source of zoonoses for humans. They are responsible
[65]
for 99% of rabies cases worldwide; however, in some developed countries such as
[66]
the UK, rabies is absent from dogs and is instead only transmitted by bats. Other
common zoonoses are hydatid disease, leptospirosis, pasteurellosis, ringworm, and
[66]
toxocariasis. Common infections in dogs include canine adenovirus, canine
distemper virus, canine parvovirus, leptospirosis, canine influenza, and canine
[66]
coronavirus. All of these conditions have vaccines available.

Dogs are the companion animal most frequently reported for exposure to toxins. Most
poisonings are accidental and over 80% of reports of exposure to the ASPCA animal
poisoning hotline are due to oral exposure. The most common substances people report
[67]
exposure to are: pharmaceuticals, toxic foods, and rodenticides. Data from the Pet
Poison Helpline shows that human drugs are the most frequent cause of toxicosis
death. The most common household products ingested are cleaning products. Most
food related poisonings involved theobromine poisoning (chocolate). Other common
food poisonings include xylitol, Vitis (grapes, raisins, etc.) and Allium (garlic, onions,
etc.). Pyrethrin insecticides were the most common cause of pesticide poisoning.
Metaldehyde a common pesticide for snails and slugs typically causes severe outcomes
[68]
when ingested by dogs.
 [69][70][71]
Neoplasia is the most common cause of death for dogs. Other common
[71]
causes of death are heart and renal failure. Their pathology is similar to that of
humans, as is their response to treatment and their outcomes. Genes found in humans
to be responsible for disorders are investigated in dogs as being the cause and vice
[27][72]
versa.

Lifespan

Further information: Aging in dogs

The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but the median longevity (the
age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive) is
[73][74]
approximately 12.7 years. Obesity correlates negatively with longevity with one
study finding obese dogs to have a life expectancy approximately a year and a half less
[73]
than dogs with a healthy weight.

In a 2024 UK study analyzing 584,734 dogs, it was concluded that purebred dogs lived
longer than crossbred dogs, challenging the previous notion of the latter having the
higher life expectancies. The authors noted that their study included "designer dogs" as
crossbred and that purebred dogs were typically given better care than their crossbred
[75]
counterparts, which likely influenced the outcome of the study. Other studies also
show that fully mongrel dogs live about a year longer on average than dogs with
[76]
pedigrees. Furthermore, small dogs with longer muzzles have been shown to have
[77]
higher lifespans than larger medium-sized dogs with much more depressed muzzles.
[78]
For free-ranging dogs, less than 1 in 5 reach sexual maturity, and the median life
[79]
expectancy for feral dogs is less than half of dogs living with humans.

Reproduction

Main article: Canine reproduction

 Two dogs tied after mating

In domestic dogs, sexual maturity happens around six months to one year for both
males and females, although this can be delayed until up to two years of age for some
large breeds. This is the time at which female dogs will have their first estrous cycle,
characterized by their vulvas swelling and producing discharges, usually lasting
[80][81]
between 4 and 20 days. They will experience subsequent estrous cycles
semiannually, during which the body prepares for pregnancy. At the peak of the cycle,
females will become estrous, mentally and physically receptive to copulation. Because
the ova survive and can be fertilized for a week after ovulation, more than one male can
[82]
sire the same litter. Fertilization typically occurs two to five days after ovulation. After
ejaculation, the dogs are coitally tied for around 5–30 minutes because of the male's
bulbus glandis swelling and the female's constrictor vestibuli contracting; the male will
[83]
continue ejaculating until they untie naturally due to muscle relaxation. 14–16 days
after ovulation, the embryo attaches to the uterus, and after seven to eight more days