dog, (Canis lupus familiaris), domestic mammal of the family Canidae (order Carnivora).

It is a
subspecies of the gray wolf (Canis lupus) and is related to foxes and jackals. The dog is one of the two
most ubiquitous and most popular domestic animals in the world (the cat is the other). For more
than 12,000 years it has lived with humans as a hunting companion, protector, object of scorn or
adoration, and friend.

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The dog evolved from the gray wolf into more than 400 distinct breeds. Human beings have played a
major role in creating dogs that fulfill distinct societal needs. Through the most rudimentary form
of genetic engineering, dogs were bred to accentuate instincts that were evident from their earliest
encounters with humans. Although details about the evolution of dogs are uncertain, the first dogs
were hunters with keen senses of sight and smell. Humans developed these instincts and created
new breeds as need or desire arose.

The sizes of dogsDogs vary significantly in size. Chihuahuas, the smallest recognized dog breed, can
be 5 to 8 inches (about 13 to 20 cm) tall at the shoulder, while the Irish Wolfhound, the tallest dog
breed, can be 30 inches (76 cm) or more.(more)

Dogs are regarded differently in different parts of the world. Characteristics of loyalty, friendship,
protectiveness, and affection have earned dogs an important position in Western society, and in
the United States and Europe the care and feeding of dogs has become a multibillion-dollar business.
Western civilization has given the relationship between human and dog great importance, but, in
some of the developing nations and in many areas of Asia, dogs are not held in the same esteem. In
some areas of the world, dogs are used as guards or beasts of burden or even for food, whereas in
the United States and Europe dogs are protected and admired. In ancient Egypt during the days of
the pharaohs, dogs were considered to be sacred.
The Most Popular Dogs in the U.S.

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Origin and history of dogs

Ancestry

Paleontologists and archaeologists have determined that about 60 million years ago a small
mammal, rather like a weasel, lived in the environs of what are now parts of Asia. It is called Miacis,
the genus that became the ancestor of the animals known today as canids: dogs, jackals, wolves, and
foxes. Miacis did not leave direct descendants, but doglike canids evolved from it. By about 30 to 40
million years ago Miacis had evolved into the first true dog—namely, Cynodictis. This was a medium-
size animal, longer than it was tall, with a long tail and a fairly brushy coat. Over the
millennia Cynodictis gave rise to two branches, one in Africa and the other in Eurasia. The Eurasian
branch was called Tomarctus and is the progenitor of wolves, dogs, and foxes.

Genetic evidence suggests that dogs descended directly from wolves (Canis) and that the now-
extinct wolf lineages that produced dogs branched off from the line that produced modern living
wolves sometime between 27,000 and 40,000 years ago. The timing and location of
dog domestication is a matter of debate. There is strong genetic evidence, however, that the first
domestication events occurred somewhere in northern Eurasia between 14,000 and 29,000 years
ago. In this region wolves likely facilitated their own domestication by trailing nomadic people in
northern Eurasia and consuming the remains of game animals that hunters left behind.

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Most studies agree that domestication was not a single discrete event. It was a process that unfolded
over thousands of years—likely involving dog populations that appeared in different parts of Eurasia
at different times, with dogs and wild wolves continuing to interbreed with one another and with
early dog populations being replaced by later ones. Some genetic studies have documented evidence
of early domestication events in specific regions. One study contends that wolves were domesticated
16,300 years ago to serve as livestock in China, whereas another reports that early dogs dating from
about 12,000 to 14,000 years ago came from a small strain of gray wolf that inhabited India. Genetic
evidence also reveals that dogs did not accompany the first humans to the New World more than
15,000 years ago, suggesting instead that dogs came to the Americas only some 10,000 years ago.
One study even suggested that some dogs have descended not from the wolf but rather from
the jackal. These dogs, found in Africa, might have given rise to some of the present native African
breeds.

No matter what their origins, all canids have certain common characteristics. They are mammals
that bear live young. The females have mammary glands, and they suckle their offspring. The early
breeds had erect ears and pointed or wedge-shaped muzzles, similar to the northern breeds
common today. Most of the carnivores have similar dental structures, which is one way
paleontologists have been able to identify them. They develop two sets of teeth, deciduous (“baby”)
teeth and permanent teeth.

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Canids walk on their toes, in contrast to an animal like the bear, which is flat-footed and walks on its
heels. Dogs, like most mammals, have body hair and are homeothermic—that is to say, they have an
internal thermostat that permits them to maintain their body temperature at a constant level despite
the outside temperature.

Fossil remains suggest that five distinct types of dogs existed by the beginning of the Bronze
Age (about 4500 bce). They were the mastiffs, wolf-type dogs, sight hounds (such as the Saluki or
greyhound), pointing dogs, and herding dogs.

Role in human societies

Dogs have played an important role in the history of human civilization and were among the first
domesticated animals. They were important in hunter-gatherer societies as hunting allies and
bodyguards against predators. When livestock were domesticated about 7,000 to 9,000 years ago,
dogs served as herders and guardians of sheep, goats, and cattle. Although many still serve in these
capacities, dogs are mainly used for social purposes and companionship. Today dogs are employed as
guides for the blind and disabled or for police work. Dogs are even used in therapy in nursing homes
and hospitals to encourage patients toward recovery. Humans have bred a wide range of different
dogs adapted to serve a variety of functions. This has been enhanced by improvements in veterinary
care and animal husbandry.
In ancient Egypt dogs were thought to possess godlike characteristics. They were pampered by their
own servants, outfitted with jeweled collars, and fed the choicest diet. Only royalty was permitted to
own purebred dogs, and upon the death of a ruler his favourite dog was often interred with him to
protect him from harm in the afterlife.

Illustrations of dogs dating from the Bronze Age have been found on walls, tombs, and scrolls
throughout Europe, the Middle East, and North America. Often the dogs are depicted hunting game
with their human counterparts. Statues of dogs guard the entrances to burial crypts. In many cases
these dogs clearly resemble modern canines. Such relics are indelible testimony to the importance
that humans have given to the dog throughout the ages.

Origin of breeds

ChihuahuasLong-haired (left) and smooth-coated (right).

Once it became evident that dogs were faster and stronger and could see and hear better than
humans, those specimens exhibiting these qualities were interbred to enhance such attributes. Fleet-
footed sight hounds were revered by noblemen in the Middle East, while in Europe powerful dogs
such as the mastiff were developed to protect home and traveler from harm.

As society changed and agriculture—in addition to hunting—became a means of sustaining life,

other breeds of dogs were developed. Herding and guarding dogs were important to farmers for
protecting their flocks. At the same time, small breeds became desirable as playthings
and companions for noble families. The Pekingese in China and fragile breeds such as the Chihuahua
were bred to be lapdogs. The terrier breeds were developed, mainly in England, to rid granaries and
barns of rodents. Pointing and retrieving breeds were selected for special tasks related to aiding the
hunter to find and capture game. Many breeds are extremely ancient, while others have been
developed as recently as the 1800s.

Physical traits and functions

General characteristics
1 of 2

external features of a dogThe common external features of a dog's body.

2 of 2

a dog's feetThe parts of a dog's hind foot and forefoot.

Dogs come in a wide range of shapes and sizes. It is difficult to imagine that a large Great Dane and a
tiny poodle are of the same species, but they are genetically identical with the same anatomic
features. All dogs have 78 chromosomes, or 39 pairs of chromosomes (humans have 23 pairs), and
one member of each pair comes from each parent. The normal temperature (rectal) of an adult dog
is 100–102.5 °F.

Teeth

Dogs have two sets of teeth. Twenty-eight deciduous teeth erupt by six to eight weeks of age, and by
the time puppies are six to seven months old these deciduous teeth are all replaced by 42 adult
teeth. The permanent teeth include incisors, which are used to nip and bite; canines, which tear and
shred flesh; and premolars and molars, which shear and crush. In short, a dog’s teeth serve as
weapons and as tools for cutting or tearing food. The canines are the upper and lower fangs for
which the dog family was named. As in most carnivores, the teeth are high-crowned and pointed,
unlike the broad, grinding teeth of many herbivorous animals.

The teething process can be difficult for puppies. Their gums hurt and become swollen, they may
lose their appetites, and they may have mild intermittent diarrhea.

Digestive system

Dogs rarely chew their food. Once the food is taken into the mouth, it is gulped or swallowed and
passed through the esophagus into the stomach, where digestive enzymes begin to break it down.
Most of the digestion and absorption of food takes place in the small intestines with the aid of the
pancreas and the liver. The pancreas secretes enzymes needed for regulating the digestive process.
As in humans, the pancreas produces insulin and glucagon, both of which are necessary for the
regulation of glucose. The liver is the largest internal organ in the body. It has six lobes (whereas the
human liver has only two). The liver is responsible for many essential life-preserving functions. It
helps digestion by producing bile, which aids in the absorption of fat. The liver also metabolizes
protein and carbohydrates, and it excretes toxins from the bloodstream. In addition, it manufactures
major blood-clotting agents. Because the liver performs all these vital functions, liver disease can be
a major problem in dogs.

Skeletal structure

skeleton of a dogThe dog's skeleton.

The skeletal frame of the dog consists of 319 bones. If a dog’s tail is docked or absent at birth, there
obviously are fewer bones in the skeleton. The muscles and tendons of a dog are similar to those of a
human; however, a dog’s upper body muscles bear half the weight of the entire body and are better
developed than a human’s. The weight distribution between the front and the rear of the dog are
relatively equal.

Dogs are running animals, with the exception of those bred specifically for different purposes. For
instance, the bulldog, with its large head and short, “bowed” legs, cannot be called a creature born
to chase game. Most dogs, however, are well equipped to run or lope over long distances, provided
that they are physically conditioned for such activities. The construction of the shoulder and pelvic
bones and the way they articulate with the leg bones and the spine allow most breeds to trot, run, or
gallop with ease. Certain breeds have distinct gaits that have been genetically selected by humans.
The German shepherd dog is known for its “flying trot.” The extreme extension of the front and rear
legs causes the dog to appear as if it were soaring, although one foot always remains on the ground.
Another unique gait is that of the greyhound. This dog was bred for great bursts of speed, and its
most comfortable gait is the gallop. The spine is unusually flexible, allowing the dog to contract and
extend its four legs in unison, whereby all four feet are off the ground at the same time.

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Other breeds also have unique features. The Afghan hound was bred to chase game over long
distances in rocky terrain. Its structure permits great flexibility through the hip joints and lower back,
enabling the dog to turn quickly in a small area. The dachshund, by contrast, is long and low with
short legs. This dog was bred to hunt badgers underground, and its shape allows it to enter
subterranean tunnels in search of its prey.

Although most breeds no longer follow the pursuits for which they were originally bred,
their instincts remain strong, and their structure still allows them to perform their specific tasks.

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