SKELETAL SYSYTEM (ANAPHY)

SKELETAL SYSTEM •
•
Storage
Blood cell formation
The bones of the skeleton are part of the skeletal system, which
Support
also includes joints, cartilages, and ligaments (fibrous cords
that bind the bones together at joints). • Bones, the “steel girders” and “reinforced concrete” of the
body, form the internal framework that supports the body
The skeleton is divided into two parts:
and cradles its soft organs
• Axial skeleton
• Appendicular skeleton Protection
• Bones protect soft body organs.
Axial skeleton
• the bones that form the longitudinal axis of the body Allow movement
• Skeletal muscles, attached to bones by tendons, use the
Appendicular skeleton
bones as levers to move the body and its parts.
• the bones of the limbs and girdles that attach them to the
axial skeleton Storage
• Fat is stored in the internal (marrow) cavities of bones
Functions of the Bones
BONES: AN OVERVIEW Blood cell formation

Besides contributing to body structure, our bones perform • Blood cell formation, or hematopoiesis, occurs within the
several important body functions: marrow cavities of certain bones.

• Support Classification of Bones

• Protection
The adult skeleton is composed of 206 bones.
• Allow movement
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There are two basic types of osseous, or bone, tissue: • Are thin, flattened, and usually curved.
• They have two thin layers of compact bone sandwiching a layer
• Compact bone
of spongy bone between them. Most bones of the skull, the
• Spongy bone
ribs, and the sternum (breastbone) are flat bones.
Compact Bond
Short bones
• Dense and looks smooth and homogeneous
• Are generally cube-shaped and contain mostly spongy bone
Spongy bone with an outer layer of compact bone.
• The bones of the wrist and ankle are short bones.
• Has a spiky, open appearance like a sponge
• Sesamoid bones- which form within tendons, are a special
Bones are classified according to shape into four groups: type of short bone. The best-known example is the patella.

• Long Irregular bones

• Flat
• Bones that do not fit one of the preceding categories.
• Short
• The vertebrae, which make up the spinal column, fall into this
• Irregular
group. Like short bones, they are mainly spongy bone with an
Long bones outer layer of compact bone.

• Are typically longer than they are wide. STRUCTURE OF BONE

• They have a shaft with enlarged ends.
• Long bones are mostly compact bone but also contain spongy
Structure of Long Bone: Gross Anatomy of a Long
bone at the ends. All the bones of the limbs, except the Bone
patella (kneecap) and the wrist and ankle bones, are long
• In a long bone, the diaphysis or shaft, makes up most of the
bones.
bone’s length and is composed of compact bone
Flat bones
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• Periosteum- the diaphysis is covered and protected by a There are two categories of bone markings:
fibrous connective tissue membrane.
• Projections or processes- which grow out from the bone
• Perforating fibers- hundreds of connective tissue fibers,
surface
• Sharpey’s fibers- secure the periosteum to the underlying
• Depressions or cavities- which are indentations in the
bone
bone.
• Epiphyses- are the ends of long bones. Each epiphysis
consists of a thin layer of compact bone enclosing an area Structure of Long Bone: Microscopic
filled with spongy bone Anatomy
• Instead of a periosteum, articular cartilage covers its external
surface. Because the articular cartilage is glassy hyaline Under a microscope, you can see that spongy bone is
cartilage, it provides a smooth surface that decreases friction composed of small needlelike pieces of bone called
at the joint when covered by lubricating fluid. trabeculae and lots of “open” space filled by marrow, blood
• In adult bones, there is a thin line of bony tissue spanning the vessels and nerves
epiphysis that looks a bit different from the rest of the bone in • Osteocytes- the mature bone cells, are found within
that area. This is the epiphyseal line. the bone matrix in tiny cavities called lacunae . The
• The epiphyseal line is a remnant of the epiphyseal plate (a flat lacunae are arranged in concentric circles called
plate of hyaline cartilage) seen in a young, growing bone. lamellae around central canals (also called
• The inner bony surface of the shaft is covered by a delicate Haversian canals). Each complex consisting of a
connective tissue called endosteum. central canal and matrix rings is called an osteon or
• Yellow marrow or medullary cavity- In adults: the cavity of Haversian system and is the structural and functional
the shaft is primarily a storage area for adipose tissue; In unit of compact bone.
infants, forms the blood cell and red marrow is found there; In • Canaliculi- tiny canals, radiate outward from the
adults, red marrow is confined to the cavities of spongy bone central canals to all lacunae. The canaliculi form a
of flat bones and the epiphyses of some long bones transportation system that connects all the bone cells
• Bone markings- reveal where muscles, tendons, and to the nutrient supply and waste removal services
ligaments attach and where blood vessels and nerves pass. through the hard bone matrix
SKELETAL SYSYTEM (ANAPHY)
• Perforating canals- also called Volkmann’s canals, This process by which bones increase in diameter is called
the communication pathway from the outside of the appositional growth, and like growth in length, is controlled by
bone to its interior which run in the compact bone at hormones.
right angles to the shaft (diaphysis) and central canals
The most important hormones are growth hormone and, during
• Calcium Salts- gives the bones hardness
puberty, the sex hormones
• Organic parts (collagen fibers)- provide for bone
flexibility and great tensile strengths Bone Remodeling

BONE FORMATON, GROWTH, AND REMODELING Bones are remodeled continually in response to changes in two
factors:
Bone Formation and Growth
• Calcium ion level in the blood
The skeleton is formed from two of the strongest and most • Pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton.
supportive tissues in the body:
Calcium ion level in the blood
• Cartilage
• Bone • When the blood calcium ion level drops below its homeostatic
level, the parathyroid glands (located in the throat) are
Ossification- process of bone formation stimulated to release parathyroid hormone (PTH) into the
Two major phases: blood.
• PTH activates osteoclasts (giant bone-destroying cells in
• First, the hyaline cartilage model is completely covered with bones, to break down bone matrix and release calcium ions
bone matrix (a bone “collar”) by bone-building cells called into the blood). When the blood calcium ion level is too high
osteoblasts hypercalcemia (calcium is deposited in bone matrix as hard
• Then, in the fetus, the enclosed hyaline cartilage model is calcium salts by osteoblasts)
replaced by bone, and the center is digested away, opening up
a medullary cavity Pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton
SKELETAL SYSYTEM (ANAPHY)
• Bone remodeling is essential if bones are to retain normal A fracture is treated by reduction, which is the realignment of the
proportions and strength during long-bone growth as the body broken bone ends, followed by immobilization.
increases in size and weight.
Closed reduction
• It also accounts for the fact that bones become thicker and
form large projections to increase their strength in areas where • The bone ends are coaxed back into their normal position by
bulky muscles are attached. the physician’s hands.

• Rickets- a disease of children in which the bones fail to calcify. Open reduction
As a result, the bones soften, and the weight-bearing bones of • Surgery is performed, and the bone ends are secured
the legs become bowed. Rickets is usually due to a lack of together with pins or wires.
calcium in the diet or lack of vitamin D, which is needed to
absorb calcium into the bloodstream. ____________________________________________________________

The repair of bone fractures involves four major events:

BONE FRACTURES
• Hematoma forms
• Fibrocartilage callus forms
• Bony callus forms
• Bone remodeling occurs

Hematoma forms
• Blood vessels are ruptured when the bone breaks. As a result,
a blood-filled swelling, or bruise, called a hematoma forms.

Fibrocartilage callus forms

SKELETAL SYSYTEM (ANAPHY)
• Two early events of tissue repair are the growth of new
capillaries (granulation tissue) into the clotted blood at the site AXIAL SKELETON
of the damage and disposal of dead tissue by phagocytes

Bony callus forms SKULL

The skull is formed by two sets of bones:
• As more osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate into the area and
multiply, the fibrocartilage callus is gradually replaced by the • Cranium
bony callus made of spongy bone • Facial bones

Bone remodeling occurs Cranium

• Over the next few weeks to months, depending on the bone’s • Encloses and protects the fragile brain tissue
size and site of the break, the bony callus is remodeled in
response to the mechanical stresses placed on it, so that it Facial bones
forms a strong, permanent “patch” at the fracture site.
• Form a cradle for the eyes that is open to the anterior and allow
the facial muscles to show our feelings through smiles or
frowns

All but one of the bones of the skull are joined together by sutures,
which are interlocking, immovable joints. Only the mandible
(jawbone) is attached to the rest of the skull by a freely movable joint.

Cranium
The boxlike cranium is composed of eight large flat bones. Except for
two sets of paired bones (the parietal and temporal), they are all single
bones.
SKELETAL SYSYTEM (ANAPHY)
• Frontal Bone Styloid process- a sharp, needlelike projection, is just inferior to
• Parietal Bones the external auditory meatus. Many neck muscles use the styloid
• Temporal Bones process as an attachment point.
• Occipital Bone Zygomatic process- is a thin bridge of bone that joins with the
• Sphenoid Bone cheek bone (zygomatic bone) anteriorly.
• Ethmoid Bone
Mastoid process- which is full of air cavities (the mastoid
Frontal Lobe sinuses), is a rough projection posterior and inferior to the external
acoustic meatus. It provides an attachment site for some muscles
• The frontal bone forms the forehead, the bony projections
of the neck.
under the eyebrows, and the superior part of each eye’s orbit
Jugular foramen- at the junction of the occipital and temporal
Parietal Bones bones, allows passage of the jugular vein, the largest vein of the
• The paired parietal bones form most of the superior and lateral head, which drains blood from the brain.
walls of the cranium. The sagittal suture is formed at the ❖ Mastoiditis- the mastoid sinuses are so close to the
midline where the two parietal bones, and the coronal suture middle ear—a high-risk spot for infections— that they may
is formed where the paired parietal bones meet the frontal become infected too and May spread to the brain.
bone.
Occipital Bone
Temporal Bones
• Is the most posterior bone of the cranium.
• The temporal bones lie inferior to the parietal bones and join • It forms the base and back wall of the skull.
them at the squamous sutures. Several important bone • The occipital bone joins the parietal bones anteriorly at the
markings appear on the temporal bones. lambdoid suture. In the base of the occipital bone is a large
External acoustic meatus- is a canal that leads to the eardrum opening, the foramen magnum (literally, “large hole”). Lateral
and the middle ear. It is the route by which sound enters the ear. to the foramen magnum on each side are the rockerlike
SKELETAL SYSYTEM (ANAPHY)
occipital condyles, which rest on the first vertebra of the • Extensions of the ethmoid bone, the superior nasal conchae
spinal column. and middle nasal conchae, form part of the lateral walls of
the nasal cavity
Sphenoid Bone
Facial bones
• The butterfly-shaped sphenoid bone spans the width of
the skull and forms part of the floor of the cranial cavity. Fourteen bones make up the face. Twelve are paired; only the
• In the midline of the sphenoid is a small depression, the mandible and vomer are single.
sella turcica or Turk’s saddle, which forms a snug
• Maxillae
enclosure for the pituitary gland.
• Palatine Bones
• The foramen ovale, a large oval opening in line with the
• Zygomatic Bones
posterior end of the sella turcica, allows fibers of cranial
• Lacrimal Bones
nerve V (the trigeminal nerve) to pass to the chewing
• Nasal Bones
muscles of the lower jaw (mandible).
• Vomer Bone
Ethmoid Bone • Inferior Nasal Conchae
• Mandible
• The ethmoid bone is very irregularly shaped and lies anterior to
the sphenoid. It forms the roof of the nasal cavity and part of Maxillae
the medial walls of the orbits.
• Projecting from its superior surface is the crista galli, literally • The two maxillae or maxillary bones, fuse to form the upper
“cock’s comb”. The outermost covering of the brain attaches jaw. All facial bones except the mandible join the maxillae;
to this projection. thus they are the main, or “keystone,” bones of the face. The
• On each side of the crista galli are many small holes. These maxillae carry the upper teeth in the alveolar process.
holey areas, the cribriform plates, allow nerve fibers carrying • Extensions of the maxillae called the palatine processes form
impulses from the olfactory (smell) receptors of the nose to the anterior part of the hard palate of the mouth . Like many
reach the brain other facial bones, the maxillae contain sinuses, which drain
into the nasal passages
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Palatine Bones • The single bone in the median line of the nasal cavity is the
vomer. (Vomer means “plow,” which refers to the bone’s
• The paired palatine bones lie posterior to the palatine shape.)
processes of the maxillae.
• They form the posterior part of the hard palate. Failure of these Inferior Nasal Conchae
or the palatine processes to fuse medially results in cleft
• The inferior nasal conchae are thin, curved bones projecting
palate.
medially from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity.
Zygomatic Bones
Mandible
• The zygomatic bones are commonly referred to as the
• The mandible, or lower jaw, is the largest and strongest bone
cheekbones. They also form a good-sized portion of the lateral
of the face.
walls of the orbits.
• It joins the temporal bones on each side of the face, forming
Lacrimal Bones the only freely movable joints in the skull

• The lacrimal bones are fingernail-sized bones forming part of Hyoid Bone
the medial wall of each orbit. Each lacrimal bone has a groove
• Is closely related to the mandible and temporal bones
that serves as a passageway for tears (lacrima = tear).
• It is suspended in the midneck region about 2 cm (1 inch)
Nasal Bones above the larynx (voicebox), where it is anchored by ligaments
to the styloid pro cesses of the temporal bones.
• The small rectangular bones forming the bridge of the nose are
• Horseshoe-shaped, with a body and two pairs of horns, the
the nasal bones.
hyoid bone serves as a movable base for the tongue and as an
Vomer Bone attachment point for neck muscles that raise and lower the
larynx when we swallow and speak.
SKELETAL SYSYTEM (ANAPHY)

Vertebral Column (Spine) spinal nerves exiting from the cord, numbness and
excruciating pain can result.
• Serving as the axial support of the body, the vertebral column, ❖ Scoliosis, Kyphosis, Lordosis
or spine, extends from the skull, which it supports, to the
pelvis, where it transmits the weight of the body to the lower
limbs.
• The spine is formed from 26 irregular bones connected and
reinforced by ligaments in such a way that a flexible, curved
structure results
• Running through the central cavity of the vertebral column is
the delicate spinal cord, which the vertebral column
surrounds and protects.
• Before birth, the spine consists of 33 separate bones called
vertebrae, but 9 of these eventually fuse to form the two Common Features of Vertebrae:
composite bones, the sacrum and the coccyx,
• Of the 24 single bones, the 7 vertebrae of the neck are • Body, or centrum- disclike, weight-bearing part of the vertebra
cervical vertebrae, the next 12 are the thoracic vertebrae, facing anteriorly in the vertebral column.
and the remaining 5 supporting the lower back are lumbar • Vertebral arch- arch formed from the joining of all posterior
vertebrae. extensions, the laminae and pedicles, from the vertebral body.
• The individual vertebrae are separated by pads of flexible • Vertebral foramen- canal through which the spinal cord
fibrocartilage—intervertebral discs— that cushion the passes
vertebrae and absorb shock while allowing the spine flexibility • Transverse processes- two lateral projections from the
vertebral arch.
❖ Herniated (“slipped”) discs- Drying of the discs, along • Spinous process- single projection arising from the posterior
with a weakening of the ligaments of the vertebral column. aspect of the vertebral arch (actually the fused laminae).
If the protruding disc presses on the spinal cord or the
SKELETAL SYSYTEM (ANAPHY)
• Superior articular process and inferior articular process- • The body is somewhat heart-shaped and has two costal
paired projections lateral to the vertebral foramen, allowing a facets (articulating surfaces) on each side, which receive the
vertebra to form joints with adjacent vertebrae. heads of the ribs
• The spinous process is long and hooks sharply downward,
Cervical Vertebrae causing the vertebra to look like a giraffe’s head viewed from
• Identified as C1 to C7 form the neck region of the spine. the side.
• Atlas (C1)- has no body. The superior surfaces of its
Lumbar Vertebrae
transverse processes contain large depressions that receive
the occipital condyles of the skull. This joint allows you to nod • (L1 to L5) - have massive, blocklike bodies that are somewhat
“YES.” kidney bean–shaped.
• Axis (C2)- acts as a pivot for the rotation of the atlas (and • Because most of the stress on the vertebral column occurs in
skull) above. It has a large upright process, the dens, which the lumbar region, these are the sturdiest of the vertebrae.
acts as the pivot point. The joint between C1 and C2 allows
you to rotate your head from side to side to indicate “NO.” Sacrum
• C3 through C7- the “typical” cervical vertebrae; They are the • Formed by the fusion of five vertebrae
smallest, lightest vertebrae, and most often their spinous • Superiorly it articulates with L5, and inferiorly it connects with
processes are short and divided into two branches the coccyx.
• Foramina (openings)- through which the vertebral arteries • Each winglike ala articulates laterally with the hip bone,
pass on their way to the brain above. forming a sacroiliac joint. The sacrum forms the posterior wall
of the pelvis. Its posterior midline surface is roughened by the
Thoracic Vertebrae
median sacral crest, the fused spinous processes of the sacral
• (T1 to T12)- are all typical. vertebrae
• They are larger than the cervical vertebrae • This is flanked laterally by the posterior sacral foramina. The
vertebral canal continues inside the sacrum as the sacral
SKELETAL SYSYTEM (ANAPHY)
canal and terminates in a large inferior opening called the • The sternal angle- results where the manubrium and body
sacral hiatus meet at a slight angle to each other, so that a transverse ridge
is formed at the level of the second ribs
Coccyx • The xiphisternal joint- the point where the sternal body and
• The coccyx is formed from the fusion of three to five tiny, xiphoid process fuse, lies at the level of the ninth thoracic
irregularly shaped vertebrae. It is the human “tailbone,” a vertebra.
remnant of the tail that other vertebrate animals have.
Ribs
Thoracic Cage • Twelve pairs of ribs form the walls of the bony thorax
The sternum, ribs, and thoracic vertebrae make up the bony thorax . • All the ribs articulate with the vertebral column posteriorly and
The bony thorax is routinely called the thoracic cage because it forms then curve downward and toward the anterior body surface
a protective cage of slender bones and cartilages around the organs of • True ribs- the first seven pairs, attach directly to the sternum
the thoracic cavity (heart, lungs, and major blood vessels). by costal cartilages
• False ribs- the next five pairs, either attach indirectly to the
Sternum sternum or are not attached to the sternum at all.
• Breastbone is a typical flat bone and the result of the fusion of • Floating ribs- the last two pairs of false ribs lack the sternal
three bones—the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process. It is attachments
attached directly to the first seven pairs of ribs via costal • The intercostal spaces (spaces between the ribs) are filled
cartilages. with the intercostal muscles, which aid in breathing.

The sternum has three important bony landmark:

• The jugular notch- (concave upper border of the manubrium)

can be palpated easily; generally it is at the level of the third
thoracic vertebra.
SKELETAL SYSYTEM (ANAPHY)
• The scapula has two important processes—the acromion,
which is the enlarged lateral end of the spine of the scapula,
APPENDICULAR SKELETON and the beaklike coracoid process
• The coracoid process points laterally over the top of the
The appendicular skeleton is composed of 126 bones of the limbs shoulder and anchors some of the muscles of the arm
(appendages) and the pectoral and pelvic girdles, which attach the • Each triangular scapula has a flattened body with three
limbs to the axial skeleton. borders—superior, medial (vertebral), and lateral (axillary)

The shoulder girdle is very light and allows the upper limb
Bones of the Shoulder Girdle
exceptionally free movement. This is due to the following factors:
Each pectoral girdle, or shoulder girdle, consists of two bones—a
• Each shoulder girdle attaches to the axial skeleton at only
clavicle and a scapula
one point—the sternoclavicular joint.
Clavicles • The loose attachment of the scapula allows it to slide back
and forth against the thorax as muscles act.
• Also known as collarbones, are slender, doubly curved bones
• The glenoid cavity is shallow, and the shoulder joint is
• Each clavicle attaches to the manubrium of the sternum poorly reinforced by ligaments.
medially (at its sternal end) and to the scapula laterally, where
it helps to form the shoulder joint Bones of the Upper Limbs
• The clavicle acts as a brace to hold the arm away from the top
Thirty separate bones form the skeletal framework of each upper
of the thorax and helps prevent shoulder dislocation
limb, including the arm, forearm, and hand.
Scapulae Arm
• Shoulder blades are commonly called “wings” because they • The arm is formed by a single bone, the humerus, which is a
flare when we move our arms posteriorly. typical long bone. At its proximal end is a rounded head that
• The glenoid cavity, a shallow socket that receives the head of fits into the shallow glenoid cavity of the scapula.
the arm bone, is in the lateral angle
SKELETAL SYSYTEM (ANAPHY)
• Anatomical neck- immediately inferior to the head is a slight • When the body is in the anatomical position, the radius is the
constriction lateral bone; that is, it is on the thumb side of the forearm.
• Anterolateral to the head are two bony projections separated • Both proximally and distally the radius and ulna articulate at
by the intertubercular sulcus—the greater tubercle and small radioulnar joints, and the two bones are connected
lesser tubercle, which are sites of muscle attachment. along their entire length by the flexible interosseous
• Just distal to the tubercles is the surgical neck, so named membrane. Both the ulna and the radius have a styloid
because it is the most frequently fractured part of the process at their distal end.
humerus. • The disc-shaped head of the radius also forms a joint with the
• In the midpoint of the shaft is a roughened area called the capitulum of the humerus. Just below the head is the radial
deltoid tuberosity, where the large, fleshy deltoid muscle of tuberosity, where the tendon of the biceps muscle attaches.
the shoulder attaches • When the upper limb is in the anatomical position, the ulna is
• At the distal end of the humerus is the medial trochlea, which the medial bone (on the little finger side) of the forearm.
looks somewhat like a spool, and the lateral ball-like • On its proximal end are the anterior coronoid process and the
capitulum, which can be “outlined” with a “C” from the posterior olecranon, which are separated by the trochlear
anterior view. Both of these processes articulate with bones of notch. Together these two processes grip the trochlea of the
the forearm humerus in a curved “tongue-ingroove”–like joint.
• Above the trochlea anteriorly is a depression, the coronoid
fossa; on the posterior surface is the olecranon fossa. These
Hand
two depressions, which are flanked by the medial epicondyle • The skeleton of the hand consists of the carpals, the
and lateral epicondyle, allow the corresponding processes of metacarpals, and the phalanges
the ulna to move freely when the elbow is bent and extended. • The eight carpal bones, arranged in two irregular rows of four
bones each, form the part of the hand called the carpus, or the
Forearm
wrist.
• Two bones, the radius and the ulna, form the skeleton of the • The palm of the hand consists of the metacarpals. The
forearm metacarpals are numbered 1 to 5 from the thumb side of the
SKELETAL SYSYTEM (ANAPHY)
hand toward the little finger. When the fist is clenched, the posteriorly in the posterior superior iliac spine. Small inferior
heads of the metacarpals become obvious as the “knuckles.” spines are located below these
• The phalanges are the bones of the fingers. Each hand • Ischium- is the “sit-down bone,” so called because it
contains 14 phalanges. There are three in each finger forms the most inferior part of the coxal bone. The ischial
(proximal, middle, and distal), except in the thumb, which has tuberosity is a roughened area that receives body weight
only two (proximal and distal). when you are sitting. The ischial spine, superior to the
tuberosity, is another important anatomical landmark,
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle particularly in the pregnant woman, because it narrows
• The pelvic girdle is formed by two coxal bones, commonly the outlet of the pelvis through which the baby must pass
called hip bones, and the sacrum during birth. Another important structural feature of the
• The pelvic girdle forms the pelvis. Note that the terms pelvic ischium is the greater sciatic notch, which allows blood
girdle (the coxal bones and the sacrum) and pelvis (the coxal vessels and the large sciatic nerve to pass from the pelvis
bones, sacrum, and coccyx) have slightly different meanings. posteriorly into the thigh. Injections in the buttock should
• The bones of the pelvic girdle are large and heavy, and they are always be given well away from this area to avoid possible
attached securely to the axial skeleton via the sacral nerve damage.
attachment to the L5 lumbar vertebra • Pubis- is the most anterior and inferior part of a coxal bone.
• Each hip bone is formed by the fusion of three bones: the Fusion of the rami of the pubis anteriorly and the ischium
ilium, ischium, and pubis posteriorly forms a bar of bone enclosing the obturator
foramen, an opening that allows blood vessels and nerves to
• Ilium- which connects posteriorly with the sacrum at the
pass into the anterior part of the thigh. The pubic bones of each
sacroiliac joint, is a large, flaring bone that forms most of the
hip bone articulate anteriorly to form a cartilaginous joint, the
hip bone (imagine a peacock’s fanned tail feathers). When you
pubic symphysis
put your hands on your hips, they are resting over the alae, or
winglike portions, of the ilia. The upper edge of an ala, the iliac • The ilium, ischium, and pubis fuse at the deep socket called
crest, is an important anatomical landmark that is always kept the acetabulum, which means “vinegar cup.” The acetabulum
in mind by those who give intramuscular injections. The iliac receives the head of the thigh bone.
crest ends anteriorly in the anterior superior iliac spine and The bony pelvis is divided into two regions.
SKELETAL SYSYTEM (ANAPHY)
• The false pelvis is superior to the true pelvis; it is the area lower limbs (thigh, leg, and foot) are much thicker and stronger than
medial to the flaring portions of the ilia. the comparable bones of the upper limb.
• The true pelvis is surrounded by bone and lies inferior to the
flaring parts of the ilia and the pelvic brim
Thigh

The dimensions of the cavity, particularly the outlet (the inferior • The femur or thigh bone, is the only bone in the thigh
opening of the pelvis measured between the ischial spines) and the • It is the heaviest, strongest, and longest bone in the body
inlet (superior opening between the right and left sides of the pelvic • Its proximal end has a ball-like head, a neck, and a greater
brim), are critical, and they are carefully measured by the obstetrician. trochanter and lesser trochanter (separated anteriorly by the
intertrochanteric line and posteriorly by the intertrochanteric
Of course, individual pelvic structures vary, but there are fairly crest)
consistent differences between a male and a female pelvis, including • The trochanter, intertrochanteric crest, and the gluteal
the following characteristics: tuberosity, located on the proximal end of the shaft, all serve
• The female inlet is larger and more circular. as sites for muscle attachment
• The female pelvis as a whole is shallower, and the bones are • Distally on the femur are the lateral condyle and medial
lighter and thinner. condyle, which articulate with the tibia below. Posteriorly
• The female ilia flare more laterally, giving women curvy hips. these condyles are separated by the deep intercondylar
• The female sacrum is shorter and less curved. fossa. Anteriorly on the distal femur is the smooth patellar
• The female ischial spines are shorter and farther apart; thus, surface, which forms a joint with the patella, or kneecap
the outlet is larger.
Leg
• The female pubic arch is more rounded because the angle of
the pubic arch is greater • Connected along their length by an interosseous membrane,
two bones, the tibia and fibula, form the skeleton of the leg
Bones of the Lower Limbs • Tibia or shinbone- is larger and more medial. At the proximal
The lower limbs carry our total body weight when we are erect. Hence, end, the medial condyle and lateral condyle (separated by
it is not surprising that the bones forming the three segments of the the intercondylar eminence) articulate with the distal end of
the femur to form the knee joint.
SKELETAL SYSYTEM (ANAPHY)
• Patellar (kneecap)- ligament which encloses the patella, a • Ligaments- which bind the foot bones together tendons of the
sesamoid bone, attaches to the tibial tuberosity, a foot muscles help to hold the bones firmly in the arched
roughened area on the anterior tibial surface. Distally, a position but still allow a certain
process called the medial malleolus forms the inner bulge of • Weak arches are referred to as “fallen arches,” or “flat feet.”
the ankle. The anterior surface of the tibia is a sharp ridge, the
anterior border, that is unprotected by muscles; thus, it is
easily felt beneath the skin.
• Fibula- which lies alongside the tibia laterally, forms joints JOINTS
with it both proximally and distally, and is thin and sticklike. The
fibula has no part in forming the knee joint. Its distal end, the • Joints also called articulations, are the sites where two or
lateral malleolus, forms the outer part of the ankle. more bones meet. They have two functions: They hold the
bones together securely but also give the rigid skeleton
Foot mobility
• It supports our body weight and serves as a lever that allows • Joints are classified in two ways—functionally and
us to propel our bodies forward when we walk and run. structurally
• The tarsus, forming the posterior half of the foot, is composed • The functional classification focuses on the amount of
of seven tarsal bones. Body weight is carried mostly by the two movement the joint allows: synarthroses or immovable
largest tarsals, the calcaneus, or heel bone, and the talus. joints; amphiarthroses or slightly movable joints; and
The talus lies superior to the calcaneus, articulates with the diarthroses or freely movable joints
tibia, and allows pointing of the toe. Structurally, there are:
• 5 metatarsals form the sole, and 14 phalanges form the
toes. Like the fingers of the hand, each toe has three • fibrous
phalanges, except the great toe, which has two. • cartilaginous
• The bones in the foot are arranged to form three strong arches: • synovial joints
two longitudinal (medial and lateral) and one transverse
SKELETAL SYSYTEM (ANAPHY)

Fibrous Joints • Synovial joints are joints in which the articulating bone ends
are separated by a joint cavity containing synovial fluid
• In fibrous joints, the bones are united by fibrous tissue. The
best examples of this type of joint are the sutures of the skull All synovial joints have four distinguishing features:
• In sutures, the irregular edges of the bones interlock and are • Articular cartilage- articular (hyaline) cartilage covers the
bound tightly together by connective tissue fibers, allowing no ends of the bones forming the joint.
movement. • Articular capsule- the joint surfaces are enclosed by a sleeve,
• Gomphoses- are “peg-in-socket” fibrous joints that are found or layer, of fibrous connective tissue, which is lined with a
where the teeth meet the facial bones smooth synovial membrane (the reason these joints are called
• In another type of fibrous joint, syndesmoses, the connecting synovial joints)
fibers are longer than those of sutures; thus the joint has more • Joint cavity- the articular capsule encloses a cavity, called the
“give.” The joint connecting the distal ends of the tibia and joint cavity, which contains lubricating synovial fluid secreted
fibula is a syndesmosis by the synovial membrane
• Reinforcing ligaments- the fibrous layer of the capsule is
Cartilaginous Joints
usually reinforced with ligaments
• Cartilaginous joints come in two varieties, which differ in the
Bursae and tendon sheaths are not strictly part of synovial joints, but
type of cartilage involved.
they are often found closely associated with them.
• Synchondroses are immoveable joints linked by hyaline
cartilage. Examples include the epiphyseal plates of growing • Bursae- are flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial
long bones and the joints between ribs 1–7 and the sternum membrane and containing a thin film of synovial fluid. They are
• Symphyses are amphiarthrotic (slightly moveable) joints common where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones
linked by discs of fibrocartilage. Examples include the rub together.
intervertebral discs of the spinal column and the pubic • Tendon sheath- is essentially an elongated bursa that wraps
symphysis of the pelvis completely around a tendon subjected to friction, like a bun
around a hot dog.
Synovial Joints
SKELETAL SYSYTEM (ANAPHY)
❖ A dislocation happens when a bone is forced out of its normal travel (1) from side to side and (2) back and forth, but the bone cannot
position in the joint cavity. The process of returning the bone to rotate around its long axis. Movement occurs around two axes; hence,
its proper position, called reduction, should be done only by a these joints are biaxial (bi = two), as in knuckle (metacarpophalangeal)
physician. Attempts by an untrained person to “snap the bone joints.
back into its socket” are usually more harmful than helpful
In saddle joints- each articular surface has both convex and concave
areas, like a saddle for a horse. These biaxial joints allow essentially
the same movements as condylar joints. The best examples of saddle
Types of Synovial joints Based on Shape joints are the carpometacarpal joints in the thumb, which are
Based on such shapes, our synovial joints can be classified as plane, responsible for our opposable thumbs.
hinge, pivot, condylar, saddle, or ball-and-socket joints In a ball-and-socket joint- the spherical head of one bo5ne fits into
In a plane joint- the articular surfaces are essentially flat, and only the round socket in another. These multiaxial joints allow movement
short slipping or gliding movements are allowed. The movements of in all axes, including rotation, and are the most freely moving synovial
plane joints are nonaxial; that is, gliding back and forth does not joints. The shoulder and hip are examples.
involve rotation around any axis. The intercarpal joints of the wrist are
the best examples of plane joints.

In a hinge joint- the cylindrical end of one bone fits into a trough-
shaped surface on another bone. Angular movement is allowed in just
one plane, like a door hinge. Examples are the elbow joint, ankle joint,
and the joints between the phalanges of the fingers. Hinge joints are
classified as uniaxial ; they allow movement around one axis only.

In a pivot joint- the rounded end of one bone fits into a sleeve or ring
of bone (and possibly ligaments). Because the rotating bone can turn
only around its long axis, an oval concavity in another. Both of these
articular surfaces are oval. Condylar joints allow the moving bone to
SKELETAL SYSYTEM (ANAPHY)

Inflammatory Disorders of Joints

❖ Bursitis- “water on the knee,” due to inflammation of bursae
or a synovial membrane
❖ Sprain- results when the ligaments or tendons reinforcing a
joint are damaged by excessive stretching or are torn away
from the bone
❖ Dislocation- happens when a bone is forced out of its normal
position in the joint cavity
❖ Arthritis- describes over 100 different inflammatory or
degenerative diseases that damage joints. All forms of arthritis
have the same initial symptoms: pain, stiffness, and swelling
of the joint.
❖ Osteoarthritis (OA)- also called degenerative joint disease
(DJD) or “wear-and-tear arthritis,” affects the articular
cartilages
❖ Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)- is a chronic inflammatory
disorder. Its onset is insidious and usually occurs between the
ages of 40 and 50, but it may occur at any age
❖ Gouty arthritis or gout- is a disease in which uric acid (a
normal waste product of nucleic acid metabolism)
accumulates in the blood and may be deposited as needle-
shaped crystals in the soft tissues of joints