Survey of Anatomy & Physiology (BI-147) E.C.C.

South &/or City Campus

Gerry Goldberg, Instructor Dated: January 11, 2024

Skeletal System

I Skeletal System: framework of bones & cartilage that functions in movement &
protection of internal organs;

II Some Functions:

A. Support: rigid framework that support soft tissues;

B. Movement: provides places for attachment of muscles;

C. Protection: encloses internal organs;

1) Skull: encloses & protects brain (cranial cavity);

2) Vertebral Column: encloses & protects spinal cord (spinal cavity);

3) Ribs: enclose & protect heart, lungs & other tissue (thoracic cavity);

4) Pelvis: protects reproductive organs, developing child (pelvic cavity);

D. Storage of Substances:

1) Storage of Minerals: e.g., calcium & phosphorus; provide rigidity &

hardness; released when needed elsewhere in body, e.g., by muscles or nerves;

Note: calcium is the main component of bone.

2) Storage of Fat: in yellow bone marrow, for energy storage;

E. Blood Cell Formation: production of blood cells in red bone marrow of some
bones;

Note: red bone marrow is the source of all types of (though not all) blood cells;
if this marrow is defective (e.g., as in Aplastic Anemia, Mylodysplastic Syndrome,
etc.) and blood cells are not produced, we can not transport gases (O2 & CO2);
we can not clot blood (stop bleeding); can not fight infection; and, can not
survive (unless obtaining a successful bone marrow transplant).
III Osseous (Bone) Tissue: hardest connective tissue;

A. Cells: living component of bone; includes:

1) Osteoblasts: calcium deposition (deposit), i.e., build bone;

2) Osteoclasts: calcium resorption (recruitment), i.e., break down bone;

3) Osteocytes: osteoblasts trapped in boney cavities known as lacunae while

forming matrix;

B. Matrix: non-living component of bone; includes:

1) Minerals: e.g., calcium, phosphorous, fluoride, etc.; give bone hardness;

Note: remember, non-living calcium is the main component of bone.

2) Protein Fibers: e.g., collagen & elastin fibers; give bone flexibility;

IV Classification of Bones

A. Basic Types of Osseous Tissue:

1) Compact (Cortical) Bone: very dense, outer bone, looks smooth; in shafts
of long bones, e.g., bones of arms & legs;

Note: compact bone is dense bone, forming the outer layer of bone.

2) Spongy (Reticular) Bone: inner thin latticework of bone (formed of small

needlelike pieces of bone & a lot of open space); provides support to bones;
found in small flat bones, e.g., skull; ends of long bones (in & near heads);

Note: located within bone, e.g., in epiphyses of long bones; its lattice
structure indicates crossing segments of bone (think of the lattice holding up a
rose bush, formed from crossing strips of wood).

B. Classification of Bones by Shape:

1) Long Bones:

a) Longer Than Wide;

b) Have Shaft (Diaphysis) & Heads (Epiphyses) at Ends;

c) Mostly Compact Bone;

 d) Include: bones of limbs (e.g., humerus, ulna, radius, femur, tibia &
fibula (but not patella, i.e., “kneecap”);

2) Short Bones:

a) Cube-Shaped;

b) Mostly Spongy Bone;

c) Include: bones of the wrist & ankle, e.g., talus (ankle);

d) Sesamoid Bones: special type, form within tendons (e.g., patella);

3) Flat Bones:

a) Thin, Flattened, Usually Curved;

b) 2 Layers of Compact Bone Sandwich Layer of Spongy Bone;

c) Include: bones of skull (temporal, parietal, frontal, occipital bones),

sternum (“breast bone”) & ribs;

4) Irregular Bones: do not fit into previous categories, e.g., vertebrae (form
spinal column) & os coxa (coxal or hip bones);

V Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone:

A. Diaphysis: shaft, makes up length of bone; composed of compact bone;

Note: the diaphysis (shaft) is the narrower part of a long bone.

B. Periosteum: membrane covering & protecting diaphysis; contains blood vessels,

nerves, & cells for growth & repair;

1) Sharpey’s (Perforating) Fibers: secure membrane to bone;

C. Epiphyses (singular = Epiphysis): enlarged ends of long bones; thin layer of

compact bone encloses spongy bone;

Note: there is an epiphysis (singular) at either end of the bone, the epiphyses
(plural) being enlargements of the bone.

1) Articular Cartilage: hyaline cartilage covering external surface of

Epiphysis (at ends of long bones); its smooth surface decreases friction at joint
 surfaces;

Note: articular cartilage is joint cartilage, covering the ends of a long bone;
it forms an articulation (joint) with the articular cartilages of another bone, so
cartilage smoothly moves over cartilage, rather than bone over bone, making
movement easier; this cartilage remains from the embryonic fully cartilage
skeleton; breakdown of this cartilage is characteristic of different types of
arthritis.

D. Metaphysis: meeting of Epiphysis & Diaphysis;

1) Epiphyseal Plate: flat plate of hyaline cartilage in epiphysis of young

growing bone; causes lengthwise growth of long bone;

2) Epiphyseal Line: thin line of bony tissue spanning epiphysis of adult long
bone, remnant of epiphyseal plate after end of growth spurt;

Note: the epiphyseal plate is the site of long bone elongation (growth); when
its cartilage is replaced by bone (becomes the epiphyseal line), the growth
spurt ends.

E. Medullary (Yellow Marrow) Cavity: cavity in shaft (diaphysis) of adult long

bone; contains yellow marrow, which stores adipose (fat) tissue;

F. Yellow Bone Marrow: stores adipose (fat) tissue in medullary cavity of shaft
(diaphysis) of adult long bone;

G. Red Marrow: forms blood cells of all types;

Note: as previously noted, if this marrow is defective (e.g., Aplastic Anemia,

Mylodysplastic Syndrome, etc.) and blood cells are not produced, we can not
transport gases (O2 & CO2); we can not clot blood (stop bleeding); can not fight
infection; and, can not survive (unless we obtain a bone marrow transplant).

1) Infants: located in medullary cavity of shaft of long bones;

2) Adults: located in cavities in spongy bone of flat bones (e.g., ribs, pelvis,
vertebral column, skull) & in epiphyses of some long bones;
VI Skeletal Development, Growth, Repair & Remodeling

A. Skeleton Begins as Cartilage Model:

1) Embryonic Skeleton: begins as cartilaginous (cartilage) skeleton; allows

for growth & development (bone cells can’t divide in solid matrix);

2) Replacement of Cartilage by Bone: begins in 3rd month of development;

collar of bone is formed around cartilage of long bones by osteoblasts;

Note: the skeleton begins as a wholly cartilage skeleton in embryonic

development, but most cartilage is replaced by bone, beginning about the 3rd
month of development; however, some cartilage remains after birth, e.g., the
articular cartilage at the ends of long bones, the costal cartilage at the ends of the
ribs, & the pubic symphysis anteriorly between the hip bones.

B. Growth: at birth, bone growths centers (epiphyseal plates) are formed in ends of
long bones, filled with spongy bone;

1) Epiphyseal Plates (Growth Plates): plates of hyaline cartilage, separate ends

of bones from shaft; cartilage cells divide, forcing plates further from shaft of
bone;

2) Hormonal Control of Growth:

a) Growth Hormone (GH): regulate growth during childhood;

b) Testosterone & Estrogen: male & female sex hormones regulate

bone density at puberty;

C. Fractures: Bone Repaired by Fibroblasts & Osteocytes

1) Fracture: break of bone;

2) Healing:

a) Bleeding;

b) Clot Formation (Hematoma): at site of fracture;

c) Fibroblasts: connective tissue cells, invade clot from periosteum;

(1) Secrete Collagen;

(2) Collagen Forms a Callus;

 (3) Callus Links Ends of Broken Bone;

4) Secrete Cartilage into Callus;

d) Osteoblasts: bone cells, invade callus from periosteum; transform

cartilage into new bone;

D. Skeletal Remodeling: after initial growth process completed, continuous process

of remodeling occurs throughout life;

1) Bone Deposition (Calcium Deposit): osteoblasts build bone; bone formed in

response to stress, e.g., weight-bearing exercise, which thickens bones,
resulting in stronger bones;

2) Bone (Calcium) Resorption: osteoclasts break down & release minerals;

i.e., calcium recruitment; bones not stressed lose mass, e.g., on crutches;

3) Imbalance: bone broken down faster than built; becomes weak & fragile;

Note: this imbalance between bone (calcium) resorption & deposit decreases
bone density and weakens bones; may progress to osteoporosis, an irreversible
disease of thin, porous bones subject to a greatly increased risk of fracture.
VII Osteoporosis: condition in which there is progressive loss in bone density, resulting in
thin, brittle bones, susceptible to fracture; notably (not exclusively) in older women;

A. Some Factors:

1) Weight-Bearing Exercise:

a) Exercise Stressing Bone: builds bone, e.g., walking, running, but perhaps
not swimming & bicycling;

b) Sedentary Life Style: sitting around, does not stress bone, weakening it;

2) Calcium in Diet: calcium necessary for strong bones;

Note: a calcium deficiency not only contributes to not building bone, but
contributes to weaking it when calcium is borrowed from bone for muscle,
nerve & other body functions.

3) Vitamin D: needed for calcium absorption, deposit & conservation;

Note: a vitamin D deficiency may lead to a deficiency of available calcium in

the blood needed for bone building, and muscle & nerve functions; vitamin D
is obtained from sunlight exposure and food in the diet.

4) Menopause in Older Females: accelerates of loss of bone mass from

decreased estrogen production in women over 50 years of age, slowing bone
formation & calcium absorption from gut;

Notes:

a) Menopause occurs when the ovaries in females run out of eggs and women
can no long get pregnant; hormonal change occur in menopause;

b) Menopause decreases estrogen production; estrogen is a “female” sex

hormone, produced by both females & males;

c) Estrogen protects bones by contributing to calcium absorption from

food and calcium deposit in bone (bone building);

d) Post-menopausal women constitute the population most at risk for

osteoporosis.

5) Decreased Testosterone in Older Men: decreases bone building & bone

protection in men over 50 years of age (not due to menopause);

Note: testosterone is a “male” sex hormone, produced by both males &

 females.

6) Intense Physical Exercise in Females: alters hormone levels & disrupts

menopause;

7) Size: smaller people at greater risk; start with less bone mass;

8) Body Fat: people with less body fat at greater risk; fat is converted to
estrogen;

8) Alcohol: heavy drinking interferes with estrogen function;

9) Smoking: reduces estrogen levels;

10) Drugs: e.g., caffeine (a diuretic), tetracycline (antibiotic), cortisone (steroid)

can promote osteoporosis;

B. Prevention of Osteoporosis:

1) Exercise: weight-bearing exercise that stresses bones; not swimming;

2) Diet: rich in calcium, e.g., from dairy products, broccoli, spinach, shrimp;

3) Supplements: calcium & vitamin D tablets;

C. Treatment: Fosamex (Alendronate Sodium); literature for Fosamex indicates

following:

1) Description: “acts as a specific inhibitor of osteoclast-mediated bone

resporption.”

2) Mechanism of Action: “At the cellular level, alendronate shows preferential

localization to sites of bone resorption, specifically under osteoclasts. The
osteoclasts adhere normally to the bone surface back lack the ruffled border that is
indicative of active resorption. Aldronate does not interfere with osteoclast
recruitment or attachment, but it does inhibit osteoclast activity. Bones
examined…showed that normal bone was formed on top of alendronate, which
was incorporated inside the matrix. While incorporated in bone matrix,
alendronate is not pharmacologically active. Thus, alendronate must be
continuously administered to suppress osteoclasts on newly formed resorption
surfaces…..alendronate treatment reduces bone turnover (i.e., the number of sites
at which bone is remodeled). In addition, bone formation exceeds bone
resorption at these remodeling sites, leading to progressive gains in bone mass.”
VIII Some Bone Markings: bumps, holes, projections, ridges, etc., on bones; form sites of
muscle & ligament attachment; passageways for blood vessels & nerves; etc.;

Note: Learning about the skeleton & bones involves more than naming the bones; it
involves, as well, knowing the markings on (the geography of) the bones and their
functions; the following glossary is an abbreviate sampling; we will exam a few in the
following discussion of the skeleton and its component bones.

A. Projections That Are Sites of Muscle & Ligament Attachment:

1) Tuberosity: large, rounded projection; e.g., ischial tuberosity of coxal (hip)

bone;

2) Crest: narrow ridge of bone, usually prominent; e.g., iliac crest of coxal bone

3) Trochanter: large, blunt, irregular shaped process; e.g., greater & lesser
trochanters of femur;

4) Line: narrow ridge of bone; e.g., linea aspera of femur;

5) Tubercle: small rounded projection or process; e.g., greater & lesser

tubercles of humerus;

6) Epicondyle: raised area on or above a condyle; e.g., medial & lateral

epicondyles of femur;

7) Spine: sharp, slender, often pointed projection; e.g., spinous process (spine)
of vertebra, spinous process (spine) of scapula; ischeal spine of coxal bone;

8) Process: bony prominence; sites of muscle attachment or articulation of

bones; e.g., zygomatic & styloid processes of temporal bone;

B. Projections that Help Form Joints:

1) Head: bony expansion carried on narrow neck; e.g., head of humerus, radius,
femur; e.g., epiphyses of long bones;

2) Facet: smooth, flat articular surface; e.g., facets of ribs;

3) Condyle: rounded articular projection; e.g., condyle of the femur;

4) Ramus: arm-like bar of bone; e.g., ramus of the mandible (lower jaw);
 C. Depressions & Openings:

1) Groove: furrow in bone;

2) Fissure: narrow, slit-like opening in bone; infraorbital fissue of skull;

3) Foramen: round or oval opening through bone for passage of blood vessel
&/or nerve; e.g., mental foramen of mandible;

4) Notch: indentation at edge of a structure; e.g., infraorbital notch;

5) Meatus: canal-like passageway; e.g., external auditory meatus of

temporal bone (forming ear canal);

6) Sinus: cavity within bone filled with air & lined with mucous membrane; e.g.,
frontal sinus of frontal bone;

7) Fossa: shallow depression in bone, often serving as an articular surface;

IX Human Skelton Divisions:

A. Axial Skeleton: part of skeleton around center of gravity, i.e., along longitudinal
(long) axis of body;

1) Skull: formed by Cranial Bones, Facial Bones & Mandible;

2) Rib Cage: formed by Ribs & Sternum

3) Vertebral Column: formed by the Vertebrae & Intervertebral Discs;

B. Appendicular Skeleton: consists of girdles & attached limbs;

1) Girdles: bones which “attach” limbs to Axial Skeleton;

a) Pectoral Girdles: formed by Scapulae & Clavicles; “attach” arms;

b) Pelvic Girdles: formed by Coxal (hip) Bones; “attach” legs;

2) Limbs: bones of Arms & Legs;

a) Arms: upper limbs (extremities);

b) Legs: lower limbs (extremities);

X Axial Skeleton: part of skeleton around center of gravity, i.e., along longitudinal
(long) axis of body; includes skull, vertebral column, ribs & sternum;

A. Skull Generally: made of different types of bones;

1) Cranial Bones: form cranium (bones enclosing brain); e.g., frontal, parietal,
temporal, occipital, sphenoid & ethmoid bones;

2) Facial Bones: form face; e.g., maxillary (upper jaw & hard palate), palatine
(hard palate), zygomatic, lacrimal, nasal bones, vomer & inferior nasal
conchae bones;

3) Mandible: forms lower jaw;

B. Some Cranial Bones of Skull: bones that form the cranium (cranial cavity),
the cavity containing & protecting the brain; include:

1. Frontal Bone (1): upper, front bone of skull (“forehead”);

a) Frontal Sinus: air-fill cavity (space) within Frontal bone

--Sinus: air-fill cavity (space) within a bone

2. Parietal Bones (2): upper rear bones of skull (“top of head”)

a) Coronal Suture: joint between Frontal bone & Parietal bones

Note: the coronal suture roughly runs along a frontal/coronal plane.

--Suture: an interlocking, immovable joint between cranial bones

b) Sagittal Suture: joint between parietal bones

Note: the sagittal suture roughly runs along the midsagittal plane.

3. Occipital Bone (1): bone at rear, base of skull

a) Lambdoidal Suture: joint between occipital bone & parietal bones

Note: the lambdoidal suture is named for the Greek letter “lambda”
(shaped like an invert “Y”); the lambdoidal suture represents the 2
lower legs of the lambda, and the upper body/bar of the lambda is
completed by the sagittal suture.
 b) Foramen Magnum: opening, allows emergence of the spinal cord
from skull; largest foramen in skull (though not in the body)

--Foramen: round or oval opening through bone for passage of

blood vessel, nerve or both

4. Temporal Bones (2): bones on sides of skull

a) External Auditory Meatus: forms outer ear canal

--Meatus: canal running through bone

b) Mastoid Process: thick, rounded enlargement, site of muscle

attachment (for movement of head)

--Process: bony prominence; site of muscle attachment or

articulation of bones (a bony projection off of a bone)

c) Styloid Process: pointed projection enlargement, site muscle

attachment (for movement of tongue)

d) Zygomatic Process: forms posterior/rear of Zygomatic Arch

(1) Zygomatic Arch: bar of bone formed by the articulation

(joint between) the zygomatic process (of temporal b.) & the
temporal process (of zygomatic b.); site of muscle
attachment;

--Articulation: formation of a joint between bones

Note: the zygomatic arch is form by the joint between 2 bones; it

does not exist in its entirety on a single bone.

e) Mandibular Fossa: forms Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ) w/

mandibular condyle of mandible

Note: the Mandibular Fossa allows lower jaw to pivot open & closed.

--Fossa: shallow depression in bone

 5. Ethmoid Bone (1): forms roof of nasal cavity

a) Perpendicular Plate: forms superior/upper part of Nasal Septum

(1) Nasal Septum: divides nasal cavity into left & right parts;

--Septum: a wall or barrier

C. Some Facial Bones of Skull: bones that form the face; include:

1. Maxillary Bone (2 fused bones): forms upper jaw

a) Palatine Process: forms anterior/front of Hard Palate (roof of the

mouth)

2. Zygomatic Bones (2): (cheek bones)

a) Temporal Process: forms anterior/front of Zygomatic Arch

3. Palatine Bones (2) (forms posterior/back of Hard Palate)

4. Vomer (1) (forms inferior/lower part of Nasal Septum)

D. Mandible of Skull: forms lower jaw (may be considered a facial bone)

1. Ramus: bar of bone, branching into the Condylar & Coronoid Processes

--Ramus: bar of bone

2. Condylar Process: forms Temporomandibular Joint w/ Mandibular Fossa

(of Temporal B.)

--Condyle: rounded, articular projection

3. Mental Foramen: rounded openings on chin allowing passage of nerve &

Blood (see Intro note packet on body regions);

--Mental: reference to the region of the “chin”

E. Hyoid Bone (1): not attached to axial skeleton; site of muscle attachment (for
movement of the tongue);
F. Vertebral Column: spinal column (backbone); encloses & protects spinal cord;

1) Vertebrae: bones of vertebral column; each individual bone is a vertebra;

Note: the vertebral column forms 5 regions, each region containing vertebrae
named for the region and designated by the region’s first letter, capitalized,
or, first letter capitalized & second in lower case (in case of the Coccyx),
followed by a range of numbers (in subscript) designating the number of
vertebrae in the region, from first to last (see Intro note packet on body
regions).

a) Cervical Vertebrae (C1-C7): 7 bones of neck;

b) Thoracic Vertebrae (T1-T12): 12 bones of chest; articulate with ribs;

c) Lumbar Vertebrae (L1-L5): 5 bones of lower back;

d) Sacrum (S1-S5): 5 fused vertebrae between hip bones;

e) Coccyx (Co1-Co4): “tail bone”; 4 fused vertebrae at bottom of sacrum;

Note: the Coccyx is our vestigial tail, which we share with other
mammals; it is often referred to as the “tail bone”);

2) Spinal Canal: opening formed by articulated (joined) vertebrae that allows

Passage & protection of spinal cord;

Note: each vertebra has a spinal foramen, which, taken together, form the
spinal canal.

3) Intervertebral Disks: fluid-filled fibrocartilage pads between vertebrae;

cushion vertebrae & form joint between them, giving flexibility to vertebral
column; drying & compression with age results in loss of height (and
flexibility);

a) Herniated Discs: bulging disc which may impinge on nerves; often caused
by automobile accidents, but may occur even by sneezing;

G. Ribs: 12 pairs of bones (total of 24) that attach to thoracic vertebrae, forming
the rib cage (with the Sternum & Costal Cartilages); protects organs in thoracic
cavity, including heart & lungs;

1) True Ribs: upper 7 pairs of ribs; each articulates with (attaches directly to)
the sternum by its own costal cartilage;
 2) False Ribs: next 3 pairs of ribs; each articulates (attaches indirectly to)
the sternum by “sharing” the costal cartilage of the true ribs;

3) Floating Ribs: lowest 2 pairs of ribs; do not articulate with (attached to)
sternum;

4) Costal Cartilages: cartilage at tips of most ribs; articulate with (attach to) the
sternum of rib cage;

H. Sternum: “breast bone”; attaches to true & false ribs, completing rib cage;

I. Some Disorders:

1) Scoliosis (“Twisted Disease”): Abnormal curvature of the spine to left or

right;

2) Intervertebral Disk Problems:

a) Compressed Disk: drying & compression with age results in loss of

height (and flexibility);

b) Herniated Disc: bulging disk; too much pressure on vertebral column

may make disk bulge outward between vertebrae against a spinal nerve,
causing great pain, e.g., sciatica; or bulge inward against spinal cord,
interfering with muscle control & perception of incoming stimuli;

3) Lower Back Pain: possible weak abdominal muscles may not counteract pull
of back muscles, causing vertebrae to misalign;

4) Spinal Stenosis: narrowing of spinal canal (within vertebral column) may

compress spinal cord, affecting muscles & stimuli;

5) Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ) Syndrome: clenching or grinding of

teeth from emotional stress causes physical stress on joint between mandible
(lower) jaw & temporal bone (mandibular fossa) of skull; causes headaches,
toothaches & ear aches;
X Appendicular Skeleton: girdles & attached limbs; allows change in position and
location;

A. Girdles: bones that “attach” (mediate between) limbs to axial skeleton;

1) Pectoral Girdles: “attach” arms to axial skeleton;

a) Scapulae: “shoulder blades”;

(1) Glenoid Cavity: fossa (depression), site of arm attachment

(articulates with the head of the Humerus, bone of upper arm);

b) Clavicles: “collar bones”;

2) Pelvic Girdle: “attach” legs to axial skeleton;

a) Coxal (Pelvic) Bones: forms bony pelvis; attached to sacrum (of

vertebral column), forming sacroiliac joint;

(1) Formed From 3 Fused Bones:

(a) Ilium: upper bone;

(b) Ischium: lower rear bone;

(c) Pubis: front bone;

(2) Form Acetabulum: large fossa (depression, formed by the 3

bones), site of leg attachment (articulates with the head of the
Femur, bone of upper leg);

b) Public Symphasis: cartilage disk that forms anterior joint between 2

pelvic bones;

c) Obturator Foramen: foramen (opening, formed by the 3 bones),

largest foramen in the body;

d) Sacroiliac Joint: joints between coxal bones & sacrum (of vertebral
column);
B. Limbs: arms (including wrists & hands) & legs (including ankles & feet);

1) Arms: upper limbs;

a) Humerus: arm (upper arm, i.e, brachium) bone;

b) Ulna: medial bone of forearm (lower arm, i.e., antebrachium);

c) Radius: lateral bone of forearm (lower arm, i.e., antebrachium);

d) Carpals Bones (8/hand): wrist bones;

e) Metacarpal Bones (5/hand): palm bones;

f) Phalanges (14/hand): finger bones; each finger has 3 phalanges,

except the thumb, which has 2;

Note: the bones of both the fingers and toes are named “phalanges”;
a single bone of the finger or toes is called a phalanx.

2) Legs: lower limbs;

a) Femur: “thigh bone”, i.e., bone of upper leg;

b) Tibia: medial bone of lower leg;

c) Fibula: lateral bone of lower leg;

c) Patella: kneecap;

d) Tarsal Bones (7/foot): ankle & heel bones

(1) Talas: ankle bone;

(2) Calcaneus: heel bone;

e) Metatarsal Bones (5/foot): foot bones (instep);

f) Phalanges (14/foot): toe bones; each toe has 3 phalanges,

except the big toe, which has 2;

Note: the bones of both the fingers and toes are named “phalanges”;
a single bone of the finger or toes is called a phalanx.
XI Synovial Joints: freely moveable joints of body that permit flexibility;

A. Common Features:

1) Thin Layer of Hyaline Cartilage: lines surfaces of bones of joints that move
past one another; reduces friction, allows bones to slide without grating or
grinding;

2) Two-Layered Joint Capsule: surrounds joints;

a) Inner Layer: secretes viscous synovial fluid into synovial cavity

(space between the bones), lubricating & cushioning joint;

b) Outer Layer: continuous with covering membranes of bones forming

joint;

3) Ligaments: connective tissue that holds bones together; reinforce joint &
direct movement of bones;

Note: ligaments attach bones to bones.

B. Types of Synovial Joints:

1) Hinge Joints: permit motion in only one plane, like hinge on a door;

a) Elbow;

b) Knee;

2) Ball-and-Socket Joints: allow movement in all planes;

a) Shoulder;

b) Hip;

c) Neck;
C. Some Types of Movement:

1) Flexion: motion that decreases angle between bones of joint, brings bones
closer together, e.g., bending elbow or knee; (opposite of extension);

Note: e.g., think of moving the forearm up to the upper arm.

a) Plantar Flexion: ankle movement that brings foot further from shin
(front of lower leg); e.g., pointing toes downward, standing on toes;

b) Dorsiflexion: ankle movement that brings foot closer to shin (front of

lower leg); e.g., standing on heels;

2) Extension: motion that increases angle between bones of joint, brings bones
farther apart, e.g., straightening elbow or knee; (opposite of flexion);

3) Abduction: movement of body part away from body midline; e.g.,

movement of leg or arm away from side of body; (opposite of adduction);

4) Adduction: movement of body part toward body midline; e.g., movement of

leg or arm toward side of body; (opposite of abduction);

Note: as a memory device distinguishing abduction & adduction, think of

adduction as bringing the arm closer to midline, adding mass to body (it’s
really not).

5) Rotation: movement of body part around its own axis; e.g., turning of head to
left or right (shaking head “no”);

6) Circumduction: a form of rotation; movement of body part in wide circle,

around fixed point, so motion describes a cone or arc; e.g., movement of arm
around shoulder or leg around hip;

7) Pronation: rotation of forearm so palm faces backward or downward;

8) Supination: rotation of forearm so palm faces forward or upward;

D. Arthritis: many different diseases; involve joint inflammation;

1) Osteoarthritis: “wear and tear arthritis”; degeneration of surfaces of a

joint, caused by wear & friction over time; cartilage at ends of bones forming
joint disintegrates, causing bones to come into contact & grind against each
other, resulting in intense pain & stiffness; most likely to occur at weight-
bearing joints, e.g., hips, knees, spine; also at finger joints & wrists;

a) Treatment: new medications Celebrex & Vioxx; old medications

Ibuprofen (e.g., Motrin, Advil) & Naproxen (e.g., Aleve); inhibit
prostaglandins, hormone-like substances that trigger inflammation;
newer drugs no more effective, but gentler to digestive system;

2) Rheumatoid Arthritis: autoimmune disease; involves inflammation of

synovial membrane, causing excess fluid accumulation in joint, resulting in
swelling, pain & stiffness, & leading to deterioration of cartilage, which is
replace by fibrous connective tissue that further impede joint movement;

a) Apparent Autoimmune Disease: immune response to synovial

membranes; affects fingers, wrists, knees, neck, ankles & hips;
permanent condition;

Note: an autoimmune disease is one in which the immune system

mistakes part of the body as a foreign invader and reacts against it.

b) Treatment: replacement of joint with artificial joint.