UNIT- II

PART-B

BJT-Structure, Operation & Characteristics

1. Explain about the transistor (BJT) operation.

Structure:

Symbol:

Two-diode transistor analogy

Applying external voltage to a transistor is called biasing. In order to operate transistor properly as an
amplifier, it is necessary to correctly bias the two PN junctions with external voltages. Depending upon
external bias voltage polarities used, the transistor works in one of the three regions.

1. Active region 2. Cut-off region 3. Saturation region

8
 S. No. Region Emitter Base Collector Base Operation of a transistor
1 Active Forward biased Reverse biased Acts as an amplifier
2 Cut off Reverse biased Reverse biased Acts as an open switch
3 Saturation Forward biased Forward biased Acts as a closed switch

To bias the transistor in its active region the emitter base junction is forward biased, while the collector-
base junction in reverse-biased as shown in Fig. The Fig. shows the circuit connections for active region
for both NPN and PNP transistors.

Operation of NPN transistor:

As shown in fig. the forward bias applied to the emitter base junction of an NPN transistor causes
a lot of electrons from the emitter region to cross over to the base region. As the base is lightly doped
with P-type impurity, the number of holes in the base region is very small and hence the number of
electrons that combine with holes in the P – type base region is also very small. Hence a few electrons
combine with holes to constitute a base current IB. The remaining electrons (more than 95%) crossover
into the collector region to constitute a collector current IC. Thus the base and collector current summed
up give the emitter current i.e. IE=-(IC+IB).

Fig. Current in NPN transistor

In the external circuit of the NPN bipolar junction transistor, the magnitudes of the emitter current IE, the
base current IB and the collector current IC are related by IE=IC+IB.

Operation of PNP transistor:

As shown in fig. the forward bias applied to the emitter – base junction of a PNP transistor causes
a lot of hoses from the emitter regions to cross over to the base region as the base is lightly doped with N-
type impurity. The number of electrons in the base regions is very small and hence the number of holes
combined with electrons in the N – type base region is also very small. Hence a few holes combined with
electrons to constitute a base current IB.

9
 Fig. Current in PNP transistor

The remaining holes (more than 95%) cross over into the collector region to constitute a collector
current IC. Thus, the collector and base current when summed up gives the emitter current.

i.e. IE= - (IC+IB).

In the external circuit of the PNP bipolar junction transistor, the magnitudes of the emitter current
IE, the base current IB and the collector current IC are related by

IE=IC+IB

The equation gives the fundamental relationship between the currents in a bipolar transistor
circuit. Also, this fundamental equation shows that there are current amplification factors  and  in
common base transistor configuration and common emitter transistor configuration respectively for the
static (d.c) currents, and for small changes in the currents.

Large – signal current gain (). The large signal current gain of a common base transistor is
defined as the ratio of the negative of the collector – current increment to the emitter – current change
from cut off (IE=0) to IE,i.e.

 =−
(Ic −ICBO )
IE − 0

where ICBO (or ICO) is the reverse saturation current flowing through the reverse biased collector –
base junction. i.e. the collector to base leakage current with emitter open. As the magnitude of ICBO is
negligible when compared to IE, the above expression can be written as
IC
=
IE

Since IC and IE are flowing in opposite directions,  is always positive. Typical value of  ranges
from 0.90 to 0.995. Also,  is not a constant but varies with emitter current IE, collector voltage VCB and
the temperature.

10
2. (a) Explain various characteristics of BJT in Common Base configuration with neat
diagram.

Common Base Configuration (CB configuration):

This configuration is also called the grounded base configuration. In this case the
input is connected between emitter and base while the output is taken across the collector and base. Thus
the base of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name, common base
configuration. The common base circuit arrangement for NPN transistors is shown in Fig.

Current Amplification Factor (α):

The current amplification factor is defined as the ratio of changes in Collector current (∆IC) to the change
in emitter current (∆IE) when the collector to base voltage (VCB) is maintained at a constant value.
α=(∆IC)/ (∆IE) (at constant VCB)

The value of α is always less than unity. The practical value of transistors lie between 0.95 and 0.99.

Characteristics of Common Base Configuration:

The circuit arrangement for determining the characteristics of a common base NPN transistors is shown in
Fig.In this circuit, the collector to base voltage (VCB) can be
varied by adjusting the potentiometer R2. The emitter to base voltage (VEB) can be varied by adjusting the
potentiometer Rl. The DC voltmeters and DC milliammeters are connected in the emitter and collector
circuits to measure the voltages and currents.

a). Input Characteristics:

The curve plotted between the emitter current (IE) and the emitter to base voltage (VEB) at constant
collector to base voltage (VCB) are known as input characteristics of a transistor in common base
configuration.

11
 Input Resistance (Ri):

It is the ratio of change in emitter to base voltage (∆VEB) to the corresponding change in emitter
current (∆IE) for a constant collector to base voltage (VCB).

b). Output Characteristics:

The curve plotted between the collector current (IC) and the collector to base voltage
(VCB) at constant emitter current (IE) are known as output characteristics of a transistor is common base
configuration.

The output characteristics are as shown in Fig. and it can be divided into three
important regions namely (i) Saturation region (ii) Active region (iii) Cut-off region.

(i). Saturation Region:

In this region, collector to base voltage (VCB) is negative for a NPN transistor. A small change in
collector to base voltage (VCB) results in a large valve of collector current.

(ii). Active Region:

In this region the collector current (IC) is almost equal to the emitter current (IE). The
transistor is always operated in this region. In the active region, the curves are almost flat. A very
large change in VCB produces only a very small change in IC. It means that the circuit has very high
output resistance about 500 K Ω.

(iii). Cut-off Region:

It is the region along the X-axis as shown by shaded or dotted portion. This corresponds to the curve
marked IE=0. In the cut-off region both the junctions of a
Transistor are reverse biased. A small collector current flows even when the emitter
Current (IE) is equal to zero.
If the collector to base voltage (VCB) is increased beyond a certain large value, the
collector current (IC) increases rapidly due to avalanche breakdown and the transistor
action is lost. This region is called breakdown region.

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(b) For a transistor connected in CE configuration, sketch the typical output and input
characteristics and explain the shape of characteristics.

Common Emitter Configuration (CE Configuration):

This configuration is also called the grounded emitter configuration. In this case the
input is connected between base and emitter, while the output is taken across the collector and emitter.
Thus emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name, common
emitter configuration. The common emitter arrangement for NPN transistor is as shown in Fig.

Base Current Amplification Factor (β):

The base current amplification factor is defined as the ratio of change in collector
current (∆IC) to the change in emitter current (∆IE) when the collector to emitter voltage(VCE) is
maintained at a constant value.

The value of β is always greater then unity. Practical value of β in commercial

transistors lie between 20 to 500.

Characteristics of common Emitter configuration:

The circuit arrangement for determining the characteristics of a common emitter NPN transistor is shown
inFig.In this circuit, the collector to emitter voltage (VEC) can be varied by adjusting the potentiometer R2.
The base to emitter voltage (VBE) can be varied by adjusting the potentiometer R1. The DC voltmeters and
milliammeters are connected in the base and collector circuits to measure the voltages and currents.

1. Input Characteristics:

The curve plotted between the base current (IB) and the base to emitter voltage (VBE) at constant
collector to emitter voltage (VCE) at constant collector to emitter voltage (VCE )are known as input
characteristics of a transistor in common emitter configuration.
13
Input Resistance (Ri): It is the ratio of change in base to emitter voltage (VBE) to the
Corresponding change in base current (∆IB) for a constant collector to emitter voltage
(vCE).

When the collector to emitter voltage (VCE) is increased, the value of base current (IB) decreased slightly
as shown in Fig.

2. Output Characteristics:

The curves plotter between the collector current (IC) and the collector to emitter
Voltage (VCE) at constant base current (IB) is known as output characteristic of a
transistor in common emitter configuration.
The output characteristic may be divided into three important regions namely
saturation region, active region, and cut-off region.

(i) Saturation Region:

In this region (shown by dotted area) a small change in collector to emitter voltage
(VCE) results in a large value of collector current.

(ii) Active Region:

It is the region between saturation and cut-off region. In this region the curves are almost flat. When the collector to
emitter voltage (VCE) is increased. Further, the collector current I. slightly increases. The slope of the curve is little
bit more than the output characteristics of common base configuration. Therefore, the output resistance (Ro) of this
configuration is less as compared to common base configuration.

(iii) Cut-off Region:

It is the region along the X-axis is shown by shaded area. This corresponds to the curve marked IB = 0. In the cut-
off region both the junctions of a transistor are reverse biased. A small collector current flows even when the base
current (IB) is equal to zero. It is the reverse leakage current (ICEo)that flows in the collector circuit.

If the collector to emitter voltage (VCE) is increased beyond a certain large collector current (IC) increases rapidly
due to avalanche breakdown and the action is lost. This region is called breakdown region.
14
(c) Explain various characteristics of BJT in Common Collector configuration with
neat diagram.
Common collector configuration (CC configuration):

This configuration is also called the grounded collector configuration' In this case the input is common
between base and Collector. While the output is taken across the emitter and collector. Thus the collector
of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name common collector
configuration. The common collector circuit arrangement for NPN transistor as shown in Fig.

Current Amplification Factor (γ):

The current amplification is defined as the ratio of change in emitter current (∆IE) to
the change in base current (∆IB). It is generally denoted by γ.

The value of γ is nearly equal to β.

Characteristics of common Collector configuration:

The circuit arrangement for determining the characteristics of a common collector
NPN transistor is shown in Fig. In this circuit, the emitter to collector voltage (VEC)
can be varied by adjusting the potentiometer R2. The base to collector voltage (VBC) can be varied by
adjusting the potentiometer R1. The DC voltmeter and millimeters are connected in the base and emitter
circuits to measure the voltages and currents.

1. Input Characteristics:

The curves plotted between the base current (IB) and the base to collector voltage (VBC) at
constant emitter to collector voltage (VEC) are known as input characteristics of a transistor in
common collector configuration.

15
2. Output Characteristics:

The curves plotted between the emitter current (IE) and the emitter to collector voltage (VEC) at
constant base current (IB) are known as output characteristics of a transistor is common collector
configuration.

16
 MOSFET- Structure, Operation & Characteristics

6. With neat diagram explain the construction & working of depletion MOSFET and enhancement
MOSFET with its necessary characteristics curve. (Nov/Dec 2018 R-13) (May/June 2016) (Apr/May 2018)
OR
Brief about the construction and operation of n-channel depletion type MOSFET with a neat
diagram. Enumerate the characteristics of depletion type MOSFET with a suitable graph.
(April/May 2019-R17)

Depletion MOSFET:
• The construction of an N-channel depletion MOSFET is shown in fig. If consists of a lightly
doped p-type substrate in which two highly doped n-regions are diffused. The two heavily doped n-
regions act as the source and drain. A lightly doped n-type channel is introduced between the two
heavily doped source and drain. A thin layer of (1µm thick) silicon dioxide is coated on the surface.
Holes are cut in the oxide layer to make contact with n-regions due to sio2 layer the gate is completely
insulated from the channel. This permits operation with gate source or gate channel voltages above and
below zero. In addition the insulated layer of sio2 accounts for very high input impedance of MOSFET.
In some MOSFETS the p-type substrate is internally connected to source, whereas in many discrete
devices an additional terminal is provided for substrate labeled SS.

21
 SS substrate
Basic operation:
In fig a voltage VDS is applied between the drain and source terminals and the gate to source
voltage is set to zer. As a result, current is established from drain to source (conventional direction)
similar to JFET like in JFET, the satuarated drain current IDSS flow during pinch-off and it is labeled as
IDSS.

If a negative voltage is applied to gate with repeat to source. These holes recombine with electrons
and reduce the number of free electrons in the n-channel available for conduction. The more negative the
bias, lesser the number of free electrons in the channel. Since the negative voltage on the gate deplete
channel, the device is referred to as depletion MOSFET. The depletion mode of operation is similar to
JFET operation. When sufficient negative voltage is applied to gate the channel may be completely cut
off and the corresponding VGS is called (VGS (OFF)).
If a positive voltage is applied to gate with respect to source then the electrons are induced in the
channel. The induced electrons constitute additional current from source to drain. If we increase VGS
more in positive direction more number of electrons is induced and hence the drain current increases.

22
That is, the application of a positive gate –to –source voltage has enhanced the number of charge carriers
compared to that of when VGS=0v. For this reason the mode in which the MOSFET. Operates for positive
values of gate-to-source voltage is known as enhancement mode.

It is a plot of drain current versus drain source voltage for various value of gate-source voltage. The drain
characteristics of depletion MOSFET is shown ii fig. Note that for negative of VGS the characteristics of
depletion MOSFET is similar to those N-channel JFET. If the gate is made positive additional carrier are
introduced in the channel and the channel conductivity increases. Therefore the depletion MOSFET
consists of two regions of operation
.
The transfer characteristics of deletion MOSFET is shown in fig. The general shape of the transfer
characteristics is similar to those for the JFET. However the deletion MOSFET can be operated with
VGS>0. As a result IDSS is not maximum drain current as it is for JFET. The equation fior transfer
characteristics curve of depletion MOSFET is same as that of JFET.

The three circuit symbols for n-channel MOSFET and p-channel MOSFET are shown in fig.

Symbol of N-channel and P-channel MOSFET’S

23
N-channel enhancement MOSFET (May/June-2013), (May/June2016), (Nov/Dec2015) (May
2017) (Apr/May 2018)
• The construction of n-channel enhancement MOSFET is shown in fig. like depletion MOSFET it also
consists of a p-type substrate and two heavily doped n-regions that act as source and drain. The sio2 layer is present
to isolate the gate from the region between the drain and source. The source and drain terminals are connected
through metallic contacts to n-doped regions. But the enhancement MOSFET does not contain diffused channel
MOSFET does not contain diffused channel between the source and drain

When the drain is made positive with repeat to source and no potential is applied to gate due to absence of the
channel, a small drain current (ie., a reverse leakage current) flows. The we apply a positive voltage to that gate
with respect to source and substrate, negative charge carriers are induced in the substrate the negative charge
carriers which are minority carriers in the p-type substrate form an “inversion layer”. As the gate potential is
increased more and more negative charge carriers are induced. There negative carriers that are accumulated
between source and drain current flows from source to drain through the induced channel. The magnetized of the
drain current depends on the gate potential. Since the conduction of the channel is enhanced by the positive bias
voltage on the gate the device known as enhancement MOSFET.

Drain characteristics :
The drain characteristics of enhancement MOSFET is shown in fig.
The current IDSS for VGS=0 is very small of the order of nano amperes shown in fig. Note that
the drain current increases with positive increases with positive increase in gate source have voltage.

24
Transfer characteristics:

The n-channel enhancement MOSFET requires a positive gate to source voltage for its operation fig shows
the general transfer characteristics of an n-channel MOSFET. Since the drain current is zero for VGS=0, the IDSS
is zero for this device. As VGS is made positive the current ID increases slowly at first and then more rapidly with
an increase in VGS. The gate source voltage at which there is significant increase in drain current is called the
threshold voltage and is referred to as VT or VGS the equation for the transfer characteristics of enhancement
MOSFET differs as the curve states at VGS(th) rather than at VGS. The equation for transfer characteristics is
𝐼𝐷=K(𝑉𝐺𝑆−𝑉𝐺𝑆(𝑡ℎ))2

25
(B) Draw the circuit of CE amplifier with DC sources eliminated and deduce the small signal model for
amplifier operation. (April/May 2019) (8 Marks) (OR) Approximate analysis of CE amplifier using
simplified Hybrid Model.

Analysis of CE Amplifier using simplified Hybrid Model:

Fig. Simplified CE model

Fig. Approximate CE model

IL
Current gain [AI] AI =
Ib
−IC
AI = = −hfe
Ib
Vb
𝐈𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 (Ri)Ri =
Ib
Ri = hie
Voltage gain (𝐀 ) A = Vc
=
AIIbRL
⸫
Ib
=
1
𝐕 V Vb Vb Vb Ri

AIRL
AV = R
i

Output admittance (𝐘𝐨)Yo = 0

Ro =1/Y= ∞

12
 3. (A) Derive the expressions for current gain, voltage gain, input impedance and output impedance
for an Emitter Follower (common collector) circuit.
Circuit diagram

h parameter equivalent circuit

Current gain (A ) A = IL = −Ie

I I Ib Ib
Apply KCL
Ie = hfcIb + hocVe = hfcIb + hoc(−IeRL) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, Ve = −IeRL)
I +I R h = h I ; I (1 + h R ) = h I ; Ie = hfc
e e L oc fc b e oc L fc b
Ib 1 + hocRL
Ie −IL −hfc
Ai = = =
Ib Ib
1 + hocRL
Vb
𝐈𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 (𝐑𝐢)Ri =
Ib
Apply KVL
Vb = hicIb + hrcVe( Ve = −IeRL)
−Ie
Ve = AIIbRL {AI = Ib
}

Now
hicIb+hre(AIIbRL)
Ri = ; Ri = hic + hre AIRL
Ib
h R −h𝐹c
Ri = hic − hrc ( 𝐹c L
) {AI = }
1+hocRL 1+hocRL

13
 e V
Voltage gain (AV ) AV = V {∵ Ve = −IeR L; Ie = AIIb; Vb = Ib R𝑖}
b
Ib 1
AV =
AIIbRL
⥤
AIIbRL {∵ = }
Vb IbR𝑖 Vb Ri

AIRL
AV = R
𝑖
I2
Output admittance (𝐘 ) Y = with V = 0
𝟎 0 V2 s

Ie
𝑌𝑂 = with Vs = 0
Ve
Ie = hfc Ib + hoc Ve
Ie hfcIb
Dividing the above equation by Ve , = + hoc − − − (1)
Ve Ve
From circuit Vs = 0
Apply KVL
RSIb + hic Ib + hrc Ve = 0
(RS + hic)Ib = −hrc Ve
Ib −hrc
= − − − (2)
Ve Rs + hic
Sub equation (2) in (1)
Ie = h (−hrc ) + h
fc
Ve Rs + hic oc

Ie hfc hrc 1
yo = = hoc − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ro =
Ve R s + hic yo
 4. Derive the expression for 𝐀𝐢, 𝐀𝐯, 𝐑𝐜 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐑𝐨 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐂𝐁 amplifier using h parameter model. (April/May
2016)

Circuit diagram

h parameter model

Current gain (𝐀 ) A = IL = −Ic

𝐈 I Ie Ie

Ic = hfbIe + hob Vc
hfbIe + hob(−IcRL) ∴ Vc = −IcRL
Ic + hob IcRL = hfbIe
(1 + hob RL) Ic = hfbIe
Ic hfb −IL hfb
AI = = − ⥤ =−
Ie 1 + hob RL Ie 1 + hob RL
Ve
𝐈𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐑𝐢 Ri =
Ie
Ve = hibIe + hrb Vc
Vc = −RLIc
= AIIeRL
Ve hibIe + hrbAIIeRL
Ri = =
Ie Ie
Ri = hib + hrbAIRL
Voltage gain (𝐀 ) A = Vc = AIIeRL
𝐕 V Ve Ve

16
 AI RL Ie 1
= ⃒ =
Rc Ve Ri
Ic
Output admittance(𝐘 ) Y = with V = 0
𝟎 0 Vc s

Ic = hfbIe + hob Vc
Ic h I
÷ V = fb e + h − − − (1)
c ob
Vc Vc
When Vs = 0
RsIe + hib Ie + hrbVc = 0
(Rs + hib) Ie = −hrbVc
Ie hrb
=− − − − (2)
Vc Rs + hib
Sub (2) in (1)
Ic = h ( −hrb )+h
fb
Vc Rs + hib ob

Ic hfb. hrb
y0 = = hob −
Vc R s + hib
1
Ro =
y0
 MOSFET-Small Signal Model

8. Draw and explain the small signal model of MOSFET.

To operate as an small signal amplifier,we bias the MOSFET in saturation region.

• The DC bias Point

• The signal current in the drain
• The voltage gain

The DC bias Point: ID - ½ Kn'(W /L) (VGS – Vt)2

VD = VDD - IDRD
VD ≫VGS - Vt
The required signal depends on VD, which is sufficiently greater than (VGS - Vt).

The Voltage Gain:

VD = VDD – ID RD

VD = VDD – (ID + id)RD

VD = VDD – IDRD - id RD

Vd=- id RD = - gm vgs RD

Av= Vd / Vgs = - gm RD

In the small signal analysis, signal are superimposed on the DC quantities,

The drain current, iD = ID + id .

The AC drain current id is related to vgs is so called transistor Trans conductance (gm).

22
 gm≡ id / vgs =½ Kn'(W /L) (VGS – Vt)[ S]

Sometimes expressed in terms of the overdrive voltage, VOV = VGS – Vt

gm= Kn'(W /L) VOV [S]

This gm depends on the bias. The Trans conductance gm equals the slope of iD- vgs characteristic.
Similarly drain voltage, VD = VD + Vd

In saturation mode, MOSFET acts a voltage controlled current source, The control voltage Vgs and output current
iD give rise to small signal Π-model.

For Operation in the saturation region VGD ≤Vt ==>VGS – VDS ≤ Vt

Where the total drain to source voltage is VDS = VDS + vd

• ig =0 and vgs→ infinite input resistance

• r0 models the finite output resistance in the range from ≈ 10KΩ to 1MΩ and depends on bias current ID.
gm= Kn'(W /L) (VGS – Vt)
it can be, gm = ID / (VGS - Vt)/2
Similar to gm = IC / VT for BJT. Hence the bias current gmis much larger for than for MOSFET.

MOSFET have these advantages over BJT:

✓ High input resistance.
✓ Small physical size.
✓ Low power dissipation.
✓ Relative ease of fabrication.

Becomes amplifiers combines the advantages of BJT and MOSFET, They provide very large input resistance
from MOSFET and a large output impedance from the BJT.

23
 BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor)

1. What is transistor (BJT)? What are the types of circuit connections known as configurations, for operating a
transistor?
Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal device: Base (B), Emitter (E) & Collector (C).
Transistor can be operated in three configurations Common Base (CB), Common Emitter (CE) & Common
Collector (CC).
According to configuration it can be used for voltage as well as current amplification.

2. Brief the types of transistors?

1. UJT (Unipolar Junction Transistor): In unipolar transistor, the current conduction is only due to one type
of charge carriers (majority carriers).
2. BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor): In bipolar transistor, the current conduction is only due to both the
types of charge carriers (Holes and Electrons).

3. Why an ordinary transistor is called bipolar?

Because the transistor operation is carried out by two types charge carriers (both majority and minority
carriers).

4. What are the types of BJT?

Types of BJT:
1. NPN
2. PNP

5. Brief the construction of BJT. Draw the symbol and structure and of BJT.
BJT is a three- layer semiconductor device consisting of two PN junctions.
If a layer of P-type material is sandwiched between two layers of N-type the transistor is known as NPN
transistor.

Fig. Symbol of BJT (NPN type) Fig. Structure of BJT (NPN type)

On the other hand, if a layer of N-type material is sandwiched between two layers of P-type, the transistor is known
as PNP transistor.

Fig. Symbol of BJT (PNP type) Fig. Structure of BJT (PNP type)

6. Why collector is made larger than emitter and base?

Collector is made physically larger than emitter and base because collector is to dissipate much power.

7. Why the width of the base region of a transistor is kept very Small as compared to other regions?
Base region of a transistor is kept very small and lightly doped so as to pass most of the injected charge
carriers to the collector.
1
8. How transistor is used as an amplifier? (OR) Explain the word transistor.
The amplification in the transistor is achieved by passing input current signal from a region of low resistance to a
region of high resistance.
{This concept of transfer of resistance has given the TRANSfer-resISTOR (TRANSISTOR)}

9. Why silicon is preferred to germanium while manufacturing semiconductor devices?

As the knee voltage of silicon is higher (0.7V) than the knee voltage of germanium (0.3V), silicon will be more
stable for temperature variation than germanium.

10. Why transistor (BJT) is called current controlled device?

The output voltage, current or power is controlled by the input current in a transistor. So, it is called the Current
Controlled device.

11. State the advantages of a transistor.

1. Low operating voltage
2. Higher efficiency
3. Small size and ruggedness
4. 4. Does not require any filament power

12. Compare the performance of a transistor in three different configurations. (Nov/Dec 2012) (OR) Compare
the input resistance, output resistance and voltage gain of CB, CC and CE configuration. (OR) Compare the
performance of CE and CC configuration. (May 2017)

Property CB CE CC
Input resistance Low (about 100) Moderate (about 750 ) High (about 750 k)
Output resistance High (about 450 ) Moderate (about 45 ) Low (about 25)
Current gain 1 High High
Voltage gain About 150 About 500 Less than 1
Phase shift 0 or 360o 180o 0 or 360o
Between input & output For high frequency For audio frequency For impedance matching
voltages Applications circuits circuits

13. Define Early effect? (Nov/Dec 2016)

As the collector voltage VCC is made to increase the reverse bias, the space charge width between collector and
base tends to increase, with the result that the effective width of the base decreases. This known as early effect or
base width modulation.

14. What is peak point Voltage?

When VEE exceeds the value (VD+ɳVBB), the diode is forward biased and starts to conduct. The value of emitter
voltage which makes diode to conduct is called Peak Point Voltage.
Vp=(VD+ɳVBB)

JFET (Junction Field EffectnTransistor)

15. What are the different types of FET?

Types of FET:
1. Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
2. Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)

16. Draw the symbol and structure of JFET.

Fig. Structure and for n-channel JFET Fig. Structure and for p-channel JFET
2
17. What are the features of JFET?
a) The operation of JFET depends upon the flow of majority carriers only.
b) The input impedance of JFET is very high, in the order of MΩ.
c) The JFET is less noisy than BJT.
d) It exhibits no offset voltage at zero drain current.
e) It is simple to fabricate.
F) It occupies less space in an integrated circuit.

18. Draw the transfer and drain characteristics curves of JFET? (May / June 2016)

Drain Characteristics:
Transfer Characteristics:

Fig. Drain VI characteristics of n-channel JFET

Fig. Transfer characteristics of n-channel JFET

Drain Characteristics: Transfer Characteristics:

Fig. Drain VI characteristics of p-channel JFET

Fig. Transfer characteristics of p-channel JFET

19. Define pinch-off voltage of a FET? (Nov/Dec-2012, May/June-2013)

Pinch-off voltage (VP) is defined as the drain to source voltage above which drain current becomes almost
constant.

20. Mention the disadvantages of FET compared to BJT. (Nov/Dec-2012)

Gain bandwidth product of FET is relatively small as compared to BJT.

3
21. Define drain resistance.
The drain resistance or output (rd) is defined as the ratio between change in drain-source voltage (VDS)
and change in drain current (ID) at constant gate-source voltage (VGS).

rd=𝜕𝑉𝐷𝑆 𝑉
𝜕𝑖𝐷 𝐺𝑆

22. Differentiate FET and BJT (Nov/Dec 2018)

S.No FET BJT

Unipolar device (that is current conduction by only one Bipolar device (current conduction by both
1
type of either electron or hole). electron and hole).
2 High input impedance due to reverse bias. Low input impedance due to forward bias.
Gain is characterized by voltage
3 Gain is characterized by trans conductance
gain.
4 Low noise level High noise level

23. What are the applications of JFET?

a) JFET is used as a buffer in measuring instruments since it has high input impedance and low output
impedance.
b) JFET is used in RF amplifier in FM tuners and communication equipment.
c) JFET is used in digital circuit’s ii computers and memory circuits because of its small size.
d) It is used oscillators because the frequency drift is low.

24. FET has lower thermal noise than BJT - Justify. (April / May 2019-R17)
The FET has high gate-to-main current resistance, on the order of 100MΩ or more providing a
high degree of isolation between control and flow. Because base current noise will increase with shaping
time, a FET typically produces less noise than a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT).
Thus, found in noise-sensitive electronics such as tuners and low noise amplifiers for VHF and satellite
receivers. It is relatively immune to radiation.

25. What is the difference between BJT and JFET? (Nov/Dec 2017) (Apr/May 2018) (Nov/Dec 2018-R17)

S.
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) Junction field effect transistor (JFET)
No.
Bipolar device (current conduction is by Unipolar device (current is by only one type of
1
both electrons and holes) carrier-either electrons or holes)
2 Low input impedance due to forward bias High input impedance due to reverse bias
3 Current control device Voltage control device
4 Gain is characterized by voltage gain Gain is characterized by Tran conductance.
5 High noise level Low noise level

MOSFET
26. What are the different types of MOSFET? (May/June-2012, 2013)
The modes of operation of the MOSFET are divided into two types.
a) Depletion mode MOSFET
b) Enhancement mode MOSFET

27. What is the other name for MOSFET? (May/June-2012, 2013)

Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is also called as Insulated Gate Field Effect
Transistor (IGFET)
4
28. If the gate-to-source voltage in an Enhancement MOSFET is zero, what is the current from drain to source?
In an Enhancement MOSFET if the gate-to-source voltage is zero, then the current from drain to source is also
zero.

29. What is the major difference in construction of the D-MOSFET and the E-MOSFET?
The depletion MOSFET has a structural channel, whereas the enhancement-MOSFET does not.

30. If the gate-to-source voltage in depletion MOSFET is zero, what is the current from drain to source?
When gate –source voltage is zero for depletion MOSFET, the drain-source current is equal to IDSS. (ID_IDSS)

31. What are the precautions to be taken when handling MOSFET?

a) MOSFET should be shipped and stored in a conduction foam rubber.
b) Prior to soldering, the technician should use a shorting strap to discharge his static electricity.
c) The soldering iron tip to be grounded. d) MOSFETs should never be inserted into or removed from a circuit with
the power on.
e) The assembler should wear antistatic clothes and ground wrist beads.
f) All the instruments and metal benches used to test the MOS devices should be connected to ground.
g) Always avoid touching the device terminals and pick up the transistor by its casing.

32. What are the applications of MOSFET?

a) It can be used as input amplifiers in oscilloscope, electric voltmeters etc.
b) It is used in logic circuits.
c) It is used in computer memories.
d) It is used in phase shift oscillators.
e) It is used in FM and TV receivers.

33. Depletion MOSFET is commonly known as “Normally-ON” MOSFET why?

The depletion MOSFET can conduct even if the gate to source voltage (VGS) is zero. Because of this
reason depletion MOSFET is community known as “Normally-ON” MOSFET.

34. What is the difference between JFET and MOSFET? (May / Jun 2016)

S. No. JFET MOSFET

1 Reverse bias for gate Positive or negative gate voltage
2 Gate is formed as a diode Gate is formed as a capacitor
3 Operation only depletion mode Can be operated either in depletion mode or in enhancement mode.
4 High input impedance Very high input impedance due to capacitive effect.

UJT
35. Draw the structure of UJT. (Nov/Dec 2017)

B2 B2

Eta-point +
B2
RB2
Eta-point
RB2
p-type
E
E A A VBB
E +
RB1
n-type RB1
Ve Ie V BB

- -
B1 B1 B1
5
36. What is UJT?
Uni junction transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device consisting of only one PN junction. It differs from
ordinary PN diode in the sense that it has three terminals namely Emitter, Base 1 and Base 2.

37. Describe the construction of UJT?

UJT consists of lightly doped TV type is semiconductor bar with a heavily doped P type material.
N type bar is called base and P type region is called emitter. Hence PN junction is formed between emitter and
base region.
Since base is lightly doped the resistivity of the base material is very high.
The direction of arrowhead in the UJT symbol represents the conventional direction of current flow when UJT is in
conduction state.

38. State two applications of UJT. (Nov/Dec 2018)

1. UJT is used to trigger other devices like SCR.
2. Also used in sawtooth wave generators and some timing circuits.
3. It is used as relaxation oscillator to obtain short pulses for triggering of SCR.

39. What is intrinsic stand OFF ratio of UJT and its equivalent circuit? (May 2017)
The intrinsic stand OFF radio (r|) is defined as the ratio between the internal dynamic resistance (RBl) and
the inter base resistance (RBB)-
𝑹
η = 𝑹𝑩𝟏
𝑩𝟐
Where,
RBB = RB1 + RB2
RB1 – internal dynamic resistance
RB2 – inter base resistance

40. What are the different regions in characteristics of UJT?

• Cut off Region
• Negative Resistance Region
• Saturation Region
 PART-A
BJT Small Signal Model

1. Which is the BJT configuration is suitable for impedance matching application and why?
CC configuration is suitable for impedance matching application because of very high input impedance and low
output impedance.

2. Draw the hybrid small signal model of BJT device. (MAY/JUNE2016)

.
3. What are the tools used for small signal analysis of BJT?
• h – Parameter circuit model.
• z – Parameter circuit model.
• y – Parameter circuit model.
• Trans-conductance parameter circuit model.
• Physical model
• T-model

4. What are the steps used for small signal analysis of BJT?
• Draw the actual circuit diagram
• Replace coupling capacitors and emitter bypass capacitor by short circuit.
• Replace dc source by a short circuit. In other words, short VCC and ground lines.

5. State the phase relationship between input / output currents and phase relationship between the input /
output voltages of various transistors configurations. (Nov/Dec 2018)
For all the transistor configurations, input and output currents are in phase.
The input and output voltages of both CB and CC configuration are in phase. But in common-emitter amplifier
the input and output voltages are 1800 out of phase.

1
6. Draw the low frequency hybrid model of BJT in common emitter configuration.

Vb = hieIb + hreVc
Ic = hfeIb + hoeVc

CE, CB, CC Amplifiers-Gain and frequency response

7. Draw the hybrid small signal model of CB configuration? (Apr/May 2018)

8. Why emitter is always forward biased and collector is always reverse biased with respect to base?
To supply majority charge carrier to base and to remove the charge carriers away from the collector-base
junction.

9. Why CE configuration is most popular in amplifier circuits?

Because it’s current, voltage and power gain are quite high and the ratio of output impedance and input impedance
are quite moderate.

10. Give the voltage gain for CE configuration including source resistance.
Avs = Ai x RL / RS + Ri
= (- hfe / 1+ hoe RL) x RL / (RS + Ri)

11. Define the hie and hfe for a common emitter transistor configuration.
From the h – parameter equivalent circuit of the common emitter configuration.
Hie = Δ VBE / Δ IB | VCE constant
Hfe = Δ IC / Δ IB | VCE constant

12. Give the current gain expression for a common emitter transistor configuration.
Current gain for common emitter configuration:
Ai = - IC/ Ib = - hfe / 1 + hoe RL

2
 MOSFET small signal model

13. What is trans-conductance? Give its expression for MOSFET. (Nov/Dec 2017)
The trans-conductance is a ratio of output current to input voltage and hence it represents the gain of the
MOSFET.
Tran conductance expression for MOSFET
gm = 2 √ (KIDQ)
IDQ = K (VGSQ – VT)2

14. State the values of Cgd and Cgs in various operating regions of MOSFET.
Values of gate capacitances in Triode Region:
Cgs =Cgd = (WL Cox) ½
Values of gate capacitances in Saturation Region:
Cgs = (WL Cox) 2/3
Cgd=0
Values of gate capacitances in Cut - off Region:
Cgs =Cgd=0
Cgd = WL Cox
Cox – Gate Capacitance.

15. List various gate capacitances in MOSFET.

There are three gate capacitances in MOSFET:
Cgs – gate source capacitance,
Cgd – gate drain Capacitance, and
Cgb - gate body Capacitance.

CS and Source follower

16. Explain the effect of source resistor on CS MOSFET amplifier.

The source resistor is introduced to stabilize the Q – point against variations in the MOSFET parameters. In BJT circuits,
a source resistor reduces the small gain.

17. What is source follower? (Apr/May 2018)

A common-drain amplifier, also known as a source follower, is one of three basic single-stage field effect
transistor (FET) amplifier topologies, typically used as a voltage buffer.

Gain and frequency response

18. What is the significance of octaves and decades in frequency response?

• Octaves and Decades are the measure of change in frequency.
• Ten times change in frequency is called a Decade. On the other hand, an Octave corresponds to a
doubling of the frequency.
• For example, an increase in frequency from 100Hz to 200Hz is an octave. Likewise, a decrease in
frequency from 100Hz to 50Hz is also an octave.
• If the frequency is reduced to one hundredth of fc (from fc to 0.01fc), the drop in the voltage gain is
– 40 dB. In each decade the voltage gain drops by – 20 db.

3
19. Draw general frequency response curve (or) half-power frequencies of an amplifier.

• In the above diagram the frequency f2 lies in high frequency region, while the frequency f1 lies in low frequency region.
• These two frequencies are also referred to as half power half – power frequencies since gain or output voltage drops
to 70.7% of maximum value and this represents a power level of one half the power at the reference frequency in mid
– frequency region.

Additional Questions
20. What is the relation between α and β of the transistor?
α= 𝛽
𝛽+1

21. Why must the base be narrow for the transistor action?
β is the ratio of IC to IB. IB becomes less if the base width is narrow. Higher value of β can be obtained with lower value
of base current.

22. What are emitter efficiency and base transport factor of a transistor?
The ratio of current of injected carriers at emitter junction to the total emitter current is called the emitter injection efficiency.
Transport Factor, β= IC / IB

23. What is the relation between the current of a transistor?

IE = IB + IC

24. How many h-parameters are there for a transistor?

❖ hr–reverse voltage gain
❖ ho–output admittance.
❖ hi,-input impedance
❖ hf-forward current gain

25. Why h-parameters are called hybrid parameters?

Because they have different units are mixed with other parameters.

26. What are the advantages of the h-parameters? (Apr/May 2011)

(1) Real numbers up to radio frequencies
(2) Easy to measure
(3) Determined from transistor static characteristics curve
(4) Convenient to use in the circuit analysis and design
(5) Easily convertible from one configuration to other

4
27. Draw the hybrid model for a transistor. (Nov/Dec 2012)

28. What are h-parameters? Define the four h-parameters.

One of a set of four transistor equivalent circuit parameters that conveniently specify transistor performance for
small voltage and current in a particular circuit also known as hybrid parameter.

Input resistance with output short – circuited, in Ω.

h11 = Vi / Ii | Vo = 0
Fraction of output voltage at input with input open circuited. This parameter is ratio of similar quantities,
hence unitless.
h12 = Vi / Vo | Ii = 0
Forward current transfer ratio or current gain with output short circuited.
h21 = Io / Ii | Vo = 0
This parameter is a ratio of similar quantities, hence unitless. Output admittance with input open – circuited,
in mhos.
h22 = Io / Vo| Ii = 0

29. State Miller’s theorem. (Nov/Dec 2016)

Miller’s theorem states that, if Z is the impedance connected between two nodes node 1 and node 2, it can be
replaced by two separate impedance Z1 and Z2; where Z1 is connected between node - 1 and ground, and node Z2
is connected between node -2 and ground.
The Vi and Vo are the voltages at the node – 1 and node – 2 respectively, The values of Z1 an d Z2 can
be derived from the ratio of Vo and Vi, denoted as K. Thus it is not necessary to know the values of Vi and Vo
to calculate the values of Z1 and Z2
The values of impedance Z1 and Z2
Z1 = Z / (1 - K); Z2 = Z x K / (K – 1)

30. What do you mean by faithful amplification?

During the process of raising the strength of the input signal if the shape of the output voltage is exactly same as
that of the input signal, the amplification is called faithful amplification.

31. Define the various h-parameters for a common emitter transistor.

From the h – parameter equivalent circuit of the common emitter configuration.
Vbe = hie Ib + hre Vce
Ic = hfe Ib + hoe Vce
Δ VBE
Where, hie = | VCE constant
Δ IB
Δ VBE
hre = | IB constant
Δ VCE
Δ IC
hfe = | VCE constant
Δ IB
Δ IC
hoe = | IB constant
Δ VC