Unit – IV

Bipolar Transistor

Bipolar Transistor
Introduction:

The name transistor comes from the phrase transferring an electrical signal across a resistor.
The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is an active device. In simple terms, it is a current controlled
device. The base current (IB) controls the collector current (IC).
The BJT is made up of two pn junction’s back–to–back, formed from three layers of
semiconductor. It is therefore either of the form pnp or npn.
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT’s) are three terminal devices in which voltage applied
across the two terminals control the current flowing in the third terminal. The BJT can be used as
both a voltage-controlled current source (analog device) and a voltage-controlled switch (digital
device).
The Bipolar Junction Transistor three terminals are labeled Emitter (E), Base (B), and
Collector (C), and are connected to the three regions within a monolithic (single-piece) structure.
The name Bipolar implies, namely both mobile carriers, electron and holes, are contributing
to the charge transport, hence current. The Bipolar Junction Transistor is called an NPN transistor. If
the transistor’s emitter region n-type, base region p-type, and collector region are n-type
semiconductors. Likewise, the transistor is PNP transistor if the transistor’s emitter region p-type,
base region, n-type, and collector region, p-type semiconductor materials. Silicon is the dominant
material in transistor fabrication because of temperature and breakdown voltage advantages over
other semiconductor materials.
They are packaged either in plastic or metal cases for both npn and pnp transistor.
Transistor Operation:

NPN Operation:

In the active mode of operation, the emitter-base junction is forward biased with voltage VBE,
which causes the n-type emitter region to be higher in potential than the p-type base region. The
collector base junction is reverse biased by voltage, VCB.

The emitter current is made up of majority carriers from the base (holes) IpB and majority
carriers from the emitters (electrons) InE injected across the forward–biased emitter-base junction.
Emitter is more heavily doped than the base, resulting in more electrons injected from the emitter
than holes injected from the base. The base width W is typically very thin. The collector current
almost equals the electron current flowing from the emitter to the base.
The forward bias applied to EB junction of an NPN transistor causes a lot of electrons from
the emitter region to cross over to the base region. As the base is lightly doped with P-type impurity
the number of holes in the base region is very small and hence the number of electrons that combine
with holes in the P-type base region is also very small. Hence a few electrons combine with holes to
constitute a base current IB. The remaining electrons cross over in to the collector region to constitute
a collector current IC. Thus the base & collector current summed up gives the emitter current.
IE = IB +IC
PNP Operation:
The forward bias applied to EB junction of a PNP transistor causes a lot of holes from the
emitter region to cross over to the base region as the base is lightly doped with N-type impurity. The
number of electrons in the base region is very small and hence the number of holes that combine
with electrons in the N-type base region is also very small. Hence a few electrons combine with
electrons to constitute a base current I B. The remaining holes cross over in to the collector region to
constitute a collector current IC. Thus the base & collector current summed up gives the emitter
current.

Transistor Terminal Voltage:

The construction and terminal voltages for a PNP & NPN transistor are shown above.

The voltage between the Base and Emitter (VBE) is positive at the Base and negative at the
Emitter because for an NPN transistor, the Base terminal is always positive with respect to the
Emitter. Also the Collector supply voltage is positive with respect to the Emitter (VCE). So for an
NPN transistor to conduct the Collector is always more positive with respect to both the Base and the
Emitter.
BJT Current Components:

Collector Current IC is composed of electrons that diffuse from the emitter across the
forward biased base-emitter junction, which then continue to diffuse across the base region. At the
end of the base region they are then pulled into the collector by the strong electric field that arises
from the reverse biased base – collector junction.
Collector Current IC is composed of electrons that flow directly from emitter through base region
and into collector
Base Current IB has two components: IB = IB1 + IB2
IB1 is due to holes that enter the base from the base contact wire and then recombine with electrons
in the base that have diffused into the base from the emitter
IB2 is due to holes that diffuse from the base into the emitter across the forward biased base –
emitter junction.
Emitter Current IE is the sum of the collector and base currents.
IE = IE1 + IE2 + IE3
IE1 = IC which is composed of electrons flowing from emitter into base and then to collector
IE2 is composed of electrons flowing into base that then recombine with holes in base
(IE2= IB1).
IE3 = is composed of holes flowing from base to emitter due to forward biased emitter base junction
(IE3= IB2).
Current Gain β = IC/IB. Since there is very little base current compared to the electron current that
travels from the emitter to the collector, the ratio IC/IB is a large number.
Transistor Configuration
Common Base (CB) Configuration:

As its name suggests, in the Common Base or grounded base configuration, the BASE
connection is common to both the input signal AND the output signal with the input signal being
applied between the base and the emitter terminals. The corresponding output signal is taken from
between the base and the collector terminals as shown with the base terminal grounded or connected
to a fixed reference voltage point.

The input current flowing into the emitter is quite large as its the sum of both the base current
and collector current respectively therefore, the collector current output is less than the emitter
current input resulting in a current gain for this type of circuit of "1" (unity) or less, in other words
the common base configuration "attenuates" the input signal.

The common base circuit is generally only used in single stage amplifier circuits such as
microphone pre-amplifier or radio frequency amplifiers due to its very good high frequency
response.
Input Characteristics:
These characteristics are obtained by plotting the emitter current versus emitter base
potential VEB at constant collector-base potential V CB. The observations of IE against VBE are repeated
for some other value of VCB Fig. (b) represents the input characteristics of common base p-n-p
transistor at different collector-base potentials.

These characteristics curves show:

(i) The emitter current IE increases rapidly with small increase in emitter-base voltage V BE thereby
indicating that the input resistance is very small.
(ii) The emitter current is almost independent of collector base voltage VCB
(iii) The emitter current is finite at finite value of collector base voltage V CB even when emitter-base
voltage is zero. Therefore in order to reduce the emitter current to zero, the emitter must be reverse
biased as shown by dotted lines.
Input Resistance: It is the ratio of change in emitter base voltage VEB to the corresponding change in
emitter current IE at constant collector-base voltage VCB.

Physically input resistance is the hindrance offered to the signal current. The input resistance is very

small, of the order of a few ohms, because a small change in causes a large change in

Output Characteristics: These characteristics are obtained by plotting the collector current

versus collector-base voltage at constant emitter current

The observations are repeated for some other value of The output characteristic curves of a

common base p-n-p transistor at different emitter current

These characteristics show:

(i) The collector current varies with collector-base voltage only at a very low voltage (<IV).
This variation is insignificant because the transistor is never operated in this region.

(ii) As the collector-base voltage is raised above 1 volt, the collector current becomes independent

of collector-base voltage but depends only upon the emitter current The transistor is always
operated in this region.
(iii) A very large change in collector-base voltage produces a very small change in collector current;
thereby indicating that the output resistance is very high.
Output Resistance. It is the ratio of change in collector-base voltage to the corresponding change in

collector current at constant emitter current

The output resistance is very high, of the order of several-tens kilo ohm because a large change in
collector-base voltage causes a very small change in collector current.

Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

In the Common Emitter or grounded emitter configuration, the input signal is applied
between the base, while the output is taken from between the collector and the emitter as shown.
This type of configuration is the most commonly used circuit for transistor based amplifiers and
which represents the "normal" method of bipolar transistor connection.

The common emitter amplifier configuration produces the highest current and power gain of
all the three bipolar transistor configurations. This is mainly because the input impedance is LOW as
it is connected to a forward-biased PN-junction, while the output impedance is HIGH as it is taken
from a reverse-biased PN-junction.

In this type of configuration, the current flowing out of the transistor must be equal to the
currents flowing into the transistor as the emitter current is given as I E = IC + IB. Also, as the load
resistance (RL) is connected in series with the collector, the current gain of the common emitter
transistor configuration is quite large as it is the ratio of I C/IB and is given the Greek symbol of Beta,
(β). As the emitter current for a common emitter configuration is defined as I E = IC + IB, the ratio of
IC/IE is called Alpha, given the Greek symbol of α. Note: that the value of Alpha will always be less
than unity.

Since the electrical relationship between these three currents, I B, IC and IE is determined by
the physical construction of the transistor itself, any small change in the base current (I B), will result
in a much larger change in the collector current (I C). Then, small changes in current flowing in the
base will thus control the current in the emitter-collector circuit. Typically, Beta has a value between
20 and 200 for most general purpose transistors.

By combining the expressions for both Alpha, α and Beta, β the mathematical relationship
between these parameters and therefore the current gain of the transistor can be given as:

Where: "IC" is the current flowing into the collector terminal, "Ib" is the current flowing into
the base terminal and "IE" is the current flowing out of the emitter terminal.

Then to summaries, this type of bipolar transistor configuration has greater input impedance,
current and power gain than that of the common base configuration but its voltage gain is much
lower. The common emitter configuration is an inverting amplifier circuit. This means that the
resulting output signal is 180o "out-of-phase" with the input voltage signal.
Input Characteristics

To determine the input characteristics the collector to emitter voltage is kept constant at zero
volt and base current is increased from zero in equal steps by increasing V BE in the circuit. The value
of VBE is noted for each setting of IB. This procedure is repeated for higher fixed values of V CE and
the curves of IB Vs VBE are drawn.

Output Characteristics

To determine the output characteristics the base current is kept constant at a suitable value by
adjusting the base emitter voltage. The magnitude of collector emitter voltage is increased in suitable
equal steps from zero and the collector current is noted for each setting V CE. Now the curves of IC Vs
VCE are plotted for different constant values of IB.
 The output characteristics have three regions namely saturation, cut off and active region.
The region of curves to the left of the line OA is called the saturation region and the line OA is
called saturation line. In this region both junctions are forward biased and an increase in I B does not
cause a corresponding change in IC.

The region below the curve for IB=0 is called the cut off region. In this region both the
junctions are reverse biased.

The central region where the curves are uniform in spacing and slope is called the active
region. In this region emitter base junction is forward biased and collector base junction is reverse
biased. If the transistor is to be used as linear amplifier it should be operated in the active region.

Operating Modes:

Operating Modes EBJ CBJ

Cut-off Reverse Reverse
Active Forward Reverse
Saturation Forward Forward
Reverse-active Reverse Forward

The Common Collector (CC) Configuration

In the Common Collector or grounded collector configuration, the collector is now common
through the supply. The input signal is connected directly to the base, while the output is taken from
the emitter load as shown. This type of configuration is commonly known as a Voltage Follower or
Emitter Follower circuit. The common collector or emitter follower configuration is very useful for
impedance matching applications because of the very high input impedance, in the region of
hundreds of thousands of Ohms while having relatively low output impedance.
 The common emitter configuration has a current gain approximately equal to the β value of
the transistor itself. In the common collector configuration the load resistance is situated in series
with the emitter so its current is equal to that of the emitter current. As the emitter current is the
combination of the collector AND the base current combined, the load resistance in this type of
transistor configuration also has both the collector current and the input current of the base flowing
through it.

Input Characteristics

To determine the input characteristics VCE is kept constant, VBC is increased in equal steps and
the corresponding increase in IB is noted.

Output Characteristics
It is same as common emitter configuration.
BJT as Switch:
The basic element of logic circuits is the transistor switch. When the switch is open, i C = 0
and vo = VCC. When the switch is closed, v o = 0 and iC = VCC/RC. In an electronic circuit, mechanical
switches are not used. The switching action is performed by a transistor with an input voltage
switching the circuit, as is shown. When v i = 0, BJT will be in cut-off, i C = 0, and vo = VCC
(open switch).

When vi is in “high” state, BJT can be in saturation with v o = vCE = Vsat ≈ 0.2 V and
iC = (VCC - Vsat)/RC (closed switch). When Rc is replaced with a load, this circuit can switch a load
ON or OFF.

The above BJT circuit is also an “inverter" or a “NOT” logic gate. If “low” state is at 0.2 V
and the “high” state is at 5 V and VCC = 5 V. When the input voltage is “low”, BJT will be in
cut-off and vo = VCC = 5 V (“high” state). When input voltage is “high," with proper choice of R B,
BJT will be in saturation, and vo = vCE = Vsat ≈ 0.2 V (“low” state).