Chapter 2-BJT Applics and Feedback Ampli

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BJT and Applications

The most popular semiconductor device – BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor). The name
bipolar is used because both types of carriers namely holes and electrons are used in the
transistor, as opposed to field effect transistor, which is considered a unipolar device.

Transistor was invented by J. Bardeen (1908 - 1987), W. Shockley (1910-1989), and W.


Brattain (1902 - 1987) in 1948. In 1950 the junction transistor was made using molten
germanium. The bipolar transistors produced in 1950s were typically made with alloyed
junction.
Most important applications of BJT are – as an amplifier, oscillator and as a switch.

Construction:

BJT is three terminal device – Base, Emitter and Collector

The arrow in the symbol of transistor shows direction of flow of current in an emitter. Bipolar
junction transistor, BJT can be viewed as two pn junctions connected back to back to form
np-pn or pn-np structures namely as npn or pnp transistors.
Fig.1 illustrates the structure showing two pn junctions connected back to back.

Fig.1: Types of transistors

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Fig.2: Structure of transistor showing two pn junctions

The transistor consists of two pn junctions, each with its own depletion region as shown in
Fig.2 which are explained below
1. Emitter-base junction: Since the emitter is usually heavily doped, the depletion region lies
almost entirely in the base.
2. Base-collector junction: The depletion region at this junction is usually divided between
base and collector, since they are comparably doped.
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) consists of three differently doped regions. These can
have the configuration of npn or pnp and the various layers can either be parallel or
perpendicular to the surface. Consider a npn BJT, with three differently doped regions.
1. Emitter region: This is usually a n type heavily doped region. The emitter `emits' the
carriers into the base.
2. Base region: This is a lightly doped p region. The base region is also physically thin so that
carriers can pass through with minimal recombination.
3. Collector region: This is a n type region. The collector region has a larger width than the
other two regions since charge is accumulated here from the base.
Transistor is a semiconductor device which is used primarily for signal amplification and
switching. It is also the fundamental element for integrated circuit design such as the VLSI
microprocessor.

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Symbol of BJT: Symbols for npn and pnp transistors are as shown in Fig.3.

Fig.3: Symbols of npn and pnp transistors

BJT voltages and currents:

Fig.4: Currents and voltages in a npn transistor

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 For npn transistor, base is biased positive with respect to emitter as shown in Fig.4.
 Collector is biased higher positive voltage than base
 Voltage sources are usually connected to the transistor through resistors.
 RB base resistor and Rc collector resistor are current limiting resistors, VCC collector
supply, VBB base voltage
 VCC > VBB ensures collector base junction is reverse biased
 Negative terminals of the supply are connected to emitter
 Typical transistor base emitter voltage, VBE is similar to diode forward voltage 0.7 V
for Si transistor and 0.3 V for germanium transistor.
 Collector voltage varies from 3V to 20 V

Transistor Currents:

Fig.5: Transistor currents

 The base-emitter junction is forward biased with positive voltage applied to p-type
base and negative voltage to n-type emitter.
 This forward bias reduces the barrier voltage enabling the electrons to flow across the
junction into the base.
 A large number of these negatively charged electrons are drawn across the collector-
base junction by the positive voltage at the collector while a small number of
electrons flow out through the base.

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As shown in Fig.5, there are three currents flowing in bipolar junction transistor. They are
collector current, IC, emitter current, IE and base current, IB. IC and IB flow out of the
transistor, while IE flows into the transistor. There is a small portion of the injected carrier
recombines with majority carriers in the base to form part of the base current. Thus, the
emitter current IE is equal to (IC + IB).

By Kirchhoff's Current Law, KCL, IE = IB + IC (1)

But if we observe in Fig.5, since collector-base junction is reverse biased, there is leakage
current, ICO flowing from base to collector along with the current due to majority charge
carriers, Ic(maj) . Leakage current is the current because of minority charge carriers which are
drift currents in the collector-base junction. Therefore, total collector current is the sum of
leakage current and current due to majority charge carriers.

⸫ IC = IC(maj) + ICBO

The ratio of collector current to emitter current is called α. This parameter is commonly
known as common base gain as shown in Fig.5.

output current
DC current gain α = input current

𝐈𝐂
𝛂= (2)
𝐈𝐄

The typical value of 𝛼𝑑𝑐 ranges from 0.95 to 0.99. For a good transistor, its value is closed to
one.

The ratio of collector current to base current is β, which also denoted as h parameter- hFE.
This parameter is commonly known as common emitter gain as shown in Fig.6.

output current
DC current gain β = input current

𝐈𝐂
𝛃 = (3)
𝐈𝐁

The typical range value of β is between 20 to 500.

Substitute equation (1) into equation (3), it yields IE = IB (𝜷 + 1)

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𝛂 𝛃
The relationship of α and β parameters shall be 𝛃 = 𝐨𝐫 𝛂 = (4)
𝟏−𝛂 𝟏+𝛃

Example:

A transistor has IB = 0.08mA and IE = 9.60mA. Determine its collector current


IC, α, and β.
Solution

IC = IE – IB = 9.60 mA - 0.08 mA = 9.52 mA

α = 9.52 mA/9.60 mA= 0.9917

β = 9.52 mA/0.08 mA = 119or

β = α/(1-α) = 0.9917/0.0083 = 119

For the transistor if β=100 then corresponding α = 0.99.

Transistor Characteristics:

Bipolar Junction Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three possible
ways to connect it within an electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both the
input and output. Each method of connection responding differently to its input signal within
a circuit as the static characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit arrangement.

1. Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

2. Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain.

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3. Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

1. Common Base (CB) Configuration:

As its name suggests, in the Common Base or grounded base configuration, the BASE
connection is common to both the input signal and the output signal with the input signal
being applied between the base and the emitter terminals. The corresponding output signal is
measured between the base and the collector terminals as shown in Fig.7.

Fig.7: Common base configuration for npn transistor

Input Characteristics:

In this configuration, input is applied between emitter and base terminals of the transistor and
output is collected across collector and base terminals. Base is common to input and output
terminals.

Input characteristics is the curve between IE and input voltage VEB for a constant collector
base voltage VCB as shown in the Fig.8.

Fig.8: Input characteristics of transistor in CB configuration

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After cut in voltage IE increases drastically with small increase in VEB. Since emitter-base
junction is forward biased as shown in Fig.7, the input characteristics are similar to pn-diode
forward characteristics.

As VCB increases slight increase in IE is observed. This is due to change in the width of the
depletion region.

Output Characteristics:

Fig.9: CB output characteristics

It is the curve between collector current, IC and collector base voltage, VCB for a constant
emitter base current, IE as shown in the Fig.9.

The collector current is along y axis and collector to base voltage is taken along X axis, with
emitter current constant.

Three basic regions of operations of transistor can be seen in output characteristics:

State EB junction CB junction

Active Forward Biased Reverse Biased

Cut off Reverse Biased Reverse Biased

saturation Forward Biased Forward Biased

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Active Region: For the transistor to be operated in the active region, the emitter base junction
to be forward biased while the collector base junction to be reverse biased. In this region 𝐼𝐸 ≅
𝐼𝐶 . The transistor works as an amplifier when it is operated in the active region. If emitter
current is zero, the collector current is just the ICBO.

Cut off region: ICBO is the very small current that appears on the horizontal line as IC = 0.
The region below the IE=0 is known as cut off region, where IC≅ 0 where CB and EB
junctions are reverse biased.

Saturation Region : Region to the left of VCB = 0 V. When VCB is between -1 to 0 volts there
is an exponential increase in the collector current. In this region both EB and CB junctions
are forward biased.

In the active region the collector current is almost constant and parallel to x axis because
𝐼𝐸 ≅ 𝐼𝐶 . The collector current is independent of CB voltage. The transistor is said to be a
constant current source. This provides a high dynamic output resistance. As emitter current
increases the collector current also increases. The output current, IC depends on input current
IE, not on collector voltage.The input current controlls the output current transistor. Hence
transistor is a current operating device.

Punch Through Effect:

As shown in Fig.7, as VCB increases the width of the depletion region increases, which
reduces the electrical base width. This effect is called as early effect. The widened depletion
region penetrates into the base until it makes contact with the EB depletion region. This
condition is called as punch through or reach through effect. When this situation occurs
device breaksdown because a large collector current flows throgh the device which destroys
the transitor. Therfore VCB should be kept below VCB(max) to avoid breakdown.

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Common Emitter(CE) Configuration:

Fig.10: Common Emitter Configuration for npn transistor

As shown in Fig.10, input is applied to base-emitter (BE) terminals and output is collected
across collector-emitter(CE) terminals and emitter is common between input and output
terminals.

Base voltage, VBB forward biases the BE junction and VCC reverse biases the CB junction.

VBE is the input voltage, VCE is the output voltage, IB is input current and IC is output current
as shown in figure above.

Input Characteristics:

Fig.11: Input characteristics of transistor in CE configuration

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It is the curve between input current, IB and input voltage, VBE at constant collector-emitter
voltage, VCE. The base current is taken along y axis and base-emitter voltage is plotted along
x axis. Fig.11 shows the input characteristics for CE configuration.

As the input characteristics is between the base to emitter junction, the plot resembles the
diode forward characteristics. Since emitter-base junction is forward biased as shown in
Fig.10, the input characteristics are similar to pn-diode forward characteristics. After the cut
in voltage, the IB increases rapidly with small increase in voltage, VBE. The dynamic input
resistance is small in CE configuration. It is the ratio of change in base current at constant
collector emitter voltage.

For a fixed value of VBE, base current IB decreases as VCE increased. A larger value of VCE
results in a large reverse bias at collector base pn junction. This increases the depletion region
and reduces effective base width. Due to very few recombinations in the base region base
current, IB reduces.

Output Characteristics:

Fig.12: Output characteristics for CE configuration

Output characteristics display the relation between collector current, IC and collector voltage,
VCE for different values of IB as shown in Fig.12. These characteristics are also called as
collector characteristics.

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The output characteristics of common emitter configuartion has three basic regions of
operations: Active, Cutoff, Saturation regions.

Active region: In this region curves are approximately horizontal. Collector base junction is
reverse biased. As VCE increases the reverse bias increases and the depletion region widens.
This reduces the chances of recombination at the base which will increase αdc. Due to this
early effect collector current increases more sharply.

Saturation region: If VCE reduced to a small value such as 0.2 volts, then CB junction is
forward biased and EB junction is already forward biased by 0.7 volts. Both the junctions are
forward biased and transistor operates in the saturation region. The saturation value of V
reduced to a small value such as 0.2 volts, then CB junction is forward biased and EB
junction is already forward biased by 0.7 volts. Both the junctions are forward biased and
transistor operates in the saturation region. The saturation value of VCE denoted as VCE(max)
ranges between 0.1 volt to 0.3 volts.

Cutoff region: when the input base current is made equal to zero, reverse leakage current
flows ICEO. Region below IB =0 is the cutoff region, where both the junctions are reverse
biased.

DC Load line Analysis:

A DC load line is a straight line drawn on the output CE characteristics of a transistor circuit
that describes all the DC conditions that exist in the operation of a circuit. Consider npn
transistor in CE configuration biased in the active region as in the Fig.13.

Fig.13: Transistor in CE configuration


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The supply voltage, Vcc forward biases the base-emitter junction. Applying KVL to base-
emitter loop, we get

(1)

And we know that 𝐼𝑐 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵 (2)

Applying KVL to collector- emitter loop, we have

(3)

When 𝐼𝑐 =0, from eq.(3), we get VCC =VCE.

The transistor is said to be at cut-off region.

When VCE= 0, from eq.(3), we get

Now the transistor is said to be in saturation. The corresponding points are plotted on CE
output characteristics of the transistor as shown in Fig.14. The straight line obtained by
joining these two points is called as DC load line.

Fig.14: DC load line drawn on transistor CE output characteristics

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Applications of Transistor: Transistor as a Switch:

BJT can be used as a switch when its operating point is moved from saturation to cutoff
region. Fig.15 shows connection diagram.

Fig.15: Transistor as a switch

When VBB is zero, corresponding IB is also zero. Since there is no base current, transistor will
be OFF. The operating point of the transistor will be in the cut-off region. When transistor is
OFF, IC is also zero. This corresponds to the open switch situation.

When VBB is positive, IB flows through the base and transistor turns ON. The operating point
is shifted to saturation region as both junctions are forward biased. When transistor is ON,
this corresponds to a closed switch condition. Fig.16 shows the operating regions when
transistor used as switch.

Fig.16: Transistor as a switch operating regions


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A Simple Application of a Transistor Switch:

A transistor used to switch an LED on and off. The transistor in Fig.17 is used as a switch to
turn the LED on and off. For example, a square wave input voltage with a period of 2 seconds
is applied to the input as indicated. When the square wave is at 0 V, the transistor is in cutoff
and since there is no collector current, the LED does not emit light. When the square wave
goes to its high level, the transistor saturates. This forward-bias the LED, and the resulting
collector current through the LED causes it to emit light. Thus, the LED is on for 1 second
and off for 1 second.

Fig.17: A transistor used to switch an LED on and off

Transistor as an amplifier:

Fig.18: Transistor as an amplifier

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A simple circuit diagram for transistor used as an amplifier is as shown in Fig.18. The
operating point for the transistor to work as an amplifier should be at the centre of the active
region.

We know that IC = βIB and IC = αIE and also IC ≅ IE .

Input voltage Vin is superimposed on the dc bias voltage VBB. Without ac, when only DC
voltages are applied, VC = VCE = VCC − IC RC .

When ac signal is applied, VC ± vc = VCE = VCC − (IC ± ic )RC

As input voltage Vin increases the collector current IC increases and Vout decreases. On the
other hand, as Vin decreases the collector current decreases and hence output voltage
increases. Therefore, at the output of the amplifier there will be 1800 phase shift observed.

Single stage RC coupled CE amplifier:

RC coupled single stage common emitter audio frequency amplifier is as shown Fig.19.
Resistors R1, R2, RE form voltage divider biasing circuit for the amplifier. This will set the
operating point in the active region for the CE amplifier. The input capacitor C1 is couples the
signal to the base of the transistor. This capacitor blocks any dc component present in the
signal and passes only the ac signal. Thereby C1 helps in fixing the operating point in the
active region.

Fig.19: Single stage RC coupled CE amplifier

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The capacitor CE is the emitter bypass capacitor connected in parallel to the emitter resistance
RE to provide a low reactance path for the amplified signal. Without this resistor there will be
voltage drop across the RE which will reduce the output voltage, thereby changing the gain of
the amplifier.

The output capacitor C2 is used as coupling capacitor to couple the output of the amplifier to
the load or to the next stage. C2 blocks dc and passes only ac signal.

The source resistance RS is in parallel to the R2 will reduce the bias voltage at the transistor
base and intern it reduces the collector current. Similarly, when RL is connected directly the
dc levels of VC and VCE will change. To avoid this and to maintain stability of bias condition
the coupling capacitors are used.

Phase reversal:

During positive half cycle, two voltages ac and dc will be added increasing the forward bias
on base emitter junction. This increases the base current. The collector current is β times of
base current, hence collector current will also increase. This increases the voltage drop across
RC. Since VC = VCC − IC RC the increase in IC results in a drop in the VC as VCC is constant.
Thus, as Vi increases in the positive direction Vo goes in the opposite direction and we get
negative half cycle of the output voltage as shown in Fig.20.

Fig.20: Input/output waveforms of RC coupled amplifier

During negative half cycle of input, ac and dc voltage oppose each other reducing the forward
bias on the base emitter pn junction. This reduces the base current. Accordingly, collector
current and inter drop across collector resistor reduce, increasing the output voltage. Thus, we

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get a positive half cycle at the output for the negative half cycle of the input. Hence 180 0
phase shift is observed between the input and output voltages for a CE amplifier.

Feedback amplifiers

The purpose of an amplifier is to amplify (increase the magnitude) of the input signal without
changing any of its characteristics except the amplitude. Feedback plays an important role in
electronic circuits. The performance of an amplifier can be improved by using feedback
network which connects the output to the input of an amplifier. Block diagram of a simple
feedback amplifier is as shown in Fig.21.

Fig.21: Block diagram of a simple feedback amplifier

The input signal, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is applied to a mixer network in which it is combined with a feedback
signal, 𝑉𝑓 . The difference of these signals, 𝑉𝑖 is the input to the amplifier. A portion of the
amplifier output is sampled & connected to the input side through a feedback network (β).

If the feedback signal, 𝑉𝑓 is in phase with the input signal, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 then the feedback is called as
positive feedback. If the feedback signal, 𝑉𝑓 is out of phase with the input signal, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 then the
feedback is called as negative feedback.

Negative feedback leads to amplification whereas positive feedback leads to oscillations.

Concept of negative feedback:

Consider a block diagram of a negative feedback amplifier as shown in Fig.22. In the figure,
gain ‘A’ is the gain of the amplifier without feedback. Its value is always greater than ‘1’ as
𝑉𝑜 is always greater than 𝑉𝑖 .

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Fig.22: Negative feedback amplifier

𝑉𝑜
Here, 𝐴= is the gain of the basic amplifier (without feedback)
𝑉𝑖

‘A’ is known as open loop gain

𝑉𝑜
𝐴𝑓 = is the overall gain of the amplifier (with feedback)
𝑉𝑖𝑛

𝐴𝑓 is also known as closed loop gain

here, 𝑉𝑓 is the feedback signal and β is the feedback factor.

Overall gain or gain with feedback is

Vo A
Af  
Vin 1  A ,

with|1 + 𝐴𝛽| > 1 and 𝐴𝑓 < 𝐴

Thus the negative feedback reduces the gain by a factor of (1 + Aβ). Negative feedback is
also called as degenerative feedback.

Advantages of negative feedback:

1) Stabilized gain

2) Higher input impedance

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3) Lower output impedance

4) Increased bandwidth

5) Reduction in noise.

Voltage Series Negative Feedback:

Fig.23: Voltage Series Negative Feedback

The Fig.23 shows the block diagram representation of a voltage series negative feedback
amplifier. Here, the output voltage, Vo is sampled (tapped) at the output and fed back in
series with the input. It is a voltage amplifier.

Assume a sinusoidal input signal, Vin of the amplifier which is an inverting amplifier. i.e.,
output has 1800 phase shift w.r.t input. A part of the output voltage is sampled using a
feedback network and is fed back to the input. Let ‘A’ be the gain of the amplifier and β be
the feedback factor.

𝑉𝑓
Then 𝑉𝑓 = 𝛽𝑉𝑜 or 𝛽 = .
𝑉𝑜

The value of β lies between 0 & 1.

When feedback factor β is 0, it means that no feedback is applied. When β is 1, whole of the
output voltage 𝑉𝑜 is applied as a feedback voltage.

i.e., 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜

Since the amplifier is of inverting type, 𝑉𝑜 & 𝑉𝑖𝑛 will be out of phase by 1800. Thus,
𝑉𝑖𝑛 & 𝑉 𝑓 will be out of phase as in the block diagram. Hence, the net input voltage, 𝑉𝑖 to the

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amplifier is the difference between 𝑉𝑖𝑛 & 𝑉𝑓 Therefore, this type of feedback is known as
negative feedback.

Vi  Vin  V f
or

Vin  Vi  V f

But the gain with feedback is

Vo
Af 
Vin

Vo Vo
Af  
Vi  V f Vi  Vo
,

𝑉𝑜
but, 𝐴 = simplifying, we have,
𝑉𝑖

A
Af 
1  A

This is a general representation of gain.

𝐴𝑓 is called as closed loop gain, since the gain is measured with feedback.

In a negative feedback system, the feedback sample 𝑉𝑓 is subtracted from the signal input 𝑉𝑖𝑛 .

|𝐴𝑓 | < |𝐴|, also |1 + 𝐴𝛽| > 1

i.e., gain with feedback is always much less than gain without feedback.

Hence 𝐴𝑓 is small.

Problem:

An amplifier has an open loop voltage gain of 1000. If the feedback factor is 10 %, find the
closed loop voltage gain.

Solution: A=1000, β=10%= 10/100 = 0.1


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1000
Closed loop gain is = 1+1000(0.1) = 9.9

Concept of positive feedback:

When the input signal and part of the output signal is fed back in phase, the feedback is called
as positive feedback. Positive feedback results in oscillations.

Fig.24: Positive Feedback Amplifier

Consider an inverting amplifier with voltage gain, A as in Fig.24. Assume that sinusoidal
input signal, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is applied to the block. As the amplifier is of inverting type, the output
voltage, 𝑉𝑜 is out of phase by 1800 w.r.t input signal, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 . A part of 𝑉𝑜 is fed back to the input
with the help of the feedback network. The amount of 𝑉𝑜 that has to be fed back is decided by
the feedback factor, β. The feedback network introduces a phase shift of 1800 to 𝑉𝑜 . Phase of
the feedback signal is same as that of the input signal applied. Hence the feedback is called as
positive feedback.

Expression for gain 𝑨𝒇 with feedback:

For the overall block, the input supply is 𝑉𝑖𝑛 & output is 𝑉𝑜 . The ratio of output voltage, 𝑉𝑜 to
the input voltage, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 with corresponding effect of feedback is called as closed loop gain of
the network or gain with feedback denoted as 𝐴𝑓 .

𝑉𝑜
𝐴𝑓 =
𝑉𝑖𝑛

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Since the feedback is positive & voltage 𝑉𝑓 is added to 𝑉𝑖𝑛 to generate the input signal 𝑉𝑖 to
the amplifier, from the block diagram, we can write,

Vi  Vin  V f

𝑉𝑓 depends on β of the feedback network.

V f  Vo

Substituting 𝑉𝑓 in 𝑉𝑖

Vi  Vin  Vo

Vin  Vi   Vo
Vo
Vo Vo Vi
Af   
Vin Vi   Vo V
1  o
Vi
A
 Af 
1  A

It can be observed as how gain with feedback varies with varying β as in table below:

A β 𝐴𝑓

20 0.005 22.22

20 0.04 100

20 0.045 200

20 0.05 ∞

We observe that gain with feedback increases as the amount of positive feedback increases &
reaches infinity. This indicates that the circuit can produce output without external input
(𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 0 ) signal just by feeding the part of the output as its own input. Hence, the output
voltage cannot be infinity but gets driven to oscillations. β value must be less than 1. To start
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with oscillations, Aβ > 1 must be set. But the circuit adjusts itself to get Aβ = 1 to produce
sinusoidal oscillations while working as an oscillator. An oscillator is an amplifier that uses
positive feedback & without any external input signal, generates an output waveform at a
desired frequency.

Barkhausen’s criterion for oscillations:

Fig.25: Block diagram of an Oscillator

The two conditions required for the circuit to work as an oscillator are called as Barkhausen’s
criteria for sustained oscillations

Barkhausen’s criteria states that

1) Total phase shift around the loop as the signal proceeds from input through the amplifier,
feedback network and back to input again completing a loop is 00 or 360°.

2) The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain A & the feedback factor is |𝐴𝛽| = 1

Satisfying these conditions, the circuit works as an oscillator producing sustained oscillations.

Inverting amplifier has a gain of A with phase shift of 1800. Let the input, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 applied to the
amplifier be derived from its output using a feedback network. The network has feedback
factor, β which is less than 1. The amplifier produces a phase shift of 1800. The output
voltage fed back using feedback network must be in phase with 𝑉𝑖𝑛 . Thus the feedback

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network must introduce a phase shift of 1800 so that the total phase shift is 00 / 3600 so that
𝑉𝑖𝑛 is in phase with 𝑉𝑓 .

Fig.25 describes the block diagram of an oscillator. Let 𝑉𝑖𝑛 be a fictitious voltage applied as
input to the amplifier.

Vo  AVin …………..(1)

The feedback factor β divides the amount of feedback to be given to the input.

V f  Vo
……………(2)

Substituting Eq. 1 in 2, we get

V f  AVin
……………(3)

For the oscillator, the feedback voltage 𝑉𝑓 should drive the amplifier & hence 𝑉𝑓 must act as
𝑉𝑖𝑛 . From Eq. 3, we conclude that 𝑉𝑓 is sufficient to act as 𝑉𝑖𝑛 when

A  1

V f  AVin
ie,

or 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛

Phase of 𝑉𝑓 should be same as 𝑉𝑖𝑛 . Amplifier introduces the phase shift of 180° & feedback
network with 180°. This ensures positive feedback. Hence total phase shift around loop is
360°.

Under this condition, 𝑉𝑓 drives the circuit without any external input, hence working as an
oscillator.

Cases:

Case 1: |𝐴𝛽|> 1, oscillations are of growing type

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A
Case 2: < 1, oscillations are of decaying type

Case 3:|𝐴𝛽|=1,oscillations with constant frequency and amplitude called as sustained


oscillations

Oscillators:

The circuit which generates waveforms without any input given to it is called an oscillator. It
is dc to ac converter.

Classification of oscillators:

We are going to read mainly about three types of oscillators:

(1) RC Phase Shift Oscillator


(2) Hartley Oscillator
(3) Colpitt’s Oscillator

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RC phase shift oscillator:

Circuit diagram:

Fig.26: RC phase shift oscillator

An RC phase shift oscillator shown in Fig.26 basically consists of an amplifier & a feedback
network consisting of resistors & capacitors arranged in ladder fashion.

Working:

RC phase shift oscillator is a low frequency oscillator which is used to generate oscillations at
audio frequency range. The circuit shown in Fig.26 consists of a single stage BJT common
emitter amplifier & three cascaded identical RC sections that performs the function of
feedback & inverting network. Resistors R1& R2 are used to bias the transistor properly in the
active region so that the signal 𝑉𝑖 is faithfully amplified by the transistor amplifier. 𝑉𝑖 is the
input signal and 𝑉𝑓 is produced by the RC network. RE is used to provide stability of the
operating point. C1& C2 are dc blocking or coupling capacitors & CE is the emitter bypass
capacitor. CE is used to prevent the loss of voltage gain due to negative feedback through RE.
The amplifier produces 1800 phase shift between 𝑉𝑖 &𝑉𝑜 . Additional phase shift of 1800
between 𝑉𝑜 &𝑉𝑓 is produced by cascaded RC network. Each RC section is designed for a
phase shift of φ = 600. The total phase shift introduced by three identical cascaded RC
sections is 3 x 60 = 1800. Since the total phase shift is 3600, 𝑉𝑖 &𝑉𝑓 are in phase & therefore
feedback is positive. The frequency of oscillations is given by

27
1
𝑓=
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 √6
Operation of an RC circuit:

RC network is used in feedback block.

Fig.27: single RC network

Here, R & C are connected in series. VC is the voltage across capacitor. VO = VR is the
1
voltage across R. XC is the capacitive reactance given by 𝑋𝐶 = . Total impedance of
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

the circuit Z is Z  R  jX c

Z  R2  X c ,
2

X 
  tan 1  c 
 R 

By using proper values of R & C components the angle φ is adjusted in practice equal to 60 0
as required by RC phase shift oscillator.

Fig.28: Three RC sections each with 600 phase shift

28
Problems on RC oscillator:

1. In an RC phase shift oscillator, R = 500Ω and C=0.1µF. Calculate the frequency of


oscillations.

Solution:

Given R = 500Ω, C=0.1µF

Frequency of oscillations is given by

1
𝑓=
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 √6
1
𝑓=
2𝜋 × 500 × 0.1 × 10−6 × √6

∴ 𝑓 = 1.299𝑘𝐻𝑧

2. In an RC phase shift oscillator, R = 1000Ω. If the frequency of oscillations is 5kHz,


calculate the value of C.

Solution:

Given R = 1000Ω, f = 5kHz.

Frequency of oscillations is given by

1 1
𝑓= or 𝐶 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 √6 2𝜋𝑅𝑓√6

1
∴𝐶=
2𝜋 × 1000 × 5000√6

𝐶 = 0.0129µ𝐹

LC oscillators:

Oscillator circuits which use L & C elements to produce oscillations are called as LC
oscillators. The tank circuit uses L & C elements. These circuits are used for oscillations at
high frequency range from 100 KHz & above to GHz.

29
Operation of LC tank circuit:

Fig.29: LC tank circuit

Consider a tank circuit with L & C components connected by means of a switch as shown in
Fig.29. Initially the capacitor, C is charged to a voltage Vc as in Fig.30, with top plate
positive. The DC source is removed and an inductor L is connected across the charged C as in
Fig.31. When the switch ‘S’ is closed, the fully charged capacitor discharges through the
inductor. The current, I through the circuit increases and the inductor starts storing energy in
its magnetic field as in Fig.32. As a result, the magnetic field around the inductor begins to
build up. The energy that was stored in C is now present as magnetic field in L.

Fig.30: Charging capacitor Fig.31: L across a charging capacitor

The capacitor is fully discharged & maximum current flows in the circuit. At this time,
magnetic field starts collapsing around L. The energy stored in the inductor is transferred
back to the capacitor. Capacitor now starts charging making lower plate positive as in Fig.33.
Entire magnetic energy gets converted back to electrostatic energy in the capacitor.

Fig.32: Magnetic energy in L Fig.33: Electrostatic energy in C

30
Now the capacitor again starts discharging through L but in opposite direction as in figure 9f.
Again the electrostatic energy gets converted to magnetic energy & the procedure repeats.

Fig.34: Capacitor discharging in opposite direction

Hartley Oscillator:

Hartley oscillator is a high frequency oscillator. The circuit of Hartley oscillator is shown in
Fig.35.

Fig.35: Circuit Diagram of Hartley oscillator

It consists of a single stage BJT CE amplifier and a tank circuit. Resistors R 1 and R2 are used
to bias the transistor properly in the active region so that it faithfully amplifies the signal
applied to its base terminal. RE provides stability of the operating point. RC is properly
selected to obtain the required voltage gain A.

Capacitors C1 and C2 are DC blocking or coupling capacitors. Capacitor CE is the emitter


bypass capacitor. The CE amplifier produces a phase shift of 180o between its input and
output signals.

31
The tank circuit consists of two inductors L1 and L2 and a capacitor C. When the DC supply
Vcc is switched ON, the capacitor C gets charged to the DC voltage and discharges into the
inductors.

As a result oscillator current is set up in the tank circuit. Since point ‘0’ is grounded, it is at
zero potential. Thus with respect to ‘0’ when ‘1’ is positive, the terminal ‘2’ is negative and
vice versa. The signals at terminal ‘1’ and ‘2’ are 180o out of phase. Thus the tank circuit
introduces a phase shift of 180o.

The voltage across ‘L1’ is fedback to the amplifier input. Since the total phase shift is 360o
the feedback is positive and therefore sustained oscillations are obtained.

The frequency of oscillation is given by

1
𝑓= where 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
2𝜋√𝐿𝑒𝑞𝐶

X L1 L1
Feedback factor,   
XL2 L2

The condition for sustained oscillation is

|Aβ|>1
1 1
i.e. |A|> =>|A| >
β L
( 1)
L2

L2
Or |A| >
L1

The Mutual Inductance exists between L1 and L2. Then L1 + L2 + 2M where M is the Mutual
Inductance between L1 and L2.

Problems on Hartley Oscillator:

1) A Hartley oscillator consists of a tank circuit with L1 = 20µH and L2 = 2mH,


frequency of oscillation, f = 950 KHz. Calculate the value of capacitor C.

Solution:
32
Given:
L1 = 20µH
L2 = 2mH
f = 950 KHz
Frequency of Oscillation for Hartley Oscillator,
1
𝑓=
2𝜋√𝐿𝑒𝑞𝐶
Leq= L1 + L2 + 2M

Since M is not given, consider it as zero.(i.e. M = 0)

Leq= L1 + L2 = 0.00202H

1
𝑓2 =
(2𝜋)2 𝐿𝑒𝑞𝐶

1
∴𝐶=
(2𝜋)2 𝐿𝑒𝑞𝑓 2

Hence C = 13.89pF.

2) In a Hartley Oscillator L1 = 5mH and L2 = 10mH, C = 0.01µF. Calculate


i) Frequency of Oscillation
ii) Feedback Factor
iii) Gain required for sustained Oscillation.

Solution:

Given: L1 = 5mH, L2 = 10mH, C = 0.01µF

i) Frequency of Oscillation,

1
𝑓=
2𝜋√𝐿𝑒𝑞𝐶

Where, Leq= L1 + L2 + 2M

Since M is not given, consider it as zero.(i.e. M = 0)

33
Leq= L1 + L2 = 15mH

∴ f = 13 KHz.

L1
ii) Feedback factor, β =
L2

β = 5mH/10mH = 0.5 => 50%

iii) Gain obtained for sustained oscillation is

𝐿2
|A| > , |A| >2
𝐿1

Colpitts Oscillator:

Colpitts oscillator is an LC oscillator which is used to generate high frequency of oscillation.


Fig.36 shows the circuit diagram of Colpitt’s oscillator.

Fig.36: Circuit Diagram of Colpitt’s Oscillator

It consists of a single stage BJT-CE amplifier and a tank circuit.

34
Resistors R1 and R2 are used to bias the transistor properly in the active region so that it
amplifies the signal applied to the base terminal. Resistor RE provides stability of operating
point. Resistor RC is properly selected to obtain the required voltage gain A.

Capacitors CC1 and CC2 are DC blocking or coupling capacitors, CE is the emitter bypass
capacitor.

The CE amplifier produces a phase shift of 180obetween input and output signal.

The tank circuit consists of two capacitors C1 and C2 and an inductor L.

When the DC supply VCC is switched ON, the capacitor C1 and C2 gets charged to the DC
voltage and discharges into the inductor. As a result, oscillatory current is set up in the tank
circuit. Since point ‘0’ is grounded it is zero potential, thus with respect to terminal ‘0’.
When the terminal ‘1’ is positive, terminal ‘2’ is negative and vice versa. Thus at any instant
there exists a phase difference of 180o between terminals ‘1’ and ‘2’ and the tank circuit
introduces a phase shift of 180o. The voltage across C1 is fed back to the amplifier input.
Since the total phase shift is 360o the feedback is positive and therefore sustained oscillations
are obtained.

The frequency of oscillation is given by

1 𝐶 𝐶
𝑓= where 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶 1+𝐶2
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶𝑒𝑞 1 2

XC1 C2
Feedback factor, β = 
XC 2 C1

The condition for sustained oscillation is

|Aβ|>1
1 1
i.e|A|> =>|A| >
β C
( 2)
C1

C1
Or |A| >
C2

Problems on Colpitts Oscillator:


35
1) Find the frequency of oscillations of Colpitt’s Oscillator with C1=150pF,

C2 =1.5nF and L= 50µH.

solution:

Given: C1=150pF, C2 =1.5nF, L= 50µH

1
Frequency of Oscillation is 𝑓=
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶𝑒𝑞

𝐶 𝐶
Where 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶 1+𝐶2
1 2

Ceq= 136.36 pF

∴ f = 1.927MHz

2) In a Colpitts oscillator, C1 = 100pF C2 = 260pF. Find the value of L if the frequency


of oscillation is 40 kHz.

Solution:

Given: C1 = 100pF, C2 = 60pF, f = 40 KHz

1
𝑓=
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶𝑒𝑞

𝐶 𝐶
Where 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶 1+𝐶2
1 2

Ceq = 37.5 pF

Squaringthe value of ‘f’

1
𝑓2 =
(2𝜋)2 𝐿𝐶𝑒𝑞

1
∴𝐿=
(2𝜋)2 𝐶𝑒𝑞𝑓 2

∴ L =0.422H
36
3) In a Colpitts Oscillator L = 5mH. Find C1 and C2 if the frequency of oscillation, f = 50
kHz. Assume feedback factor is 10%.

Solution:

Given: L = 5mH, f = 50 kHz


1 𝐶 𝐶
Frequency of oscillations is 𝑓 = Where 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶 1+𝐶2
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶 1 2

1
Squaring‘f’ we have 𝑓 2 = (2𝜋)2 𝐿𝐶𝑒𝑞

1
∴ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
(2𝜋)2 𝐿𝑓 2

Ceq= 2.02nF

𝐶 𝐶
We know that 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶 1+𝐶2
1 2

Feedback factor, β = 10%

𝐶2
i.e. β= = 0.1
𝐶1

𝐶2 = 0.1 𝐶1

(C1∗ 0.1 C1)


Ceq =
(C1+0.1 C1)

0.1∗𝐶1 1.1𝐶𝑒𝑞
Ceq= => C1=
1.1 0.1

C1 = 22.22nF

Therefore C2 = 0.1xC1

=0.1(22.22 x 10-9)

C2 = 2.222 nF

37

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