Introduction

Video
Rediscovering Your Inner Learner (Module 4)
TMU Video | Duration: 07:08

Module 4 is an exploration of the concept of learning. The module will begin with a self-reflection in
which you will describe your perspective on what learning is. We will then define learning, develop a
shared lens through which to approach the learning process, and explore how learning occurs.

Having defined learning and explored the process of learning, we will delve into the more individual
factors that affect the learning process and engage in a self-assessment to identify our individual
learning styles.

The final part of the module will expound on memory, its functions, the part it plays in the learning
process, and conclude by presenting the top-ten learning techniques ranked by whether they provide
high, moderate, or low utility, based on each technique’s relative efficacy, ease of use, and
applicability to a broad range of learning situations.
Topics and Learning Objectives
Topics
Defining learning
Learning as a skill
How belief affects learning
Willingness to learn (the growth mindset)

How learning occurs

Directing attention
Encoding
Consolidation

Developing your personal approach to learning

Identifying and applying your learning styles
Motivation
Prior knowledge

Memory
How memory works
What factors enhance and degrade mMemory
How to improve memory
Top ten memory techniques

Learning Objectives
By successfully completing this module, you should be able to:

Explain the processes involved in learning

Describe how current learning skills can help improve your future learning
Develop your learning style through self-assessment
Differentiate between low-, moderate-, and high-utility learning strategies

Tasks for this module

 1. Study the module content.
2. Complete the learning activities on pages “Your Thoughts on Learning” and “Developing Your
Personal Approach To Learning.”
3. Complete the graded activities listed on page “Graded Assessments.” Note that you need to
submit your work for these activities in D2L.

Workload Reminder!
Please be prepared to spend approximately six to eight hours working through the content and
activities in this module. The focus of this module is on critical reflection, discussion, and
practice, not on trying to retain all the strategies and resources shared.

Readings & Resources

1. Cassidy, S. (2004). Learning styles: An overview of theories, models, and measures.

Educational Psychology, 24(4), 419–444.
2. Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K.A., Marsh, E.J., Nathan, M.J., & Willingham, D.T. (2013).
Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions
from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public
Interest, 14(1), 4–58.
3. Dunn, R., Griggs, S.A., Olson, J., Beasley, M., & Gorman, B.S. (1995). A meta-analytic
validation of the Dunn and Dunn Model of learning-style preferences. The Journal of
Educational Research, 88(6), 353–362.
4. Elliot, A. J. (1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals.
Educational Psychologist, 34, 169–189.
5. Ellis, D. (2017). The essential guide to becoming a master student. Cengage
Learning. (Chapter 1)
6. Ericsson, K.A., Chase, W.G., & Faloon, S. (1980). Acquisition of a memory skill.
Science, 208, 1181–1182.
7. Kole, J.A., & Healy, A. (2007). Using prior knowledge to minimize interference when
learning large amounts of information. Memory & Cognition, 35, 124–137.
 8. Lövdén, M., Bäckman, L., Lindenberger, U., Schaefer, S., & Schmiedek, F. (2010). A
theoretical framework for the study of adult cognitive plasticity. Psychological
Bulletin, 136(4), 659–676.

Your Thoughts on Learning

Intro Activity: What are your thoughts on learning

Jamboard: In the Module 4 Intro Jamboard, create a sticky note. After selecting a sticky note
please answer the following question: In your own words, define/describe the process of
learning.

Here is an example: Learning is when I develop a new understanding of a concept. To learn I

read, memorize and practice.

Defining Learning

Richard E. Mayer is a prominent researcher and professor of psychology at the University of

California, Santa Barbara. He is a leading expert in the field of educational psychology and
cognitive science. Mayer has published numerous books and research articles on the topics of
learning, memory, and instruction.

According to Mayer, learning is a process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of
experience and increases the potential for improved performance and future learning (Mayer,
2002).

What does this definition mean for you as a student? It means learning is occurring all the time
whether intentionally or unintentionally. Every experience and piece of information that your mind
comes into contact with results in an adjustment to how you will think or behave in future. From the
time that we are very young children, we engage in learning. As we grow, we begin to create patterns
of learning that we are comfortable with or more proficient using and learn to default to those patterns
and habits of learning.

David Kolb is an American educational theorist and psychologist, known for his work on experiential
learning and learning styles. Kolb defines learning as “the process, whereby knowledge is created
through the transformation of experience.” He proposes that knowledge results from a combination of
perceiving (taking in) experience/new information and transforming (processing) the experience/ new
information. These two processes result in learning, which as Mayer stated is the change in our
understanding of an idea or pattern of behaviour.

Having defined learning, let us explore three foundational concepts about learning that will serve as
the lens through which we view each section of the module to follow. These foundational concepts
are: learning is a skill; beliefs about learning affect our approach to learning; and the idea that we
need a growth mindset to succeed at learning.

Learning As a Skill
One of the assumptions that students hold is believing that they are not good at learning. One
particular sentence leaps to mind here. “I am just not good at….” We have either heard others make
this sentiment; said it about our own learning, or even had an instructor/teacher or trainer express
that very sentiment about us. The opposite is true, learning is a skill. What do we mean when we say
that learning is a skill? This statement means that learning can be developed, we can get better at it
with practice, we can lose proficiency with it if we are out of practice, and most of all it is something
that we can replicate when we have developed mastery of it.

Josh Kaufman is a speaker, author, and entrepreneur known for his expertise in personal and
professional development. In this TEDx talk, Kaufman explains that with focused, deliberate practice
for just twenty hours, you can learn enough to gain competence and confidence in the new skill.

Kaufman suggests that the first step is to deconstruct the skill into smaller, manageable parts. Then,
you should spend time practicing those specific parts in isolation, gradually building up to more
complex tasks. Kaufman stresses that this requires focused, intentional practice, which is different
from simply going through the motions.

Kaufman also notes that it's important to embrace the discomfort of learning, recognizing that
mistakes and failures are a natural part of the process. By accepting this, you can avoid becoming
discouraged and giving up before you've even started.

Overall, Kaufman's message is that learning a new skill is achievable for anyone, as long as you're
willing to put in the time and effort. By breaking down the skill into manageable parts and practicing
intentionally for twenty hours, you can gain the confidence and proficiency needed to continue
improving over time.

Video
The first 20 hours - how to learn anything | Josh Kaufman | TEDxCSU
YouTube Video | Duration: 19:27

The %rst 20 hours -- how to learn anything | Josh Kaufman | TEDxCSU

 The %rst 20 hours -- how to learn anything | Josh Kaufman | TEDxCSU

How Belief Affects Learning

Your beliefs about learning will either positively or negatively affect the actions that you take (or don’t
take) towards learning. Research shows that students who attain high grades develop an
understanding of the factors that help or hinder their learning then expend effort toward utilizing this
knowledge to learn. These students also attribute low results to little effort on their part.

On the other hand, Students get lower academic scores explain their better results through luck and
their worse results through lack of ability or luck (Almeida et al., 2006). In short, students who attain
the best results believe it is possible to learn, take the time to discover the habits that go into learning,
and then put effort towards becoming better learners while students with lower grades don’t put any
effort toward developing their learning skills (Rosário, Ferreira, and Cunha, 2003).

In the below video, Dr. Steven Chew, a cognitive psychologist, explores some beliefs that help or
hinder student’s learning.

Video
How to Get the Most Out of Studying: Part 1 of 5, "Beliefs That Make You Fail... Or
Succeed"
YouTube Video | Duration: 06:54

How to Get the Most Out of Studying: Part 1 of 5, "Beliefs That Make You…
 Which of the following beliefs did you hold before watching
the video?
Learning is fast.

Knowledge is composed of isolated facts.

Being good at a specific subject is a matter of inborn talent.

Submit

Willingness to Learn (The Growth Mindset)

The idea of growth mindset was developed by psychologist Carol Dweck, who conducted extensive
research on the subject and has written several books on the topic. The growth mindset is the belief
that one's abilities and intelligence can be developed through dedication and hard work.

The opposite of having a growth mindset is having a fixed mindset. A fixed mindset assumes that
traits like intelligence and talent are innate and cannot be changed. A growth mindset sees these
traits as malleable and capable of improvement with effort and practice. Individuals with a growth
mindset tend to embrace challenges as opportunities for growth, persist through obstacles and
setbacks, and seek out constructive feedback as a means of improving their performance. They also
tend to be more resilient in the face of failure, seeing it as a temporary setback rather than a reflection
of their underlying abilities.

As we approach the idea of learning, we should approach it with a willingness to try new ideas and
strategies that will lead to the cultivation of our ability to learn. Try not to assume that an idea or
strategy will not work for you or that you can not develop any further ability to learn. Take the time to
follow through with the steps that are necessary for this cultivation to occur.

How Learning Occurs

As we learnt in the last module section, learning occurs when there is acquisition and development of
knowledge, skills, and abilities through experience, instruction, and observation. The process of
learning therefore involves developing strategies that increase your experience, association,
conceptual knowledge, or enhance observations.

Here are some basic components that contribute to learning.

Tab Panels (expanded):

Tab: Directing attention

Learning requires the learner to focus their attention on the information presented. This is the
first step to learning. If you are not able to focus, then you miss the information that you need
to learn. Figuring out how to develop and maintain focus is therefore an important step in
developing your learning toolkit. Two questions flow from this: How can we develop our focus?
What prevents us from focusing?

Video
To learn more about how to develop focus, please watch the following video

The Complete Guide to Developing Your Focus

YouTube Video | Duration: 17:01

The Complete Guide to Developing Your Focus

Developing focus is a skill that you will need to continue cultivating. This skill can be
sharpened, and can also go dull. Here are a few factors that can impact our focus:

Distractions: Anything that captures our attention and diverts us from the task at hand
can be a distraction. Examples include noise, visual stimulation, interruptions, and
notifications.
Lack of interest or motivation: If we don't find a task engaging or if we don't see the
point of it, it can be difficult to focus.
Stress and anxiety: High levels of stress or anxiety can make it hard to concentrate, as
our minds are preoccupied with worrying thoughts.
Fatigue: Lack of sleep or mental exhaustion can impair our ability to focus.
Multitasking: Trying to do too many things at once can make it difficult to concentrate
on any one task.
Medical conditions: Certain medical conditions, such as attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) or depression, can interfere with our ability to focus.

Tab: Encoding

The information/content that is learnt must be committed to memory in a way that the learner
can understand and eventually refer back to it. This is the point in the process of learning
where use of strategies is most useful. We learn these strategies from experience and being
taught by other more experienced people.

Here are some of the most common strategies:

Repetition: Repeating the information over and over again to make it stick in your
memory.
Elaboration: Expanding on the information and making connections to existing
knowledge. This could include generating examples or visualizing the information in a
 meaningful way.
Chunking: Grouping related pieces of information together, which helps reduce the
cognitive load and makes it easier to remember.
Organization: Creating an organizational structure for the information, such as a
concept map or an outline.
Imagery: Creating a mental image of the information or using pictures to help make it
more memorable.
Mnemonic devices: Using a memory aid, such as an acronym, to help remember the
information.
Contextualization: Connecting the information to a specific context, such as a personal
experience, which can make it more meaningful and easier to remember.

Tab: Consolidation

New information must be integrated with or connected to existing knowledge. Consolidation is

a fancy way to say you need to commit your new information to memory. Some information is
easier to remember, while some topics are more challenging. Rather than relying on chance,
students need to develop consistent practices that will help consolidate the information they
learn. Here are some strategies that directly help with consolidating information:

Elaboration: This involves linking new information to previously learned information.

This could involve generating examples or analogies, explaining how the new
information fits in with existing knowledge, or creating mental images.
Retrieval practice: This involves actively recalling information from memory. By
recalling information from memory, we are strengthening the connections between new
and existing information.
Interleaving: This involves alternating between different types of information. By mixing
up the information that we are trying to learn, we are better able to see the connections
between different concepts.
Reflection: This involves taking time to think about what we have learned and how it fits
in with our existing knowledge. Reflection can help to solidify new information in our
minds and make it easier to recall in the future.
Repeated exposure: This involves revisiting information multiple times. By encountering
the same information multiple times, we are better able to consolidate it into our existing
knowledge.
 Tab: Retrieval and feedback

The learner must be able to recall/retrieve the information and then evaluate what they have
learned. These last two steps in the learning process are crucial because they both help the
learner evaluate their strategies. With an accurate assessment of which strategy is working for
you, you are able to save time and learn more content.

Here are some strategies that can enhance a student’s information retrieval:

Practice retrieving information: This involves trying to recall information without

looking at notes or texts.
Use retrieval cues: Retrieval cues are hints or prompts that can help you remember
information. These can be words, phrases, images, or anything else that you associate
with the information.
Space out practice: Spacing out practice sessions over time can improve long-term
memory retrieval. This is known as the spacing effect.
Use elaborative interrogation: This involves asking yourself why a fact or concept is
true, or what it means. This can help you connect the new information with existing
knowledge, making it easier to remember.
Use the testing effect: Testing yourself on the material you are trying to learn can
improve your ability to retrieve the information.
Use the method of loci: This is a mnemonic device that involves associating pieces of
information with specific locations or images in a familiar environment.
Sleep: Getting enough sleep is important for consolidating memories and improving
retrieval.
Minimize interference: Avoiding distractions or other information that could interfere
with the memory you are trying to retrieve can make it easier to remember.

Feedback is an important factor that can influence learning. Constructive feedback can help
learners to correct errors, clarify misunderstandings, and improve performance. Timely and
specific feedback can be particularly effective. Students most often think that asking
instructors for feedback will expose them as poor students. Contrary to that thought, asking
instructors for feedback on assignment results or before assignments will help you adjust your
learning approach.

Here are some types of feedback for you to consider:

Descriptive feedback
This type of feedback is focused on describing what the student has done or what they are doing
well. It is designed to give students a clear understanding of their strengths and areas for
improvement. Descriptive feedback is typically given in the form of comments or suggestions on
a student's work, and is aimed at helping the student to learn from their mistakes and build on
their successes.

Here are some examples of questions that you can ask to get descriptive feedback:

What did you think of my work/performance/behavior?

What did you like about it?
What did you think could be improved?
Can you give me some specific examples of what I did well?
Can you give me some specific examples of what I could do better?
How can I improve in this area?
What steps can I take to make improvements?
Is there anything I can do differently to achieve better results?
Can you give me more information about what you meant by [insert specific feedback
received]?
Can you share any insights or observations about my work/performance/behavior that I
may have missed?

Evaluative feedback

This type of feedback is focused on evaluating the student's performance in relation to a

particular standard or expectation. The most common type of this feedback is getting a grade for
work submitted. To aid in your learning, you would need to understand what the grade is
communicating. It is important to balance this type of feedback with descriptive and prescriptive
feedback.

Here are some examples of questions you can ask your instructor or yourself about a grade that
you receive:

How well did I perform in meeting the goals/objectives of the project/task?

What were my biggest strengths in this project/task?
What were the areas where I could improve in this project/task?
In your opinion, what were my top achievements in this project/task?
 What were my biggest challenges in this project/task?
What would you recommend that I do differently to improve in the future?

Prescriptive Feedback

This type of feedback is focused on providing specific suggestions or recommendations for how
you can improve their performance. Prescriptive feedback can be given in the form of specific
action steps or strategies that you can use to improve your work. It is designed to be actionable
and to help you make concrete changes that will lead to better performance.

What specific steps can I take to improve in this area?

Can you provide me with some examples of what I could do differently to improve my
performance?
What strategies have you seen be effective for others in similar situations?
How can I overcome the challenges I am facing in this area?
What specific resources or tools can I use to improve in this area?
What is the most important area for me to focus on in order to improve?
What actions should I avoid in order to improve in this area?
How can I measure my progress towards improvement in this area?
What are the next steps I should take to start making progress towards improvement?

Factors that Affect Learning

The way learning occurs can vary depending on the individual and the learning context. Some of the
factors that can influence learning include motivation, prior knowledge, learning style, environment,
and feedback.

However, in general, learning occurs when there is a change in behaviour, knowledge, or

understanding resulting from experience or study. This change can be observed through
improved performance on a task, recall of information, or a shift in beliefs and attitudes.

Video
 Why people believe they can't draw
YouTube Video | Duration: 15:04

Why people believe they can’t draw - and how to prove they can | Graham…

In this video, Graham Shaw discusses the limitations and assumptions we place on ourselves
in regard to skill development. The main idea that the video shares is that learning is a skill.

As you listen to the video and attempt the exercise that he discusses, think about how this
applies to your education.

Assumptions About Learning

There are lots of assumptions that we make about learning. These assumptions are often specific to
the individual so we can not cover them all. Generally speaking, students’ attributions exert influence
on their level of effort and persistence in learning and, as a last resort, their level of motivation
(Lightbody, Siann, Stocks, and Walsh, 1996; Valle et al., 2002; Weiner, Frieze, Kukla, Reed, Rest and
Rosenbaum, 1972; Weiner and Kukla, 1970). While we can not cover them all, we should focus on
two types of assumptions that we make about learning. These two are: assumptions about our
capacity to learn, and assumptions about the content that we are learning.

If a student explains a good result through internal causes (internal attribution), then they will
experience positive feelings (motivation). On the other hand, if the attribution of success or failure is
due to controllable causes, such as effort, the student will feel more motivated to attain their
objectives (Faria, 1998ab; Weiner, 2010). Research has shown that students who attain high grades
develop an understanding of the factors that help or hinder their learning then expend effort toward
utilizing this knowledge to learn. They also attribute low results to little effort on their part. On the
other hand, low grade students explain their better results through luck and their worse results
through lack of ability or luck (Almeida et al., 2006). In short, students who score high grades take the
time to learn about what factors go into learning and then put effort towards becoming better learners
while students with lower grades don’t put any effort toward developing their learning skills (Rosário,
Ferreira, and Cunha, 2003).

A second assumption that students commonly hold is believing that they are not good at learning a
particular subject. One particular sentence leaps to mind here. “I am just not good at....” We have
either heard others make this sentiment; said it about our own learning or even had an
instructor/teacher or trainer express that very sentiment about us. The opposite is true, we are
capable of learning anything that we set our attention to. The following video gives a demonstration
on how to effectively learn any subject matter.

Video
The first 20 hours -- how to learn anything | Josh Kaufman | TEDxCSU
YouTube Video | Duration: 19:27

The %rst 20 hours -- how to learn anything | Josh Kaufman | TEDxCSU

In order to challenge this assumption, always attempt to approach learning as a skill instead of
approaching it as a talent that some have and others don’t. Whenever you are faced with a learning
task that you are not particularly confident at, attempt to use the following guiding questions to
overcome the assumptions you are making about the task:
 What is the goal of the task?
What are the individual tasks that will lead to this goal?
Which tasks are you confident in?
Which tasks are you not confident in?
How can you get support on the tasks you are not confident with to build your competence and
thus improve your competence?

Developing Your Personal Approach To Learning

Developing a personal approach to learning is important as you start your university studies. Each
student needs to be aware of how well they understand a topic (metacognition) and then actively
adjust their approach to learning, the amount of time they spend on learning tasks, and the learning
technique that they apply based on their assessment of what needs to be learned.

Identifying and applying of your learning style

The term “learning styles” is used to describe how people collect, organize, analyze, store, and figure
out concepts. Understanding one's own learning style can help learners to use strategies that are
most effective for them.

One of the most widely used models of learning styles is the Index of Learning Styles created
by Richard Felder and Linda Silverman.

Activity
Please take the The Learning Styles Quiz to find your learning style. The link will open the
quiz in a new tab. When done, return here and complete the poll below.

Having completed the quiz and viewed your results, select

the statement below that best describes your reaction to the
results.
The Learning Style profile confirmed what I already knew about myself.

I learned something new about my preferred learning style.

 Submit

Most people have a default (go to) approach to collecting, organizing, analyzing and figuring out
information. The strength of the learning style model is that through the use of the descriptive
language of the model you are able to articulate, understand and replicate what is happening during
your personal learning process. As a result of this understanding you are able to apply your Learning
Style to various learning situations.

Optional additional reading:

The following resource can be used to learn more about how you can apply your learning style
to various learning situations, read this extended

Learning Styles And Strategies (Richard M. Felder & Barbara A. Soloman)

Tab Panels (expanded):

Tab: Motivation

Motivation is a key factor that can influence your ability to learn. Learners who are motivated
to learn are more likely to engage in the learning process and persist when facing challenges.
Motivation can come from external factors such as rewards or praise, or from internal factors
such as personal interest or a sense of accomplishment. Here are some strategies that
students can use to build motivation for learning:

Set goals: Setting goals can help students to focus their efforts and stay motivated.
Goals should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).
When students have clear goals, they can track their progress and celebrate their
achievements.
Find personal meaning: Students are more likely to be motivated when they find
personal meaning in what they are learning. They can connect the material to their
personal experiences, interests, and goals, and identify how it can help them in their
lives.
Use positive self-talk: Positive self-talk can help students to build confidence and
motivation. Students can use positive affirmations, such as “I can do this” or “I am
capable of learning,” to encourage themselves and overcome self-doubt.
Create a supportive environment: A supportive environment can help students to stay
motivated. Students can surround themselves with people who encourage and support
 their learning, and create a study space that is conducive to concentration and
productivity.
Use rewards: Rewards can be a powerful motivator for students. Students can set up a
system of rewards for achieving their goals, such as a small treat or break after
completing a task.
Take breaks: Taking regular breaks can help students to maintain their motivation and
avoid burnout. Short breaks can help students to recharge and come back to their
studies with renewed energy and focus.

Tab: Prior Knowledge

Prior knowledge refers to the existing knowledge, skills, and beliefs that you bring to a new
learning situation. Prior knowledge can help you to understand and integrate new information,
or it can interfere with learning if it is incomplete or inaccurate. Watch the following video to
learn more about how you can exercise prior knowledge:

Connecting Prior Knowledge | Memory and Learning: What Every Teacher Should Know
TeachersCollegeX | Pearl Rock Kane and Kevin Mattingly [10:08]

Building prior knowledge is an important step in the learning process, as it can help learners to
better understand and integrate new information. Here are some strategies that students can
use to build prior knowledge:

Read Widely: Reading is an excellent way to build prior knowledge on a wide range of
topics. Students can read books, articles, and other materials that relate to the subjects
they are studying, as well as topics that are of personal interest.
Watch Videos: Videos can also be an effective way to build prior knowledge. Students
can watch educational videos on YouTube or other platforms that cover topics relevant
to their studies.
Engage in Discussion: Engaging in discussion with peers and instructors can help
students to build prior knowledge by exchanging ideas and perspectives. Group
discussions can provide opportunities to learn from one another and to deepen
understanding of a particular topic.
Conduct Research: Conducting research on a topic can help students to build prior
knowledge. They can use resources such as books, articles, and online databases to
gather information and expand their understanding of a subject.
Use Mind Maps or Concept Maps: Mind maps or concept maps are graphical tools that
can help students to organize and connect information. By creating a visual
representation of a topic, students can build a foundation of prior knowledge that can be
used to support future learning.
 By actively seeking out opportunities to build prior knowledge, students can deepen their
understanding of a topic and be better equipped to learn new information.

Prior knowledge refers to the existing knowledge, skills, and beliefs that you bring to a new learning
situation. Prior knowledge can help you to understand and integrate new information, or it can
interfere with learning if it is incomplete or inaccurate. Watch the following video to learn more about
how you can exercise prior knowledge:

Video
MOOC EDSCI1x | Video 4: Connecting Prior Knowledge | Memory and Learning
YouTube Video | Duration: 10:09

MOOC EDSCI1x | Video 4: Connecting Prior Knowledge | Memory and Le…

Building prior knowledge is an important step in the learning process, as it can help learners to better
understand and integrate new information. Here are some strategies that students can use to build
prior knowledge:

Read widely: Reading is an excellent way to build prior knowledge on a wide range of topics.
Students can read books, articles, and other materials that relate to the subjects they are
 studying, as well as topics that are of personal interest.
Watch videos: Videos can also be an effective way to build prior knowledge. Students can
watch educational videos on YouTube or other platforms that cover topics relevant to their
studies.
Engage in discussion: Engaging in discussion with peers and instructors can help students to
build prior knowledge by exchanging ideas and perspectives. Group discussions can provide
opportunities to learn from one another and to deepen understanding of a particular topic.
Conduct research: Conducting research on a topic can help students to build prior knowledge.
They can use resources such as books, articles, and online databases to gather information
and expand their understanding of a subject.
Use mind maps or concept maps: Mind maps or concept maps are graphical tools that can
help students to organize and connect information. By creating a visual representation of a
topic, students can build a foundation of prior knowledge that can be used to support future
learning.
By actively seeking out opportunities to build prior knowledge, students can deepen their
understanding of a topic and be better equipped to learn new information.

Memory
Memory is another factor that can influence learning. Learners must be able to encode and retrieve
new information, which requires a functioning memory system. Factors such as attention, repetition,
and organization can help to enhance memory.

Here are some videos to learn more about how memory works.

Video
MOOC EDSCI1x | Video 2: Understanding How Memory Works | Memory and Learning
YouTube Video | Duration: 12:07

MOOC EDSCI1x | Video 2: Understanding How Memory Works | Memory …

 Video
Introduction to Memory
YouTube Video | Duration: 05:19

Introduction to Memory (Intro Psych Tutorial #70)

Factors That enhance and degrade memory

Video
Memory Failures: Transience, Absentmindedness, & Blocking
YouTube Video | Duration: 08:24

Memory Failures: Transience, Absentmindedness, & Blocking (Intro Psyc…

Video
Memory Failures 2: Misattribution, Suggestibility, Bias, & Persistence
YouTube Video | Duration: 12:34

Memory Failures 2: Misattribution, Suggestibility, Bias, & Persistence (Int…

How to improve memory
When asked what strategies students use to learn, most students will need to think long and hard
before being able to specify what exactly they do on a regular basis to learn content or even prepare
for assessments (exams). The most commonly reported strategies that students use are highlighting
and rereading (Dunlosky et al, 2013). While these strategies are the most commonly reported by
students, learning techniques vary in terms of their effectiveness based on the type of material and
the learning conditions and the intended goal (criterion task) for the learning activity. The following are
descriptions of the top ten learning techniques published by the Association for Psychological
Science

1. Elaborative interrogation: This technique involves learning to explain why the content is
Generating an explanation for why an explicitly stated fact or concept is true.
2. Self-explanation: Explaining how new information is related to known information, or explaining
steps taken during problem-solving.
3. Summarization: Writing summaries (of various lengths) of to-be-learned texts.
4. Highlighting/underlining: Marking potentially important portions of to-be-learned materials
while reading.
5. Keyword mnemonic: Using keywords and mental imagery to associate verbal materials.
6. Imagery for text: Attempting to form mental images of text materials while reading or listening.
7. Rereading: Restudying text material again after an initial reading. Rereading has been found to
increase the recall of main concept ideas. Rereading is also Going over information more also
results in the development of a more complex understanding of material, because students
become more familiar with the concepts and can generate more examples related to the
information.
8. Practice testing: Self-testing or taking practice tests over to-be-learned material.
9. Distributed practice: Implementing a schedule of practice that spreads out study activities over
time.
10. Interleaved practice: Implementing a schedule of practice that mixes different kinds of
problems, or a schedule of study that mixes different kinds of material, within a single study
session.

Whether out of habit or by conscious choice, we all make use of various learning techniques when
attempting to store new information in our long-term memory. But, not all study habits are created
equal; some may be more efficient than others, especially when you factor in the amount of time it
takes to implement each one.

Researchers have recently characterized ten learning techniques according to whether they provide
high, moderate, or low utility, based on each technique’s relative efficacy, ease of use, and
applicability to a broad range of learning situations. The image below is a visual representation of the
learning techniques in their respective rank.
10 Learning Techniques: Which are the most efficient?
Source: Touro College

Long Description
10 Learning Techniques - Which are most efficient?
Whether out of habit or by conscious choice, we all make use of various learning
techniques when we attempt to store new information in our long-term memory. But
not all study habits are created equal; some may be more efficient than others,
especially when you factor in the amount of time it takes to implement each one.
Researchers have recently characterized ten learning techniques according to
whether they provide high, moderate, or low utility, based on each technique's relative
efficacy, ease of use, and applicability to a broad range of learning situations.
High Utility
Practice Testing – Using practice tests to review information
Distributed Practice – Spreading out study sessions over time
Moderate Utility
 Elaborative Interrogation – Asking yourself “why” as you read
Self-Explanation – Generating reasons to explain new information
Interleaved Practice – Trying out different types of problems when you practice
Low Utility
Summarization – Summarizing lengthy information
Keyword Mnemonics – Associating new words with similar sounding words
Visualizing – Generating mental images while you read
Highlighting & Underlining – Emphasizing key points in the text
Rereading – Reviewing information multiple times
For an in-depth analysis of each technique, check out the original article:
Source: Improving Students' Learning With Effective Learning Techniques;
Psychological Science in the Public Interest; January 2013 vol. 14 no. 14-58 doi:
10.1177/1529100612453266
Infographic created by Touro College for Touro's Online Education Blog

Module Summary
Concluding thoughts about learning
Over the course of this module, we have explored learning as well as different strategies of learning.
Simply being knowledgeable/aware that there are different ways to approach learning can make a
difference for students (Yerxa, 2003). Knowing the different strategies you can use to enhance your
learning results in having more tools available to you when you approach various learning tasks. Now
the question is: are you willing to employ new learning approaches or will you stay firmly committed to
the strategies you have been using all your life? You are encouraged and challenged to try something
new. Be flexible, open your mind to the possibility that you can continue growing and learning. Be
open to keep growing. Here is some additional encouragement about the value of keeping an open
mind.

Video
Commit Yourself To Lifelong Learning | Brian Tracy
YouTube Video
Graded Assessments

Module 4 Discussion: Learning Style

Discussion activities are an important part of your learning process and you should actively
participate in them. Please follow the instructions and requirements listed below. Make sure
your contributions are meaningful so that all participants can benefit from them.

You can access the discussion boards from the Communication menu in your D2L course.

Instructions

Using what you have learned in this module, post a 300–500 word discussion post answering
the questions below; then read and respond to the discussion posts from two other
classmates.

Post your answers and responses to the discussion board “Module 4: Learning Style
Discussion” in D2L.

Questions

1. What strategies for learning were you using before this module?
 2. What new strategies have you learned in this module that you will be using going
forward? Why?

Please ensure that your discussion postings adhere to

the participation and etiquette guidelines listed in your Course Outline.

Learning Style Reflection

In 300–500 words, please answer the following questions. Post your responses to the
“Module 4: Learning Style Reflection” submission space in D2L.
Having reflected on the learning skills/technique through the module, please answer the
following questions:

1. Which strategy/strategies outlined in the chapter are you planning to implement going
forward?
2. What challenges do you anticipate encountering as you implement the strategies you
chose and how do you plan to address these challenges?

You can access the reflection submission space from the Assessment menu in your D2L
course.

References
Cassidy, S. (2004). Learning Styles: An overview of theories, models, and measures.
Educational Psychology, 24(4), 419-444. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144341042000228834
Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving
students' learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and
educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58.
https://journals-sagepub-com.ezproxy.lib.torontomu.ca/doi/full/10.1177/1529100612453266?
utm_source=summon&utm_medium=discovery-provider
Dunn, R., Griggs, S. A., Olson, J., Beasley, M., & Gorman, B. S. (1995). A Meta-Analytic
Validation of the Dunn and Dunn Model of Learning-Style Preferences. The Journal of
Educational Research, 88(6), 353–362. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27541998
Elliot, A. J. (1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. Educational
Psychologist, 34, 169–189.
Ellis, D. (2017). The essential guide to becoming a master student. Cengage Learning, Chapter
1.
Ericsson, K. A., Chase, W. G., & Faloon, S. (1980). Acquisition of a memory skill. Science, 208,
1181–1182.
Kole, J. A., & Healy, A. (2007). Using prior knowledge to minimize interference when learning
large amounts of information. Memory & Cognition, 35, 124–137.
Lövdén, M., Bäckman, L., Lindenberger, U., Schaefer, S., & Schmiedek, F. (2010). A theoretical
framework for the study of adult cognitive plasticity. Psychological Bulletin,
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning.
Educational psychologist, 38(1), 43-52.