MODULE - 3

Maxwell’s Equations

Fundamentals of vector calculus

The Physical quantity, which require only magnitude for their specification is called as a scalar
quantity.

Ex: Mass, Temperature, speed etc.

The Physical quantity which has both magnitude and direction is called as Vector quantity.

Ex: Velocity, Acceleration, Force, etc.

Unit vector

Unit vector indicates just the direction. Here X, Y, Z indicates the direction and 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂, 𝑘̂ are the base
vectors

Dot product or scalor product

⃗ are the two vectors then the dot product of these two vectors is given by
⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃
If and 𝒂

𝑎 . 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑎

θ
O
𝑏⃗

⃗ and 𝜃 is the angle between these two vectors.

Here ‘a’ and ‘b’ are the magnitudes of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏

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 If 𝑎 = 𝑎x 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂, ⃗ = 𝑏x 𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑏𝑧 𝑘̂
and 𝑏

Then the dot product or scalar product is given by

𝑎. 𝑏⃗ = (𝑎x 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂) (𝑏x 𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑏𝑧 𝑘̂)

𝑎. 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎y 𝑏y + 𝑎z 𝑏z
̂. 𝑘
{ because 𝑖̂ . 𝑖̂ = 1, 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑗̂. 𝑗̂ = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 ̂ = 1 But 𝑖̂ . 𝑗̂ = 0, 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑖̂ . 𝑘
̂ = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘
̂ . ̂𝑗 = 0 }

Hence the dot product of a two vectors is a scalar quantity

Physical significance of dot product: EX: the work done is maximum when the displacement is
along the force. Thus the work done is defined as the dot product fo force (𝐹 ) and displacement (𝑑 ).
And work done is a scalar quantity

i.e 𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑋 𝑑

Vector product or cross product

⃗ is defined as follows.
⃗ and 𝒃
The vector product of two vectors 𝒂

𝑎 . 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛̂

Here θ is the angle between two vectors. a and b are the magnitudes of 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗. 𝑛
̂ is the unit vector
⃗
perpendicular to both 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏

If 𝑎 = 𝑎x 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂

and 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏x 𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑏𝑧 𝑘̂

Then their cross product is given by

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 |
𝑏𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑧

The cross product of two vectors is a vector quantity

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Physical significance: For a rotating body, the angular momentum acts in a direction perpendicular
⃗ is given by the cross product of the
to momentum and the radius vector. Thus angular momentum 𝐿
radius vector 𝑟 and the linear momentum 𝑝

Hence ⃗𝐿 = 𝑟
⃗ × 𝑝
⃗

Scalar field: It is a function of space whose value at each point is scalar quantity
Ex: Potential set up by charge in space

Vector field: it is a function of space whose value at each point is vector quantity
EX: The electric field at each and every point surrounding the charge could be

represented by vectors and hence vector field

𝛁 (𝐃𝐞𝐥) 𝐎𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫
[QUESTION: What is Del operator ? explain gradient, divergence and curl]

It is a mathematical operator used as a vector differential operator usually represented by the symbol
∇ and is given by
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

There are three ways in which ∇ can act

1. If ‘T’ be a scalar function and ∇ acts on scalar quantity , then ∇T is called as gradient
2. If 𝐴 vector and if ∇ acts on the vector quantity via dot product, then ∇. ⃗⃗𝐴 is called as
divergence
3. If 𝐴 vector and if ∇ acts on the vector quantity via cross product, then ∇ 𝑋⃗⃗𝐴 is called as curl

The Gradient

consider a scalar function ‘V’, then the operator ∇ acting on the scalar function V is given by

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
∇𝑉 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

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Physical significance : Let V be the potential set up by the charge and is a scalar quantity.
Potential decreases as the distance from the charge increases. Thus the gradient of potential results
in the electric field strength, which is a vector quantity, hence electric field strength can be written as

𝜕𝑉
𝐸⃗ = − 𝑟̂
𝜕𝑟
Here is 𝑟 the position vector and 𝑟̂ is the unit vector along position vector. The negative sign indicates
the decrease in potential. Hence the above equation can be written as

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝐸⃗ = − ∇𝑉 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Thus, the electric field strength is defined as negative gradient of potential and also known as grad V

The Divergence

⃗ = 𝐸x 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑘̂
Let the vector field of E is given by 𝐸

And if the del operator is given by

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Then the dot product ( divergence ) is given by
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇. 𝐸⃗ = (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ) (𝐸x 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑘̂)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝐸x 𝜕𝐸𝑦 𝜕𝐸𝑧

OR ∇. 𝐸⃗ = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

From the above equation, it is clear that, the divergence of a vector field is a scalar quantity

Physical significance:

Figure 1

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The significance of the divergence of a vector function is the measure of how much the vector
𝐸⃗ spreads out (diverges) from the point of consideration. For example, in the above figure 1, if we
consider a positive charge in space, the field lines diverge and are positive divergence. Similarly for a
negative charge in space, the field lines converge and hence it is negative divergence. If the field
liens are parallel then it is zero divergence.

The Curl
The curl of a vector field could be constructed as follows
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
W. K. T, the del operator is given by 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

⃗ = 𝐻x 𝑖̂ + 𝐻𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐻𝑧 𝑘̂
And the if ‘H’ is vector field which is given by 𝐻

𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ ̂
𝒌
Then, the cross product is given by 𝜵 𝑿 𝑯
⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝝏
| 𝝏𝒙
𝝏 𝝏
|
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝑯𝒙 𝑯𝒚 𝑯𝒛

Physical significance : EX: curl of magnetic field

The curl of a vector function is a measure of how much field swirls ( curls) around the point of
consideration.

A wire carrying electric current sets magnetic field surrounding the wire (figure 1). Then the magnetic
field lines curl or swirl around the point. Higher the value of ⃗⃗⃗
𝐻 around the point, stronger will be the
curl. If the field lines are parallel, then it represents zero curl.

Figure 1

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[ QUESTION: Define and explain line integral, surface integral and volume
integral]

Line integral

Fig 1

Here (Fig1) ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑨 represents a vector field and 𝒅𝒍 represents an infinitely small length at the point M
along the path PQ in the field. Then the line integral is given by
𝑸

𝑨 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒍
𝑷

Fig 2

Similarly (fig 2) the line integral of the closed path is given by

𝑨 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒍

Here the symbol ∮ 5 is used for closed integral. This is also called as circulation of ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨 around the
closed path. Lind integral concept is applied to calculate the potential difference between two points
in an electric field.

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 Surface integral

Consider a surface area ‘S’ in a vector field ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑨 . consider an infinitely small area ‘ds’ on the surface
around the point ‘M’ as shown in the figure. Consider a unit vector 𝑛
̂ normal to ‘ds’. The surface
integral over the entire surface is given by
5

𝑨 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒔
𝑆

5
Here ∫𝑠 1 is the symbol used for surface integral. Surface integral gives the net outward flux of the
vector field through the surface. For a closed surface, the surface integral is given by
𝟏
𝑨 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒔
𝑺

The surface integral is applied to calculate the net flux of the electric field through a surface in the electric field.

Volume integral

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Consider a volume ‘V’, where charges are uniformly distributed. Let ‘dv’ be a small volume around the
considered point ‘M’. Let 𝜌𝑉 be the charge density, then the net charge in the volume is given by volume
integral of the form
𝟏
∮ 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑣
𝑽

Gauss flux theorem – gauss law in electrostatics

Consider a region in space consisting of charges. Let a surface of any shape enclose these charges,
then this surface is called as Gaussian surface. Let a charge ‘q’ be the charge enclosed by this
closed surface. Consider an infinitely small region ‘ds’ and if ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑫 is the electric flux density at ‘ds’, then
the total flux ∅ over the entire surface is given by

𝟏
𝑫 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∅ = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒔 = ∑ 𝒒
𝑺

Here ∑ 𝑞 given by ∑ 𝑞 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + − −

OR, the total charge ‘Q’ is given by

𝟏
𝑫 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑸 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒔
𝑺

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 Gauss divergence theorem

[QUESTION: State and explain Gauss divergence theorem with proof of theorem]

If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 is a vector field, and 𝜌𝑉 is the charge density at a given point, the divergence of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 is given by

∇. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉

Statement : the gauss divergence theorem states that, the integral of the normal component of the
flux density over a closed surface in an electric field (surface integral) is equal to the volume integral
of the divergence of the flux throughout the space enclosed by the Gaussian surface.

𝟏 1
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = ∮ 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑣
𝑺 𝑉
But from Gauss divergence theorem, we have ∇. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉

𝟏 1
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = ∮ ∇. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 𝑑𝑣
𝑺 𝑉

Proof : Consider a volume ‘v’ enclosed by a Gaussian surface ‘S’. let a charge ‘dQ’ be enclosed by a
small volume ‘dv’ inside the Gaussian surface. If 𝜌𝑉 is the density of charges , then it is given by

𝑑𝑄
𝜌𝑉 =
𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑑𝑣
The total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is given by
1 1
𝑄 = ∮ 𝑑𝑄 = ∮ 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑣
𝑉 𝑉

But from gauss divergence theorem, we know that, ∇. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉

Therefore

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 1
𝑄 = ∮ ∇. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 𝑑𝑣 − − − − − − − − − (1)
𝑉

But according to Gauss law of electrostatics, we have

1
𝐷 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑄 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 − − − − − − − (2)
𝑆

Therefore from equation (1) and (2), we have,

𝟏 𝟏
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑫 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔 = ∮ (𝛁. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑫 ) 𝒅𝒗
𝑺 𝑽

Hence, the Gauss divergence theorem relates surface integral with volume integral

Stoke’s theorem
[QUESTION: State and explain Stokes, theorem and Gauss law of magnetostatics]

Stokes theorem relates surface integral with line integral (calculation of a vector field around a closed
path)

If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 is vector field, then the surface integral of curl of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 throughout a chosen surface is equal to the
circulation of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐹 around the boundary of the chosen surface. Mathematically, we have

5
𝟏
𝑭 ) . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫(𝛁 𝐗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑭 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒍
𝑽
𝑆

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 Gauss law of magnetostatics

Consider a closed Gaussian surface of any shape in a magnetic field as shown in figure, such that,
the magnetic fields exists in a closed loop. Hence for every flux line that enters the closed surface, a
flux line emerges out else-where. Thus for a closed surface in a magnetic field, the total inward flux
(positive) is equal to total outward flux (negative). Thus the net flux through the Gaussian surface is
zero. Hence it can be written as
1
𝐵 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝑆

Where ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 is magnetic flux density. By applying gauss divergence theorem, we get
1 1
𝐵 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 = ∮ (∇. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 ) 𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝑆 𝑉

Hence it could be written as,

𝛁. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩 = 𝟎
This is one of the maxwell’s equation

Amperes law
[QUESTION: state and explain amperes law]

Statement: The circulation of magnetic field strength ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑯 along the closed path is equal to the net
current enclosed (𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 ) by the loop.

Mathematically, we can write,

𝟏
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ 𝑯 𝒅𝒍 = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 − − − − − − − (𝟏)
𝑽

By stokes theorem, we have

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 5
𝟏
𝑯 ) . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫(𝛁 𝐗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑯 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒍
𝑽
𝑆

Hence, in equation (1) we can write,

5

𝑯 ) . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫(𝛁 𝐗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒔 = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 − − − − − − − (2)
𝑆

But, the equation 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 can be obtained as

1
𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = ∮ ⃗⃗𝐽 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠
𝑆

Hence equation (2), can be written as

5
1
𝑑𝑠 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐻 ) . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫(∇ X ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐽 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠
𝑆
𝑆

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Or ∇X 𝐻 = 𝐽
This is amperes circuta law and another Maxwell equation

Biot - savart law

[QUESTION: state and explain Bio-Savart law]

Consider a portion of a conductor carrying current ‘𝐼 ’, let ′𝑑𝑙′ be the infinitely small elemental length of
the conductor at the point M as shown in figure. Consider a point ‘P’ near the conductor. Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑀𝑃 be
the vector joining the element with the point P along the length ‘𝑟’ with unit vector 𝑟̂ . Let 𝜃 be the

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angle made by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑃 with the element. Then Biot – Savart law states the magnitude and direction of the
small magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐻 at the point ‘P’ due to the small element length ‘ 𝑑𝑙 ’ of the current carrying
conductor is

1. Proportional to the length of the element ′𝑑𝑙′

2. Proportional to the current through the element 𝐼
3. Proportional to the sine of the angle 𝜃, i.e sin 𝜃
4. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance 𝑟

𝐼 𝑑𝑙 sin (𝜃)
i.e 𝑑𝐻 ∝
𝑟2

𝑰 𝒅𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝜽)
Or 𝑑𝐻 =
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
1
Here is the proportionality constant.
4𝜋

The above equation could be expressed in vector form as

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑰 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒍 𝑿 𝒓̂
𝒅𝑯 =
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
Thus Biot- Savart law

Faradays law of electromagnetic induction

[QUESTION: state and explain Faradays law of electromagnetic induction]

Statement: whenever there is a change in magnetic flux linked with the circuit, an emf (e) is induced
and is equal to rate of change of magnetic flux. The induced emf will be in the opposite direction and
opposes the cause.

Mathematically, the induced emf is given by

𝑑∅
𝑒= − ----------------------------- (1)
𝑑𝑡

Here ∅ is the magnetic flux linked with the circuit. For a coil of N turns, the induced emf (e) due to
the rate of change in flux is given by

𝑑∅
𝑒 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡

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 Faraday’s law in integral and differential forms

𝑑∅
For a conducting loop linked with change in magnetic flux, the rate of change in flux is given
𝑑𝑡
1
𝑑∅ 𝜕 ⃗⃗⃗𝐵
= ∫ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 − − − − − − − − − − (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑆
𝜕𝑡

The induced emf in the circuit is given by

𝟏
𝑒 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 − − − − − − − − − (3)
𝑺

Using equation (2) and (3) in equation (1), we get

1
𝟏
𝜕 ⃗⃗⃗𝐵
𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 = − ∫ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 − − − − − (4)
𝑺
𝑆
𝜕𝑡

From Stoke law, we have

5
𝟏
𝑬 ) . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫(𝛁 𝐗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑬 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒍
𝑽
𝑆

Therefore equation (4) can be written as

5 1
𝜕 ⃗⃗⃗𝐵
𝑬 ) . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫(𝛁 𝐗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒔 = − ∫ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠
𝑆 𝑆
𝜕𝑡

Finally the equation reduces to

𝜕 𝐵⃗⃗⃗
𝛁 𝐗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬 = −
𝜕𝑡
This is faradays law in differential equation

Equation of Continuity / law of conservation of charges

[QUESTION: Define the law of conservation of charges and discuss on equation of continuity]

In all process of involvement of motion of charge carriers, the net charge is always conserved and is
called as the law of conservation of charges.

Let us consider a volume ‘V’ where the charges flow in and out. Then the equation for the law of
conservation could be written in the integral form as

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Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 14
 1
1 𝜕𝜌
𝐽 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 = − ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑉 − − − − − − − − (1)
𝑆 𝜕𝑡
𝑉

Where 𝜌𝑉 is the volume density of charge

Using gauss divergence theorem we have

1 1
∮ ⃗𝐽⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = ∮ (∇. ⃗⃗⃗𝐽 ) 𝑑𝑣
𝑆 𝑉

Therefore equation (1) becomes

1
1
𝜕 𝜌𝑉
∮ (∇. ⃗𝐽 ) 𝑑𝑣 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑉
𝑉 𝜕𝑡
𝑉

The above equation could be reduced to

𝜕𝜌𝑉
∇. ⃗⃗⃗𝐽 = −
𝜕𝑡
This the equation of continuity and also the law of conservation of charges.

In case of DC circuits for steady currents, the inward flow of charges is equal to the outward flow
𝑑𝜌𝑉
through a closed surface and hence = 0 . Thus, the equation of continuity becomes ∇. ⃗⃗⃗𝐽 = 0.
𝑑𝑡

In case of AC circuits containing capacitors, the equation ∇. ⃗⃗⃗𝐽 = 0 fails, hence to rescue the equation
of continuity, Maxwell introduced the concept of displacement current.

Displacement current / Maxwell – Ampere law

[QUESTION: Define displacement current and derive the equation for Maxwell-Amperes law]

Displacement current density is the correction factor introduced by Maxwell inorder to explain the
continuity of electric current in time varying circuits.

Maxwell – Ampere law

By introducing the concept of displacement current for the time varying circuits, Maxwell suggested
corrections to the amperes law.

We know that according to gauss law

∇. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉

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Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 15
Differentiating the equation w.r.t, we have

𝜕 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝜕 𝜌𝑉
(∇. 𝐷 ) =
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 𝜕 𝜌𝑉
∇( ) = − − − − − − − − − − (1)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

But we know that, the equation of continuity is given by

𝜕 𝜌𝑉
∇. ⃗⃗⃗𝐽 = −
𝜕𝑡
Therefore using equation (1), we can write

∇. ⃗⃗⃗𝐽 = −∇ (
𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷
)
𝜕𝑡

∇. ⃗⃗⃗𝐽 + ∇ (
𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷
)=0
𝜕𝑡

𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷
∇ + (⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐽 + )=0
𝜕𝑡
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Hence for time varying circuits ∇. ⃗⃗⃗𝐽 = 0, does not holds good, instead ∇ + ( 𝐽 + 𝜕 𝐷 ) = 0
𝜕𝑡

𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷
has to be used. In the above equation, is called as displacement current.
𝜕𝑡

Expression for displacement current

Consider an AC circuit, containing a capacitor as shown in figure

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Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 16
Displacement current in terms of displacement current density is given by

𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = ( ) .𝐴 − − − − − − − (1)
𝜕𝑡

Here ‘A’ is the area of capacitor plates. The electric flux density ‘D’

𝐷 =∈𝐸 − − − − − − − − (2)

Here ‘E’ is the electric field strength, which is given by

𝑉
𝐸= − − − − − − − − − − − (3)
𝑑
Here ‘d’ is the separation between the capacitor plates and ‘V’ is the applied potential given by

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 𝑗𝑤𝑡 -------------- (4)

Using eqution (3) and (4) in equation (2), we get

∈𝑉𝑠 𝑒𝑗𝑤𝑡
𝐷= − − − − − − − − (5)
𝑑

Substituting equation (5) in (1)

𝜕 ∈ 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 𝑗𝑤𝑡
𝐼𝐷 = ( ) .𝐴
𝜕𝑡 𝑑
Hence displacement current is given by

𝒋𝒘 ∈ 𝑨
𝑰𝑫 =
𝒅
𝑽𝒔 𝒆 𝒋𝒘𝒕

ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) WAVES

Wave equation for EM waves in vacuum in terms of electric field using Maxwell’s equations

Consider the Maxwell’s equations (Faraday,s law of differential eq.)

⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵
∇𝑋 𝐸 = − ------------------------- (1)
𝜕𝑡

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐷
∇𝑋 𝐻 = 𝐽 + ------------------------- (2)
𝜕𝑡
We know that 𝐷 = ∈ 𝐸 and 𝐵 = 𝜇 𝐻

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Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 17
So that, equation (1) and (2) becomes

⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐻
∇ 𝑋 𝐸 = −𝜇 ------------------------- (3)
𝜕𝑡

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐸
∇𝑋 𝐻 = 𝐽 +∈ ------------------------- (4)
𝜕𝑡

To derive wave equation in terms of electric field, the term ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐻 has to be eliminated

Taking curl on both sides of the equation (3), we get

𝜕 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∇ X ∇ 𝑋 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 = −𝜇 𝜕𝑡 (∇ 𝑋 𝐻 ) ------------------------- (5)

According to vector analysis, we have

𝐴 𝑋 (𝐵 𝑋 𝐶) = 𝐵 (𝐴. 𝐶) − 𝐶 (𝐴. 𝐵)

Therefore above equation becomes

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∇ X ∇ 𝑋 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 = ∇ (∇ . 𝐸 ) − ∇2 𝐸 ------------------------- (6)

As per the maxwells equation

∇. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉

Since 𝐷 = ∈ 𝐸 , the above equation becomes

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜌
∇. ∈ 𝐸 𝑉

𝜌
𝐸 = 𝑉
∇. ⃗⃗⃗
∈
Therefore equation (6) becomes
𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∇ X ∇ 𝑋 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 = ∇ ( ∈𝑉 ) − ∇2 𝐸 ------------------------- (7)

Substituting equation (7) in (5) we get

𝜌 𝜕
∇ ( 𝑉 ) − ∇2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 = −𝜇 (∇ 𝑋 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐻)
∈ 𝜕𝑡
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Substituting equation (4) in (7) for ∇ 𝑋 𝐻 we get

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Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 18
 𝜌
∇ ( 𝑉 ) − ∇2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 = −𝜇
𝜕 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝐽 +∈
𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸
)
∈ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
2
∇(
𝜌𝑉
) − ∇ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2
𝐸 = −𝜇
𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐽
− 𝜇∈
𝜕 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸
∈ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡2
2
− ∇2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 + 𝜇∈
𝜕 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸
= −𝜇
𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐽 𝜌
− ∇ ( 𝑉)
𝜕𝑡2 𝜕𝑡 ∈

2
− ∇2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 − 𝜇∈
𝜕 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸
= − (𝜇
𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐽 𝜌
+ ∇ ( 𝑉) )
(
𝜕𝑡2 ) 𝜕𝑡 ∈

𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝛁 𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬 − 𝝁∈
𝝏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬
) = (𝝁
𝝏𝑱 𝝆
+ 𝛁 ( ∈𝑽) ) ------------------------ (8)
𝝏 𝒕𝟐 𝝏𝒕

LHS in the above equation represents a propagating wave. In case of propagating EM wave in free
space ⃗⃗⃗𝐽 = 0 and 𝜌 = 0
𝑉

𝟐
Therefore equation (7) reduces to (𝛁 𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬 − 𝝁∈
𝝏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬
) = 𝟎
𝝏 𝒕𝟐

𝟐
We know that, the general wave equation is given by 𝛁 𝑬 − 𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝟏 𝝏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬
=𝟎 -------------------- (9)
𝒗𝟐 𝝏𝒕𝟐
Comparing equation (8) and (9), we have

𝟏
= 𝝁∈
𝒗𝟐
Hence velocity of the EM wave is given by

𝟏
𝒗 =
√𝝁∈

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