MODULE 4

2-Dimensional Arrays & Strings

 Arrays which are specified with 2 subscripts (2 set of square brackets [ ][ ])

are called 2-dimensional arrays.
 Arrays with two or more dimensions are called Multi-dimensional arrays.
 In 2-Dimensional Array, the first index indicates the ‘row size’( the number of

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rows) and second index indicates the ‘column size’( the number of columns).
Ex: int a[10][10]; //Two-dimensional array

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int b[3][4][5]; //Three-dimensional array
Declaration of Two-dimensional arrays
 As we declare the variables before they are used in a program, an array must
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also be declared before it is used using the following syntax.
data_type array_name [row_size][col_size];
Syntax:
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data_type: It can be int, float, char etc.

array_name: It is the name of the array.
row_size: It is the number of rows in the array.
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col_size: It is the number of columns in the array.

 Semicolon is must at the end. The size used during declaration of the array is
useful to reserve the specified memory locations
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 The array ‘a’ is a 2-dimensional array with 2 rows and 4 columns. This declaration
informs the compiler to reserve 8 locations (2*4=8 locations, 2*8=16 bytes in total)
continuously one after the other.
Initialization of 2-dimensional arrays
 As we initialize a variable to the required value, we can initialize the individual

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elements of the array during initialization.
Syntax

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data_type: It can be int, float, char etc.
array_name: It is the name of the array.
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row_size: It is the number of rows in the array.

col_size: It is the number of columns in the array. a1 to an are the values assigned to 1 st
row, b1 to bn are the values assigned to 2 nd row and so on.
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Ex: 1. int a[4][3]= {{11,22,33}, {44,55,66},{77,88,99},{10,20,30} };

The array has 4 rows and 3 columns.
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e. Strings
 “A string is a sequence of characters enclosed within double quotes”. or
 “String is an array of characters and terminated by NULL character which is denoted by ‘\0’.
 In C, a string is a null-terminated character array.
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 This means that after the last character, a null character ('\0') is stored to signify the end of the
character array.
For example, if we write char str[] = "HELLO";
we are declaring an array that has five characters, namely, H, E, L, L, and O. Apart from these characters,
a null character ('\0') is stored at the end of the string. So, the internal representation of the string becomes
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HELLO'\0'. To store a string of length 5, we need 5 + 1 locations (1 extra for the null character). The
name of the character array (or the string) is a pointer to the beginning of the string.
 Figure 4.1 shows the difference between character storage and string storage.
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 If we had declared str as

 char str[5] = "HELLO";
then the null character will not be appended automatically to the character array. This is because str can
hold only 5 characters and the characters in HELLO have already filled the space allocated to it.
 Like we use subscripts (also known as index) to access the elements of an array, we can also use
subscripts to access the elements of a string. The subscript starts with a zero (0). All the characters
of a string are stored in successive memory locations. Figure 4.2 shows how str[] is stored in the
memory.

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 ASCII code of a character is stored in the memory and not the character itself. So, at address 1000, 72
will be stored as the ASCII code for H is 72. The statement char str[] = "HELLO";
Syntax:
the general form of declaring a string is
char str[size];
 The other way to initialize a string is to initialize it as an array of characters. For example,
char str[] = {'H', 'E', 'L', 'L', 'O', '\0'};
Here, the compiler will automatically calculate the size based on the number of characters.
 We can also declare a string with size much larger than the number of elements that are initialized.
For example, consider the statement below.
char str [10] = "HELLO";
In such cases, the compiler creates an array of size 10; stores "HELLO" in it and finally terminates

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the string with a null character. Rest of the elements in the array are automatically initialized to NULL
 Now consider the following statements:
char str[3];
str = "HELLO";
The above initialization statement is illegal in C and would generate a compile-time error.

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4.1.1 Reading Strings
 If we declare a string by writing char str[100]; Then str can be read by the user in three ways:
1. using scanf function,
2. using gets() function, and
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3. using getchar(),getch()or getche() function repeatedly.

using scanf()
 Strings can be read using scanf() by writing scanf("%s", str);
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 Unlike int, float, and char values, %s format does not require the ampersand before the variable str.
 The main pitfall of using this function is that the function terminates as soon as it finds a blank
space. Therefore we cannot read the complete sentence using scanf() function.

using gets()
 The string can be read by writing gets(str);
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 gets() is a simple function that overcomes the drawbacks of the scanf() function.
 gets() function is used to read a sequence of characters (string) with spaces in between.
 The ‘gets()’ function allows us to read an ‘entire line’ of input including whitespace characters.
 The gets() function takes the starting address of the string which will hold the input.
 The string inputted using gets() is automatically terminated with a null character.
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using getchar()
 Strings can also be read by calling the getchar() function repeatedly to read a sequence of single
characters (unless a terminating character is entered) and simultaneously storing it in a character
array as shown below:
i=0;
ch = getchar;// Get a character
while(ch != '*')
{
str[i] = ch;// Store the read character in str
i++;
ch = getchar();// Get another character
}
str[i] = '\0';// Terminate str with null character
4.1.2 Writing Strings
 Strings can be displayed on the screen using the following three ways:
1. using printf() function
2. using puts() function, and
3. using putchar() function repeatedly.

using printf()
 Strings can be displayed using printf() by writing printf("%s", str);
 We use the format specifier %s to output a string. Observe carefully that there is no ‘&’ character
used with the string variable.

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 We may also use width and precision specifications along with %s.
 The precision specifies the maximum number of characters to be displayed, after which the string is
truncated. For example, printf ("%5.3s", str); The above statement would print only the first three
characters in a total field of five characters. Also these characters would be right justified in the

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allocated width.
 To make the string left justified, we must use a minus sign. For example, printf ("%–5.3s", str);

using puts()
 A string can be displayed by writing puts(str);
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 puts() is a simple function that overcomes the drawbacks of the printf() function.
 The puts() function writes a line of output on the screen. It terminates the line with a newline
character (‘\n’).
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using putchar()
 Strings can also be written by calling the putchar() function repeatedly to print a sequence of
single characters.
i=0;
while(str[i] != '\0')
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{
putchar(str[i]);// Print the character on the screen
i++;
}
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Suppressing Input Using scanset

 Used to define set of characters which may be read and assigned to the corresponding string.
 Ex:%[“aeiou”]
 When the above scanset is used ,scanf() will continue to read charecters and put them into the string
until it encounters a character that Is not specified in the scanset.
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
Char str[10];
Printf(“/n enter string:”);
Scanf(“%[aeiou]”,str);
Printf(“the string is :%s”,str);
}
 The code will stop accepting characters as soon as the user enters a character that is not vowel.

(Scanf(“%[^aeiou]”,str);
 Str will accept characters other than those specified in scanset.
 Sscanf() : function accepts a string from which to read input.it accepts a template string and
series of related arguments.
 Sscanf(const char *str,const char*format,[p1,p2…..]);

4.2 String Taxonomy

 In C, we can store a string either in fixed-length format or in variable-length format as shown in
Figure 13.4.

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4.2.1 Fixed-length strings
 When storing a string in a fixed-length format, you need to specify an appropriate size for the string
variable. If the size is too small, then you will not be able to store all the elements in the string. On

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the other hand, if the string size is large, then unnecessarily memory space will be wasted.

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4.2.2 Variable-length strings
 A better option is to use a variable length format in which the string can be expanded or contracted
to accommodate the elements in it. For example, if you declare a string variable to store the name of
a student. If a student has a long name of say 20 characters, then the string can be expanded to
accommodate 20 characters. On the other hand, a student name has only 5 characters, then the string
variable can be contracted to store only 5 characters. However, to use a variable-length string format
you need a technique to indicate the end of elements that are a part of the string. This can be done
either by using length-controlled string or a delimiter.
1. Length-controlled strings: In a length-controlled string, you need to specify the number of
characters in the string.
2. Delimited strings: In this format, the string is ended with a delimiter such as comma, semicolon,

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colon, dash, null character etc. The delimiter is then used to identify the end of the string.

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4.3 Operations on Strings

1. Finding Length of a String
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 The number of characters in a string constitutes the length of the string. For example,
LENGTH("C PROGRAMMING IS FUN") will return 20. Note that even blank spaces are counted as
characters in the string.
 Figure 4.3 shows an algorithm that calculates the length of a string. In this algorithm, I is used as an
index for traversing string STR. To traverse each and every character of STR, we increment the value
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of I. Once we encounter the null character, the control jumps out of the while loop and the length is
initialized with the value of I.
2. Converting Characters of a String into Upper Case
 We have already discussed that in the memory ASCII codes are stored instead of the real values. The
ASCII code for A–Z varies from 65 to 91 and the ASCII code for a–z ranges from 97 to 123. So,
if we have to convert a lower case character into uppercase, we just need to subtract 32 from the
ASCII value of the character.
 Figure 4.4 shows an algorithm that converts the lower case characters of a string into upper case. In
the algorithm, we initialize I to zero. Using I as the index of STR, we traverse each character of STR
from Step 2 to 3. If the character is in lower case, then it is converted into upper case by subtracting
32 from its ASCII value. But if the character is already in upper case, then it is copied into the
UPPERSTR string. Finally, when all the characters have been traversed, a null character is appended
to UPPERSTR (as done in Step 4).

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3. Converting Characters of a String into Lower Case
 If we have to convert an upper case character into lower case, we need to add 32 to the ASCII
value of the character.
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 Figure 13.8 shows an algorithm that converts the upper case characters of a string into lower case.
 In the algorithm, we initialize I to zero. Using I as the index of STR, we traverse each character of
STR from Step 2 to 3. If the character is in upper case, then it is converted into lower case by adding
32 to its ASCII value. But if the character is already in lower case, then it is copied into the Lowerstr
string. Finally, when all the characters have been traversed, a null character is appended to Lowerstr
(as done in Step 4).
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4. Concatenating Two Strings to Form a New String

 If s1 and s2 are two strings, then concatenation operation produces a string which contains
characters of s1 followed by the characters of s2.
 Figure 13.9 shows an algorithm that concatenates two strings. In this algorithm, we first initialize the
tow counters I and J to zero. To concatenate the strings, we have to copy the contents of the first
string followed by the contents of the second string in the third string new_str. Steps 2 to 4 copies the
 contents of first string in new_str. Likewise Steps 6 to 8 copies the contents of second string in
new_str. After the contents have been copied, a null character is appended at the end of new_str.

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5. Appending a String to Another String
 Appending one string to another string involves copying the contents of the source string at the
end of the destination string.
 For example, if S1 and S2 are two strings, then appending S1 to S2 means we have to add the contents
of S1 to S2. So, S1 is the source string and S2 is the destination string. The appending operation
would leave the source string S1 unchanged and the destination string S2 = S2 + S1.
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 Figure 4.5 shows an algorithm that appends two strings. In this algorithm, we first traverse through
the destination string to reach its end, i.e., reach the position where a null character is encountered.
The characters of the source string are then copied into the destination string starting from that
position. Finally, a null character is added to terminate the destination string
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6. Comparing Two Strings

 If S1 and S2 are two strings, then comparing the two strings will give either of the following
results:
(a) S1 and S2 are equal
(b) S1>S2, when in dictionary order, S1 will come after S2
(c) S1 <S2, when in dictionary order, S1 precedes S2
 To compare the two strings, each and every character is compared from both the strings. If all the
characters are the same, then the two strings are said to be equal.
 Figure 4.6 shows an algorithm that compares two strings.
 In this algorithm, we first check whether the two strings are of same length. If not, then there is no
point in moving ahead as it straightaway means that the two strings are not same. However, if the two
strings are of the same length, then we compare character by character to check if all the characters
 are same. If yes, then variable same is set to 1 else if same = 0, then we check which string precedes
the other in dictionary order and print the corresponding message.

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7. Reversing a String
 If S1="HELLO", then reverse of S1="OLLEH". To reverse a string, we just need to swap the first
character with the last, second character with the second last character, and so on.
 Figure 4.7 shows an algorithm that reverses a string.
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 In Step 1, I is initialized to zero and J is initialized to the length of the string-1. In Step 2, while loop
is executed until all the characters of the string are accessed. In Step 3, we swap the i th character of
STR with its jth character. In Step 4, the value of I is incremented and J is decremented to traverse
STR in the forward and backward direction respectively.
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8. Extracting a Substring from Left

 In order to extract a substring from the main string we need to copy the content of the string
starting from the first position to the nth position where n is the number of characters to be
extracted.
 For example, if S1= “Hello World”, then Substr_Left(S1,7)=Hello w.
 The algorithm for extracting the first n characters from a string is shown below:
Step 1: [INITIALIZE] SET I = 0
Step 2: Repeat Step 3 to 4 while STR[I] != NULL AND I<N
Step 3: SET Substr[I] = STR[I]
Step 4: SET I = I+1
 [END OF LOOP]
Step 5: SET Substr[I] = NULL
Step 6: EXIT
Figure 13.13 Algorithm to extract first n characters from a string
 In Step 1, we initialize the index variable I with zero. In Step 2, a while loop is executed until all the
characters of STR have been accessed and I is less than N. In Step 3, the Ith character of STR is copied
in the Ith character of Substr. In Step 4, the value of I is incremented to access the next character in
STR. In Step 5, Substr is appended with a null character.

9. Extracting a Substring from Right

 In order to extract a substring from the right side of the main string we need to first calculate
the position from the left.

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 For example, if S1= “Hello World” and we have to copy 7 characters starting from the right then we
have to actually start extracting characters from the 4th position. This is calculated by total number o
characters - n.
 For example, if S1= “Hello World”, then Substr_Right(S1, 7) = o World
 Figure 13.14 shows an algorithm that extracts n characters from the right of a string.

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Step 1: [INITIALIZE] SET I = 0, J = Length(STR)-N
Step 2: Repeat Step 3 to 4 while STR[J] != NULL
Step 3: SET Substr[I] = STR[J]
Step 4: SET I = I+1, J=J+1
[END OF LOOP]
Step 5: SET Substr[I] = NULL
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Step 6: EXIT
Figure 13.14 Algorithm to extract n characters from the right of a string
 In Step 1, we initialize the index variable I to zero and J to Length (STR)-N so that J points to the
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character from which the string has to be copied in the substring. In Step 2, a while loop is executed
until the null character in STR is accessed. In Step 3, the Jth character of STR is copied in the Ith
character of Substr. In Step 4, the value of I and J are incremented. In Step 5, Substr is appended with
a null character.

10. Extracting a Substring from the Middle of a string

 To extract a substring from a given string requires information about three things. The main
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string, the position of the first character of the substring in the given string and the number of
characters/length of the substring.
 For example, if we have a string,
str[] = “Welcome to the world of programming”
then
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SUBSTRING (str, 15, 5) = World

 Figure 4.8 shows an algorithm that extracts the substring from a middle of a string.
 In this algorithm, we initialize a loop counter I to M. i.e., the position from which the characters have
to be copied. Steps 3 to 6 are repeated until N characters have been copied. With every character
copied, we decrement the value of N. The characters of the string are copied into a string called
substr. At the end a null character is appended to substr to terminate the string.

11. Inserting a String in Another String

 The insertion operation inserts a string S in the main text T at the k th position. The general
syntax of this operation is INSERT(text, position, string).
 For example, INSERT("XYZXYZ",3, "AAA") = "XYZAAAXYZ" Figure 4.9 shows an algorithm to
insert a string in a given text at the specified position. This algorithm first initializes the indices into
the string to zero. From Steps 3 to 5, the contents of NEW_STR are built. If I is exactly equal to the
position at which the substring has to be inserted, then the inner loop copies the contents of the

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substring into NEW_STR. Otherwise, the contents of the text are copied into it.

12. Indexing
 This operation returns the position in the string where the string pattern first occurs.

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 For example, INDEX("Welcome to the world of programming", "world") = 15
 However, if the pattern does not exist in the string, the INDEX function returns 0.

13. Deleting a string from the Main String

 The deletion operation deletes a substring from a given text.
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 We can write it as DELETE(text, position, length).
 For example, DELETE("ABCDXXXABCD", 4, 3) = "ABCDABCD"
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14. Replacing a Pattern with Another Pattern in a String
 The replacement operation is used to replace the pattern P1 by another pattern P2.
 This is done by writing REPLACE(text, pattern1 , pattern2 ).
 For example, ("AAABBBCCC", "BBB", "X") = AAAXCCC
("AAABBBCCC", "X", "YYY")= AAABBBCC
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4.3 Miscellaneous String and Character Functions

4.3.1 Character Manipulation Functions
 Table 8.1 illustrates some character functions contained in ctype.h.
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4.3.2 String Manipulation Functions
 The standard library ‘string.h’ contains many functions for the string manipulation.
1. strlen(str): The length of a string
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 The ‘strlen()’ function can be used to find the length of the string in bytes.
 This function calculates the length of the string excluding the ‘null character’. i.e., the function returns
the number of characters in the string.
Syntax: size_t strlen(const char *str );
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Ex: Write a C program to demonstrate the usage of strlen().

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char str[] =“HELLO WORLD!”;
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printf(“\n The length of the string is: %d”, strlen(str));

}
Output:
The length of the string is: 5
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2. strcpy ( ): String Copy

 The ‘strcpy()’ function copies the contents of source string str2 to destination string str1 including
‘\0’.
 The strcpy() function copies characters from the source string to the destination string until it finds
null character. It returns the argument str1.
Syntax: char * strcpy(char *str1, const char *str2);
Where,
str1: it is the destination string
str2: it is the source string.
Ex: Write a C program to demonstrate the usage of strcpy().
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>

void main()
{
char str1[10], str2[10]= “JAIN”;
strcpy(str1,str2);
printf(“The Source String=%s\n The Destination String=%s”, str1,str2);
}
Output:
The Source String= JAIN
The Destination String= JAIN

3. strncpy(str1,str2,n): String Number Copy

 ‘strncpy()’ function is used to copy ‘n’ characters from the source string str2 to the destination string
str1.

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Syntax : char *strncpy(char *str1, const char *str2, size_t n);
Where,
str1: it is the destination string.
str2: it is the source string.
n: n is the number of characters to be copied into destination string.

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Ex: Write a C program to demonstrate the usage of strncpy().
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
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char str1[10], str2[10]= “Computer”;
strncpy(str1,str2,3);
printf (“The Source String=%s\n The Destination String=%s”, str1,str2);
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}
Output:
The Source String= Computer
The Destination String= Com

4. strcat(str1,str2): String Concatenate(Joining two strings together)

 The strcat function appends the string pointed to by str2 to the end of the string pointed to by str1.
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 The ‘strcat()’ function is used to concatenate or join the two strings.

 The ‘strcat()’ function copies all the characters of string str2 to the end of string str1.
 The NULL character of string str1 is replaced by the first character of str2.
Syntax: char *strcat(char *str1, const char *str2);
Where,
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str1: It is the first string

str2: It is the second string

Ex: Write a C program to demonstrate the usage of strcat().

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char str1[15]= “Good”;
char str2[15]= “Morning”;
strcat(str1,str2);
printf(“The concatenated String=%s”,str1);
}
Output:
The concatenated String=GoodMorning.

5. strncat(str1,str2,n)- String Number Concatenate

 The ‘strncat()’ function is used to concatenate or join n characters of string str2 to the end of string
str1.
Syntax: char *strcat(char *str1, const char *str2, size_t n);
Where,
str1: It is the first string
str2: It is the second string
n: It is the number of characters of string s2 to be concatenated.

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Ex: Write a C program to demonstrate the usage of strncat().
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{

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char str1[15]= “Good”;
char str2[15]= “Morning”;
strncat(str1,str2,4);
printf(“The concatenated String=%s”,str1);
}
Output:
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The concatenated String=GoodMorn.

6. strcmp(str1,str22): String Compare

 This function is used to compare two strings.
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 The comparison starts with first character of each string. The comparison continues till the
corresponding characters differ or until the end of the character is reached.
 The following values are returned after comparison:
1. If two strings are equal, the function returns 0.
2. If str1 is greater than str2, a positive value is returned.
3. If str1 is less than str2, then the function returns a negative value.
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Syntax: int strcmp(const char *str1, const char *str2);

Where,
str1: It is the first string.
str2: It is the second string.
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Ex:
 “car” and “cat” are different strings. The characters ‘r’ and ‘t’ have different ASCII values. It returns
negative value since ASCII value of ‘r’ is less than the ASCII value of ‘t’.
 “car” and “car” are same, the function returns 0.

 “cat” and “car” are different strings. The characters ‘t’ and ‘r’ have different ASCII values. It returns
positive value since ASCII value of ‘t’ is greater than the ASCII value of ‘r’.

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Ex: Write a C program to demonstrate the usage of strcmp().

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#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char str1[10]=”Hello”;
char str2[10]=”Hey”;
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if(strcmp(str1,str2)==0)
printf(“The two strings are identical”);
else
printf(“The two strings are not identical”);
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}
Output:
The two strings are not identical
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7. strncmp(str1,str2,n): String Number Compare

 This function is used to compare first n number of characters in two strings.
 The comparison starts with first character of each string. The comparison continues till the
corresponding characters differ or until the end of the character is reached or specified numbers of
characters have been tested.
 The following values are returned after comparison:
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1. If two strings are equal, the function returns 0.

2. If str1 is greater than str2, a positive value is returned.
3. If str1 is less than str2, then the function returns a negative value.

Syntax: int strcmp(const char *str1, const char *str2, size_t n);
Where,
str1: It is the first string.
str2: It is the second string.
n: It is the number of characters to be compared.

Ex: Write a C program to demonstrate the usage of strcmp().

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char str1[10]=”Hello”;
char str2[10]=”Hey”;
if(strncmp(str1,str2,2)==0)
printf(“The first two characters in the strings are identical”);
else
printf(“The first two characters in the strings are not identical”);
}
Output:
The first two characters in the strings are identical

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8. strchr()
 It takes a string and a character as input and finds out the first occurrence of the given character in the

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string pointed to by the argument str.
 It will return the pointer to the first occurrence of that character; if found otherwise, return Null.

Syntax:
char *strchr(const char *str, int c);
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Ex: Write a C program to demonstrate the usage of strchr().
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
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void main()
{
char string1[30] = "I love to write.";
char *pos;
pos= strchr(string1, 'w');
if(pos)
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printf(“w is found at position %d”, pos);

else
printf(“w is not found”);
}
Output:
w is found at position 10
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9. strrchr()
 It takes a string and a character as input and finds out the last occurrence of a given character in that
string.
 It will return the pointer to the last occurrence of that character if found otherwise, return Null.

Syntax:
char *strrchr(const char *str, int c);

Ex: Write a C program to demonstrate the usage of strrchr().

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
void main()
{
char string1[30] = “Programming in C.";
char *pos;
pos= strrchr(string1, ‘n');
if(pos)
printf(“The last position of n is %d”, pos);
else
printf(“n is not found”);
}
Output:

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The last position of n is 13.

10. strspn()
 The function returns the index of the first character in str1 that dosen’t match any character in str2.

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Syntax:
size_t strspn( const char *str1, const char *str2 );

Ex: Write a C program to demonstrate the usage of strspn().

#include <stdio.h>
e.
#include <string.h>
main()
{
char str1[] = “HAPPY BIRTHDAY TO YOU";
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char str2[]=“HAPPY BIRTHDAY JOE”;

printf(“The position of the first character in str2 that does not
match with that in str1 is %d”, strspn(str1,str2));
}
Output:
The position of the first character in str2 that does not match with that in str1 is 15
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11. strcspn()
 The function returns the index of the first character in str1 that matches any of the characters in str2.
Syntax:
size_t strcspn( const char *str1, const char *str2);
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Ex: Write a C program to demonstrate the usage of strcspn().

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
void main()
{
char str1[] = “PROGRAMMING IN C";
char str2[]=“IN”;
printf(“The position of the first character in str2 that match with
that in str1 is %d”, strcspn(str1,str2));
}
Output:
The position of the first character in str2 that match with that in str1 is 8
12. strpbrk()
 The function strpbrk() returns a pointer to the first occurrence in str1 of any character in str2, or
NULL if none are present.
 The only difference between strpbrk() and strcspn() is that strcspn() returns the index of the character
and strpbrk() returns a pointer to the first occurrence of a character in str2.

Syntax:
char *strpbrk( const char *str1, const char *str2 );

Ex: Write a C program to demonstrate the usage of strpbrk().

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

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void main()
{
char str1[] = “PROGRAMMING IN C";
char str2[]=“AB”;
char *ptr = strpbrk(str1,str2);

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if(ptr== NULL)
printf(“\n No character matches in the two strings”);
else
printf(“\n character in str2 matches with that in str1”);
}
Output:
e.
character in str2 matches with that in str1
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13. strtok()
 The strtok() function is used to isolate sequential tokens in a null –terminated string, str.
 It returns a pointer to the beginning of each subsequent token in the string, after replacing the token
itself with a null character.
 When all tokens are left , a null pointer is returned.
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Syntax:
char *strtok(char *str1, const char *delimiter);

Ex: Write a C program to demonstrate the usage of strtok().

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
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void main()
{
char str[] = "Hello, to, the, World of, Programming";
char delim[] =",";
char *result;
result = strtok(str,delim);
while(result!= NULL)
{
printf(“\n %s", result);
result = strtok(NULL,delim);
}
}
Output:
Hello
to
the
World of
Programming

4.3.3 String Manipulation functions present in <stdlib.h>

1. strtol()
 The strtol() function converts the string pointed by str to a long value.
 The function skips the leading white space characters and stops when it encounters the first non-

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numeric character.
 It stores the address of the first invalid character in str in *end.
 You may pass NULL instead of *end if you do not want to store any invalid characters anywhere.
 Third argument base specifies whether the number is Hexadecimal, binary, octal or decimal
representation.

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Syntax:
long strtol( const char *str, char **end, int base );

Ex: Write a C program to demonstrate the usage of strtol().

#include <stdio.h>
e.
#include <stdlib.h>
void main()
{
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long num;
num = strtol(“12345 Decimal Value” , NULL, 10);
printf(“%ld”, num);
num = strtol(“65432 Octal Value” , NULL, 8);
printf(“%ld”, num);
num = strtol(“10110101 Binary Value” , NULL, 2);
printf(“%ld”, num);
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num = strtol(“A7CB4 Hexadecimal Value” , NULL, 16);

printf(“%ld”, num);
}
Output:
12345
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27418
181
687284

2. strtod()
 The function accepts a string str that has an optional plus(‘+’) or minus sign(‘-’) followed by either:
 A decimal number containing a sequence of decimal digits optionally consisting of a decimal point, or
 A Hexadecimal number consisting of a “OX” or “Ox” followed by a sequence of hexadecimal digits
optionally containing a decimal point.
 In both the cases the number should be optionally followed by an exponent (‘E’ or ‘e’ for decimal
constants and ‘P’ or ‘p’ for hexadecimal constants).
Syntax:
double strtod( const char *str, char **end );

Ex: Write a C program to demonstrate the usage of strtod().

#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
void main()
{
double sum;
num = strtod(“123.345abcdefg”, NULL);
printf(“%lf”, num);
}

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Output:
123.345000

3. atoi()
 The atoi() function converts a given string passed to it as an argument into an integer.

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 The function returns that integer to the calling function.
 However, the string should start with a number.
 The function will stop reading from the string as soon as it encounters a non-numerical character.

Syntax:
int atoi(const char *str);
e.
Example:
i = atoi(“123.456”);
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Result: i=123.

4. atof()
 This function converts the string that it accepts as an argument into a double value and then returns
that to the calling function.
 The string can be terminated with any non-numerical character other than “E” or “e”.
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Syntax:
double atof(const char *str);

Example:
x = atof(“12.39 is the answer”);
Result: x=12.39
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5. atol()
 This function converts the string into a long int value.
 This function will read from the string until it finds any character that should not be in long.

Syntax:
long atol(const char *str);

Example:
x= atol(“12345.6789”);
Result: x = 12345L.
4.4 Arrays of Strings
 An array of strings is declared as
<data_type> <array_name> [row_size][column_size];
Here, the first index row_size will specify how many strings are needed and the second index
column_size will specify the length of every individual string.
Ex: char names[20][30];
 So here, we will allocate space for 20 names where each name can be a maximum 30 characters long.
 Let us see the memory representation of an array of strings. If we have an array declared as char
name[5][10] = {"Ram", "Mohan", "Shyam", "Hari", "Gopal"};
Then in the memory, the array will be stored as shown in Fig. 4.13.

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 By declaring the array names, we allocate 50 bytes. But the actual memory occupied is 27 bytes.
Thus, we see that about half of the memory allocated is wasted.
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 Figure 4.14 shows an algorithm to process individual string from an array of strings. In Step 1, we
initialize the index variable I to zero. In Step 2, a while loop is executed until all the strings in the
array are accessed. In Step 3, each individual string is processed.
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Ex: Write a C Program to Read and Print the Names of N Students of a Class.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char names[5][10];
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int i, n;
printf(“\n Enter the number of students : “);
scanf(“%d”, &n);
printf(“\n Enter the names of students :”);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
scanf(“%s”,names[i]);
}
printf(“\n Names of the students are : \n”);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
puts(names[i]);
}
 Example: Write a C program to find the length of string without using strlen() function.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char str[ ];
int count=0; Output:
printf(“Enter the string\n”); Enter the string
gets(str); Good morning
for(i=0;str[i]!=’\0’;i++) Length of the string is=12
{

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count=count+1;
}
printf(“Length of the string is=%d\n”, count);
}

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Example: Write a C program to copy string without using strcpy() function.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char src[100],dest[100];
e.
int i; Output:
printf(“Enter the string\n”); Enter the string
gets(str); rahul
for(i=0; str1[i]!=’\0’; i++)
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copied string is= rahul
{
str2[i] = str1[i];
}
str2[i]=’\0’;
printf(“copied string is=%d\n”, str2);
}
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3. strncpy(dest,src,n): String Number Copy

Syntax
strncpy(dest,src,n);
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Where,
dest: it is the destination string.
src: it is the source string.
n: n is the number of characters to be copied into destination string.

 ‘strncpy()’ function is used to copy ‘n’ characters from the source string src to the destination
string dest.

Write a C program to demonstrate the usage of strncpy().

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
 char src[10]= “Computer”, dest[10];
strncpy(dest,src,3);
printf (“The Source String=%s\n The Destination String=%s”,src,dest);
}

Output: The Source String=Computer

The Destination String= Com

src C CO O M M P PU UT TE E Rr R \0/ \0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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C CO OM M
dest
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Example: Write a C program to demonstrate string concatenation without using strcat().

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#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char s1[15]= “Good”;
char s2[15]= “Morning”, s3[20];
e.
int k,i;
for (i=0; s1[i]!=’\0’; i++)
{
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s3[i] = s1[i];
k = k +1;
}
for (i=0; s2[i]!=’\0’; i++)
{
s3[i] = s2[i];
k = k +1;
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}
s3[k] = ‘\0’;
printf(“The concatenated String=%s”,s3);
}
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5. strncat(s1,s2,n)- String Number Concatenate

Syntax strncat(s1,s2,n);
Where,
s1: It is the first string
s2: It is the second string
n: It is the number of characters of string s2 to be concatenated.

 The ‘strncat()’ function is used to concatenate or join n characters of string s2 to the end of string s1.
 Example: Write a C program to demonstrate the usage of strncat().
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char s1[15]= “Good”;
char s2[15]= “Morning”;
strncat(str1,str2,4);
printf(“The concatenated String=%s”,str1);
}
Output: The concatenated String=GoodMorn.

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s1
G o o d \0
0 1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 12 13 14
s2

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0 M o r n i n g \0 1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
s1
G o o d M o r n \0
0 1
e. 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 12 13 14
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6. strcmp(s1,s2): String Compare

Syntax
strcmp(s1,s2);
Where,
s1: It is the first string.
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s2: It is the second string.

 This function is used to compare two strings.

 The comparison starts with first character of each string. The comparison continues till the corresponding
characters differ or until the end of the character is reached.
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 The following values are returned after comparison:

1. If two strings are equal, the function returns 0.
2. If s1 is greater than s2, a positive value is returned.
3. If s1 is less than s2, then the function returns a negative value.
Example:
1.
s1 C CA AR T\0 /0

s2 C CA AT R\0 /0
strcmp(s1,s2);
 “car” and “cat” are different strings. The characters ‘r’ and ‘t’ have different ASCII values. It returns negative
value since ASCII value of ‘r’ is less than the ASCII value of ‘t’.

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2.
s1 C
A AR \0
T /0

s2

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C C
A AR \0/
T /0
strcmp(s1,s2);
 Since both the strings are same, the function returns 0.

Example: Write a C program to demonstrate the usage of strcmp().

#include<stdio.h>
e.
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char s1[10]=”Hello”;
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char s2[10]=”Hey”;
if(strcmp(s1,s2)==0)
printf(“The two strings are identical”);
else
printf(“The two strings are not identical”);
}
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Example: Write a C program to compare two strings without using strcmp().

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
vt

{ int i;
char s1[10]=”Hello”;
char s2[10]=”Hey”;
len1 = strlen(s1);
len2 = strlen(s2);
if (strlen(s1) != strlen(s2))
printf(“The two strings are different”);
else{
for (i=0; s1[i]!=’\0’; i++)
{
if(s1[i]!=s2[i])
printf(“strings are different”);
break;
}
 }
printf(“The two strings are identical”);
}

7. strncmp(s1,s2,n): String Number Compare

Syntax strncmp(s1,s2,n);
Where,
s1: It is the first string.
s2: It is the second string.
n: It is the number of characters to be compared.
 This function is used to compare first n number of characters in two strings.

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 The comparison starts with first character of each string. The comparison continues till the corresponding
characters differ or until the end of the character is reached or specified numbers of characters have been tested.
 The following values are returned after comparison:
1. If two strings are equal, the function returns 0.

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2. If s1 is greater than s2, a positive value is returned.
3. If s1 is less than s2, then the function returns a negative value.
Example: Write a C program to demonstrate the usage of strcmp().
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
e.
{
char s1[10]=”Hello”;
char s2[10]=”Hey”;
if(strcmp(s1,s2,2)==0)
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printf(“The first two characters in the strings are identical”);

else
printf(“The first two characters in the strings are not identical”);
}
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3.6 Basic Algorithms
3.6.1 Searching Algorithms
 The process of identifying or finding a particular record or element is called searching. This can be implemented
using array. Here we have two searching techniques.
1. Linear Search: linear search or sequential search is a method for finding an element within a list. It sequentially
checks each element of the list until a match is found or the whole list has been searched.
 Linear search is usually very simple to implement, and is practical when the list has only a few elements, or when
performing a single search in an unordered list.
 A simple approach is to do linear search:
 Start from the leftmost element of arr[] and one by one compare j with each element of arr[].
 If j matches with an element, return the index number.

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 If j doesn’t match with any of elements, return -1 or element not found in an arr[].

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Example: C Program to search the ‘key’ element in an array using linear search algorithm.
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
e.
int array[100], key, i, n;

printf("Enter number of elements in array\n");

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scanf("%d", &n); Output:
printf("Enter elements of array\n"); Enter number of elements in
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) array:
scanf("%d", &array [ i ] ); 5
Enter elements of array
printf("Enter a number to search\n"); 100
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scanf("%d", &key); 25
35
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) 30
{ 56
if (array[i] == key) Enter a number to search:
{ 30
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printf("%d is present at location %d.\n", key, i+1); 30 is present at location 4

break;
}
}
if (i == n)
printf("%d isn't present in the array.\n", key);
}

2. Binary Search:
 Binary search is a fast searching algorithm. This search algorithm works on the principle of divide and conquers.
 Binary search works on sorted arrays. Binary search begins by comparing the middle element of the array with
the target value. If the target value matches the middle element, its position in the array is returned. If the target
 value is less than the middle element, the search continues in the lower half of the array. If the target value is
greater than the middle element, the search continues in the upper half of the array.

How Binary Search Works?

 For a binary search to work, it is mandatory for the target array to be sorted. The following is our sorted array and
let us assume that we need to search the location of value 31 using binary search.

First, we shall determine half of the array by using this formula −

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mid = low + (high - low) / 2
Here it is, 0 + (9 - 0 ) / 2 = 4 (integer value of 4.5). So, 4 is the mid of the array.

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 Now we compare the value stored at location 4, with the value being searched, i.e. 31. We find that the value at
e.
location 4 is 27, which is not a match. As the value is greater than 27 and we have a sorted array, so we also know
that the target value must be in the upper portion of the array.
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We change our low to mid + 1 and find the new mid value again.
low = mid + 1
mid = low + (high - low) / 2
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 Our new mid is 7 now. We compare the value stored at location 7 with our target value 31.
vt

 The value stored at location 7 is not a match; rather it is more than what we are looking for. So, the value must be
in the lower part from this location.

 Hence, we calculate the mid again. This time it is 5.

 We compare the value stored at location 5 with our target value. We find that it is a match.

 We conclude that the target value 31 is stored at location 5.

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 Binary search halves the searchable items and thus reduces the count of comparisons to be made to very less
numbers.

Example: C Program to search key elements in array using binary search algorithms.

co
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int n, i, arr[50], key, first, last, middle;
Output:
printf("Enter total number of elements :");
Enter number of
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter array elements:\n");
e. elements in array:
5
for (i=0; i<n; i++)
Enter elements of array
{
10
scanf("%d",&arr[i]);
25
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}
35
printf("Enter a number to find :");
50
scanf("%d", &key);
65
first = 0;
Enter a number to
last = n-1;
search:
while (first <= last)
65
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{ middle = (first+last)/2;
65 is present at location 5
if ( arr[middle] == key)
{
printf("%d found at location %d\n", key, middle+1);
break;
}
vt

else if ( arr[middle] < key)

{
first = middle + 1;
}
else
{
last = middle - 1;
}
middle = (first + last)/2;
}
if(first > last)
{
printf("Not found! %d is not present in the list.",key);
 }
}

Sorting Algorithms
 A sorting algorithm is an algorithm that puts/arrange the elements of a list in a certain order. Order may be
numerical (increasing/decreasing) or alphabetical form. Here we have two different sorting algorithms.

1. Selection sort
 Selection sort is a simple sorting algorithm. This sorting algorithm is an in-place comparison-based algorithm in
which the list is divided into two parts, the sorted part at the left end and the unsorted part at the right end.

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 Initially, the sorted part is empty and the unsorted part is the entire list.
 The smallest element is selected from the unsorted array and swapped with the leftmost element, and that element
becomes a part of the sorted array.

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 This process continues moving unsorted array boundary by one element to the right. This algorithm is not suitable
for large data sets.
How Selection Sort Works?
e.
 Consider the following depicted array as an example.
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 For the first position in the sorted list, the whole list is scanned sequentially. The first position where 14 is stored
presently, we search the whole list and find that 10 is the lowest value.

 So we replace 14 with 10. After one iteration 10, which happens to

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 e the minimum value in the list, appears in the first position of the sorted list.

 For the second position, where 33 is residing, we start scanning the rest of the list in a linear manner.
vt

 We find that 14 is the second lowest value in the list and it should appear at the second place. We swap these
values.

 After two iterations, two least values are positioned at the beginning in a sorted manner.
 The same process is applied to the rest of the items in the array. Following is a pictorial depiction of the entire
sorting process –

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e.
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Example: C Program to sort given array elements using selection sort algorithm.
#include<stdio.h>
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int main()
{
int i, j, n, temp, a[25],min;

printf("enter the size of array: ");

scanf("%d", &n);
Output:
printf("Enter the array elements: "); Enter the size of array:
for(i=0; i< n; i++) 5
scanf("%d", &a[i]); Enter elements of array
100
for(i=0;i<n;i++) 25
{ 35
min=i; 30
56
Sorted elements:
25
30
 for(j=i+1;j<n;j++)
{
if( a[j] < a[min] )
{
min = j ;
}
}
temp = a [ i ];
a [ i ] = a [ min ];
a [ min ] = temp;
}
printf("Sorted elements: ");

m
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
printf(" %d",a[i]);
}

2. Bubble Sort.

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 Bubble Sort is the simplest sorting algorithm that works by repeatedly swapping the adjacent elements if
they are in wrong order.
 Bubble sort algorithm starts by comparing the first two elements of an array and swapping if necessary, i.e.,
if you want to sort the elements of array in ascending order and if the first element is greater than second
then, you need to swap the elements but, if the first element is smaller than second, you mustn't swap the
e.
element.
 Then, again second and third elements are compared and swapped if it is necessary and this process go on
until last and second last element is compared and swapped. This completes the first step of bubble sort.
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 If there are n elements to be sorted then, the process mentioned above should be repeated n-1 times to get
required result. But, for better performance, in second step, last and second last elements are not compared
because; the proper element is automatically placed at last after first step. Similarly, in third step, last and
second last and second last and third last elements are not compared and so on.
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Example: C Program to sort the given array elements using Bubble sort Algorithm.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a[50],n,i,j,temp;
printf("Enter the size of array: ");
scanf("%d",&n); Output:
Enter the size of array:
printf("Enter the array elements: ");
5
for(i=0;i<n;++i) Enter elements of array
30
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
25
for(i=1;i<n;++i) 35
10

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for(j=0;j<(n-i);++j)
56
if(a[j]>a[j+1]) Sorted elements:
10
{
25

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temp=a[j]; 30
35
a[j]=a[j+1];
56
a[j+1]=temp;
}
e.
printf("\nArray after sorting: ");
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
printf("%d ",a[i]);
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}
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