SEMESTER, 2013/2014 SESSION CSC 304: OPERATING SYSTEMS

Instruction: Answer TWO questions from EACH section

1a. Explain briefly the concept of a process as used in operating system

ANSWER:
a process is a program or application that is being executed. A process is typically an
independent program that, while running, interacts with the computer's hardware and other
software. Each process has its own memory space and system resources, which helps to prevent
it from interfering with the execution of other processes. Processes are a key concept in modern
operating systems, as they allow multiple programs to run concurrently on a computer.

b. Give three examples of a process. (4 marks)

ANSWER:
1. A web browser is a process that allows you to browse the internet and view websites.
2. A word processor is a process that allows you to create, edit, and save documents.
3. A media player is a process that allows you to play audio and video files.

с. What are the typical reasons for process termination? (4 marks)

ANSWER:
There are several reasons why a process might be terminated, including:

● The process has completed its execution and is no longer needed.

● The process has encountered an error or other condition that prevents it from continuing
to run.
● The process is no longer responding to inputs, and the operating system has determined
that it is unresponsive.
● The process has been explicitly terminated by the user or another process.

d. Discuss briefly the discrete process states process goes through? (4 marks)
ANSWER:
In a discrete process, the state of the process changes at discrete intervals rather than
continuously. These changes can be thought of as transitions from one state to another. The
process can be represented by a state diagram, which shows the possible states of the process and
the transitions between them. The process can be in only one state at a time, and the transitions
between states are determined by the rules of the system.

The process begins in an initial state, and then transitions to other states based on the inputs and
the rules of the system. The possible states and transitions between them depend on the specific
system being modeled. For example, in a simple system with two states, the process might
transition from state A to state B based on a specific input, and then back to state A based on
another input.

In general, the states of a discrete process can be thought of as the possible configurations of the
system at a given time. The transitions between states represent changes in the configuration of
the system as it responds to external inputs. The state diagram provides a visual representation of
the possible states and transitions in the system, which can be useful for understanding and
analyzing the behavior of the process.

e. What is process spawning? (4 marks)

ANSWER:
Process spawning is the creation of a new process from an existing process. This is a common
operation in operating systems, and is often used to create child processes that can perform
specific tasks or execute different programs.

The process that creates the new process is known as the parent process, and the newly created
process is known as the child process. The child process inherits certain attributes from the
parent process, such as the memory space and open files, but it has its own unique process
identifier (PID) and can be managed independently.

Process spawning is typically done through a system call, such as fork() in Unix-like operating
systems or CreateProcess() in Windows. This system call creates a copy of the parent process
and assigns it a new PID, allowing the child process to run concurrently with the parent process.

Process spawning is an important concept in operating systems, as it allows for the creation of
multiple processes that can run concurrently and perform different tasks. This can improve the
efficiency and performance of the system, as it allows multiple processes to be executed
simultaneously on multiple CPU cores.

2a. Briefly discuss the components of operating systems? (5 marks)

ANSWER:
Operating systems are the software that manages the hardware and software resources of a
computer. They provide the interface between the user and the computer, allowing users to run
programs and interact with the system. Operating systems typically have several components,
including:
The kernel: The core of the operating system, responsible for managing the hardware and
software resources of the system.
Memory management: The component of the operating system that manages the allocation and
deallocation of memory to processes.
Process management: The component that manages the creation, execution, and termination of
processes.
I/O management: The component responsible for managing input and output operations, such as
reading and writing to files or devices.
File system: The component that manages the organization and access of files on the system.
Security: The component that enforces security policies and protects the system and its resources
from unauthorized access.
These components work together to provide the basic functionality of an operating system,
allowing it to manage the resources of the system and provide an interface for users and
programs to interact with the system.

b Mention and describe the types of operating systems? (5 marks)

ANSWER:
There are several different types of operating systems, each with its own unique characteristics
and features. The most common types of operating systems include:

Single-user, single-task operating systems: These operating systems are designed to support a
single user and a single task at a time. They are typically used in small, embedded systems or
devices that do not require complex multitasking capabilities.
Single-user, multitasking operating systems: These operating systems are designed to support a
single user, but they allow multiple tasks to run concurrently. This allows the user to run multiple
programs at the same time, improving the efficiency of the system.
Multi-user operating systems: These operating systems are designed to support multiple users,
each with their own login and resources. They allow multiple users to access the system
simultaneously and share its resources, such as files and devices.
Real-time operating systems: These operating systems are designed to support real-time
applications, which require fast and predictable response times. They are used in critical systems
where timing is essential, such as in control systems or medical equipment.
Embedded operating systems: These operating systems are designed for use in embedded
devices, such as smartphones, smart TVs, or industrial control systems. They are typically
smaller and more specialized than general-purpose operating systems, and are optimized for the
specific requirements of the device.
These are the most common types of operating systems, but there are many other specialized
operating systems that are designed for specific purposes or applications.
c What is deadlock? How can it be avoided in a concurrent environment? (10 marks)
ANSWER:
In a concurrent environment, multiple processes or threads may be running simultaneously and
sharing resources. A deadlock occurs when two or more processes are waiting for each other to
release a resource, resulting in a situation where none of the processes can make progress. This
can happen when each process holds a resource that the other process needs, and both are
waiting for the other to release it.

Deadlocks can be avoided in a concurrent environment by using one of the following methods:

Mutual exclusion: Ensuring that only one process can access a shared resource at a time can
prevent deadlocks by eliminating the possibility of two processes waiting for each other to
release the same resource.
Hold and wait: Allowing processes to hold on to resources they have already acquired while
waiting for other resources can prevent deadlocks by avoiding the situation where a process is
blocked while holding a resource that it no longer needs.
No preemption: Preventing processes from forcibly removing resources from other processes can
prevent deadlocks by eliminating the possibility of one process taking a resource that another
process is waiting for.
Circular wait: Avoiding the situation where processes form a circular chain where each process is
waiting for a resource held by the next process in the chain can prevent deadlocks. This can be
done by imposing a total ordering on the resources and requiring processes to acquire them in
that order.
By using one or more of these methods, it is possible to avoid deadlocks in a concurrent
environment and ensure that the processes can make progress without becoming stuck.

3a What is the importance of the process control block in an operating system? (10 marks)
ANSWER:
The process control block (PCB) is a data structure used by the operating system to manage
processes. It contains information about a process, such as its current state, memory usage, and
other resources it is using. The PCB is an important component of the operating system because
it allows the system to keep track of the processes running on the system and manage their
execution.

Some of the key functions of the PCB include:

Storing the current state of the process: The PCB keeps track of the current state of the process,
such as whether it is running, blocked, or terminated. This information is used by the operating
system to manage the execution of the process and decide when to allocate resources to it.
Storing the memory usage of the process: The PCB keeps track of the memory usage of the
process, including the memory locations it is using and the size of its memory footprint. This
information is used by the operating system to manage the allocation and deallocation of
memory to the process.
Storing the resources used by the process: The PCB keeps track of the resources used by the
process, such as files, devices, and other resources it has access to. This information is used by
the operating system to manage the allocation and deallocation of resources to the process.
Overall, the PCB is an important component of the operating system because it allows the system
to keep track of the processes running on the system and manage their execution effectively.

b How do the various processor scheduling algorithms select the most appropriate process
in a ready state? (10 marks)
ANSWER:
Processor scheduling algorithms are used by the operating system to decide which process to
execute next from the set of processes in the ready state. These algorithms use different criteria
to select the most appropriate process, depending on the specific requirements and goals of the
system. Some common criteria used by processor scheduling algorithms include:

CPU utilization: Algorithms that prioritize processes with high CPU utilization aim to maximize
the utilization of the CPU, allowing the system to process more work in a given time.
Throughput: Algorithms that prioritize processes with high throughput aim to maximize the
number of processes that are completed in a given time, allowing the system to handle a larger
number of processes.
Turnaround time: Algorithms that prioritize processes with low turnaround time aim to minimize
the time it takes for a process to complete, allowing the system to provide quicker response times
to the user.
Waiting time: Algorithms that prioritize processes with low waiting time aim to minimize the
amount of time a process spends waiting in the ready queue, allowing the system to provide
better response times to the user.
Overall, the specific criteria used by a processor scheduling algorithm will depend on the
requirements and goals of the system, and the algorithm will select the most appropriate process
from the ready queue based on these criteria.

c Explain the benefits and constraints of a Software factory / Production environment

SECTION B
ANSWER:
A software factory, also known as a production environment, is a set of tools, processes, and
practices that are used to automate the development, testing, and deployment of software. This
approach can provide several benefits, including:

Improved efficiency and productivity: Automating repetitive tasks and processes can reduce the
time and effort required to develop and deploy software, allowing teams to be more productive
and efficient.
Increased consistency and quality: Automating processes can help ensure that software is
developed and deployed in a consistent and standardized way, improving the quality and
reliability of the software.
Better collaboration and communication: A software factory can provide a centralized platform
for teams to collaborate and communicate, improving coordination and reducing the risk of
errors or inconsistencies.
However, a software factory also has some constraints and limitations, including:

High upfront costs: Implementing a software factory can require significant upfront investment
in tools, infrastructure, and processes, which can be a barrier for some organizations.
Difficulty adapting to change: Once a software factory is in place, it can be difficult to change or
adapt it to new requirements or technologies. This can limit the flexibility and agility of the
organization.
Dependence on automation: A software factory relies heavily on automation, which can
introduce new risks and challenges, such as the need to maintain and manage the automation
tools and processes.
Overall, a software factory can provide significant benefits, but it also comes with some
constraints and limitations that organizations need to consider before implementing it.

4 Explain the following concepts:

a. Dynamic loading :Dynamic loading is a technique used in computer programming to load a program
or library into memory at runtime, rather than at compile time. This allows the program to be more
flexible and adaptable, as it can load new code or resources as needed, rather than being limited to the
code and resources that were available at compile time.

Dynamic loading is typically done through a function or system call that loads the desired program or
library into memory and returns a handle or pointer that can be used to access it. This allows the program
to use the loaded code or resources as if they were part of the original program, without the need to
recompile or restart the program.

Dynamic loading can provide several benefits, including:

Improved flexibility and adaptability: By allowing programs to load new code or resources at runtime,
dynamic loading can make programs more flexible and adaptable to changing requirements or
environments.
Reduced memory usage: By only loading code or resources that are actually needed, dynamic loading can
reduce the memory usage of a program, allowing it to run more efficiently on resource-constrained
systems.
Improved modularity and extensibility: By allowing programs to load and use external libraries or
modules, dynamic loading can improve the modularity and extensibility of a program, making it easier to
add new features or functionality.
Overall, dynamic loading is a useful technique that can improve the flexibility and efficiency of programs
by allowing them to load code and resources at runtime.

b.Fragmentation:Fragmentation is the process by which contiguous blocks of memory or

storage are divided into smaller, non-contiguous blocks. This can happen when a program
allocates and deallocates memory or storage dynamically, resulting in blocks of unused memory
or storage that cannot be used by other programs.

Fragmentation can have several negative effects, including:

Reduced memory or storage efficiency: When fragmentation occurs, the available memory or
storage is divided into small, non-contiguous blocks, which can make it difficult for programs to
allocate the memory or storage they need. This can lead to inefficient use of the available
memory or storage, as programs may have to allocate multiple small blocks instead of a single
large block.
Increased overhead: Managing fragmentation can require additional overhead, as the operating
system or program must keep track of the available blocks of memory or storage and try to
allocate them in a way that reduces fragmentation. This can reduce the performance and
efficiency of the system.
Increased likelihood of out-of-memory errors: When fragmentation occurs, programs may have
difficulty allocating the memory or storage they need, even if there is enough available overall.
This can lead to out-of-memory errors, where a program cannot allocate the memory it needs to
run properly.
Overall, fragmentation is a common problem in memory and storage management, and can have
negative effects on the efficiency and performance of a system. To avoid fragmentation,
programs can use memory or storage allocation strategies that minimize the likelihood of
fragmentation, such as using fixed-size blocks or using a buddy allocation system.
с Swapping:Swapping is a technique used by operating systems to provide more virtual memory
to programs than is physically available on the system. It works by temporarily moving some of
the data in physical memory (RAM) to a disk or other storage device, freeing up space in
physical memory for other programs.

When a program needs more memory than is available in physical memory, the operating system
will swap some of the data in physical memory to the disk, allowing the program to use the
newly-freed memory. This process is transparent to the program, and it continues to access the
data as if it were still in physical memory.

Swapping can provide several benefits, including:

Allowing programs to use more memory than is physically available: By temporarily moving
data to disk, swapping allows programs to use more memory than is physically available on the
system, providing them with a larger virtual memory space.
Improving the utilization of physical memory: Swapping allows the operating system to more
efficiently use the available physical memory, by moving infrequently-used data to disk and
making room for more actively-used data.
Allowing more programs to run concurrently: By providing more virtual memory to programs,
swapping allows more programs to run concurrently, improving the performance and efficiency
of the system.
However, swapping also has some drawbacks, including:

Reduced performance: Swapping data to and from disk can be slower than accessing data in
physical memory, so programs that are swapped out may run slower than if they were using only
physical memory.
Increased wear on storage devices: Swapping data to and from disk can increase the wear on the
storage devices, potentially reducing their lifespan and reliability.
Increased overhead: Swapping requires the operating system to manage the allocation and
deallocation of memory, which can introduce additional overhead and reduce the performance of
the system.
Overall, swapping is a useful technique that can provide more virtual memory to programs and
improve the utilization of physical memory, but it also has some drawbacks that need to be
considered when using it.

d. Paging : Paging is a memory management technique used by operating systems to provide more
virtual memory to programs than is physically available on the system. It works by dividing the virtual
memory of a program into fixed-size blocks called pages, and the physical memory of the system into
fixed-size blocks called page frames.

When a program needs to access a page of its virtual memory, the operating system checks whether the
page is currently in a page frame in physical memory. If the page is not in physical memory, the operating
system will bring it into memory from the disk or other storage device, and update the page table to
reflect the new location of the page. This process is transparent to the program, and it continues to access
the data as if it were in the same location in virtual memory.

Paging can provide several benefits, including:

Allowing programs to use more memory than is physically available: By dividing the virtual memory of a
program into pages and the physical memory of the system into page frames, paging allows programs to
use more memory than is physically available on the system, providing them with a larger virtual memory
space.
Improving the utilization of physical memory: Paging allows the operating system to more efficiently use
the available physical memory, by moving infrequently-used pages to disk and making room for more
actively-used pages.
Allowing more programs to run concurrently: By providing more virtual memory to programs, paging
allows more programs to run concurrently, improving the performance and efficiency of the system.
However, paging also has some drawbacks, including:

Reduced performance: Paging data to and from disk can be slower than accessing data in physical
memory, so programs that are paged out may run slower than if they were using only physical memory.
Increased wear on storage devices: Paging data to and from disk can increase the wear on the storage
devices, potentially reducing their lifespan and reliability.
Increased overhead: Paging requires the operating system to manage the allocation and deallocation of
memory, as well as the page table, which can introduce additional overhead and reduce the performance
of the system.
Overall, paging is a useful technique that can provide more virtual memory to programs and improve the
utilization of physical memory, but it also has some drawbacks that need to be considered when using it.

5a What is Belady's anomaly (1 mark)

ANSWER:
Belady's anomaly is a phenomenon that occurs in computer systems with a system that uses a
dynamic storage allocation strategy called "first-in, first-out" (FIFO). In such systems, it is
possible for the system to have more page faults when it has more frames available for caching
than when it has fewer frames. This is because with more frames, the system is more likely to
cache pages that will be evicted in the near future, leading to more page faults. This phenomenon
is named after computer scientist Belady Minard.

b Explain page replacement (3 marks)

ANSWER:
Page replacement is a technique used by operating systems to manage memory. When a
computer program needs to use more memory than is currently available, the operating system
can move some of the data that is stored in memory to a storage device, such as a hard drive, to
free up space. This process is called "page replacement.

c Describe and illustrate these page replacement algorithms, using this reference string:
2, 3, 2, 1, 5, 2, 4, 5, 3, 2, 5, 2 with three (3) frames.
i.FIFO page replacement : FIFO page replacement is a page replacement algorithm that uses
the first-in, first-out (FIFO) principle to determine which pages to replace. In this algorithm, the
operating system maintains a queue of pages in memory, with the oldest page at the front of the
queue and the most recently added page at the back. When a new page needs to be loaded into
memory, the operating system checks to see if there is any available space. If there is, the page is
simply added to the end of the queue. If there is no available space, the operating system
removes the page at the front of the queue (the oldest page) and replaces it with the new page.

To illustrate how FIFO page replacement works, let's use the reference string 2, 3, 2, 1, 5, 2, 4, 5,
3, 2, 5, 2 with three frames. The first three pages (2, 3, 2) are initially loaded into the three
frames, leaving the queue empty. The next page in the reference string is 1, which is not
currently in memory. Since there is an available frame, the operating system simply adds the
page to the end of the queue, resulting in the queue [2, 3, 1] and the frames [2, 3, 2].

The next page in the reference string is 5, which is not currently in memory. Since there is no
available frame, the operating system must perform a page replacement. In this case, the page at
the front of the queue (2) is removed and replaced with the page 5, resulting in the queue [3, 1, 5]
and the frames [3, 2, 5].

The process continues in this way until all pages in the reference string have been processed. At
the end, the queue and frames will be in the following state:

Queue: [4, 5, 2]
Frames: [1, 5, 2]

As you can see, using FIFO page replacement with the given reference string and three frames
resulted in six page faults.

ii. Optimal page replacement:

Optimal page replacement is a page replacement algorithm that uses the principle of "least
recently used" (LRU) to determine which pages to replace. In this algorithm, the operating
system maintains a queue of pages in memory, with the most recently used page at the front of
the queue and the least recently used page at the back. When a new page needs to be loaded into
memory, the operating system checks to see if there is any available space. If there is, the page is
simply added to the front of the queue. If there is no available space, the operating system
removes the page at the back of the queue (the least recently used page) and replaces it with the
new page.

To illustrate how optimal page replacement works, let's use the same reference string (2, 3, 2, 1,
5, 2, 4, 5, 3, 2, 5, 2) with three frames. The first three pages (2, 3, 2) are initially loaded into the
three frames, leaving the queue empty. The next page in the reference string is 1, which is not
currently in memory. Since there is an available frame, the operating system simply adds the
page to the front of the queue, resulting in the queue [1, 2, 3] and the frames [2, 3, 2].

The next page in the reference string is 5, which is not currently in memory. Since there is no
available frame, the operating system must perform a page replacement. In this case, the optimal
page to replace is the one that will not be used for the longest time in the future. In this case, that
is page 3, which is not used again in the reference string. So, the operating system removes page
3 from the queue and replaces it with page 5, resulting in the queue [1, 2, 5] and the frames [2, 1,
5].

The process continues in this way until all pages in the reference string have been processed. At
the end, the queue and frames will be in the following state:

Queue: [4, 5, 2]
Frames: [1, 5, 2]

As you can see, using optimal page replacement with the given reference string and three frames
resulted in four page faults, which is fewer than the six page faults that occurred using FIFO
page replacement.

iii. LRU page replacement

ANSWER:
The LRU (Least Recently Used) page replacement algorithm is a page replacement algorithm
that replaces the page that has been in the frame the longest without being used. The idea is that
pages that have not been used for a long time are the least likely to be used in the near future, so
they are the first to be removed to make space for new pages.
To illustrate, let's again use the reference string 2, 3, 2, 1, 5, 2, 4, 5, 3, 2, 5, 2 with three memory
frames. The frames are initially empty, so the first three pages of the reference string are loaded
into the frames. The frames now contain the pages 2, 3, 2, in that order.

Next, the page with value 1 is requested. Since there is no room in the frames, one of the existing
pages must be removed to make space for the new page. The LRU algorithm looks at the recent
usage of the pages and finds that the page with value 3 has not been used for the longest time, so
it is removed from the frame to make space for the new page. The frames now contain the pages
2, 2, 1.

The next page requested is 5, which is not already in the frames. The LRU algorithm again looks
at the recent usage of the pages and finds that the page with value 2 has not been used for the
longest time, so it is removed from the frame to make space for the new page. The frames now
contain the pages 2, 1, 5.

The process continues in this way, with the LRU algorithm always replacing the page that has
not been used for the longest time. This continues until all pages in the reference string have
been requested.

d Which of this is the best algorithm and why. (1 mark)

ANSWER:
In general, the optimal page replacement algorithm is considered to be the best, as it always
replaces the page that will not be used for the longest time in the future, so it has the lowest
number of page faults on average. However, it can be difficult to implement in practice, so other
algorithms such as FIFO and LRU may be used instead. The performance of these algorithms
can vary depending on the specific reference string and the number of memory frames.

a. Distinguish between Network - attached storage (NAS) and Storage - Area Network
(SAN).
ANSWER:
Network-attached storage (NAS) and Storage-Area Network (SAN) are two different types of
storage systems that are used in computer networks.

NAS is a type of network storage system that is connected to the network and provides storage
services to clients over the network. NAS devices are typically dedicated storage devices that are
separate from the servers and workstations in the network. They are accessed over the network
using network protocols such as NFS or SMB/CIFS, and they can be accessed by multiple clients
simultaneously. NAS devices are often used for storing files that need to be shared among
multiple users, such as documents, images, and videos.

SAN is a type of network storage system that is connected to the network using a high-speed
connection such as Fibre Channel. SAN devices are typically block-based storage devices that
are accessed using a storage protocol such as SCSI or iSCSI. Unlike NAS, SAN devices are not
accessed directly by clients over the network. Instead, they are accessed by servers in the
network using the storage protocol, and the servers then provide the storage services to clients
over the network. SAN devices are often used for storing data that is accessed by applications
running on servers, such as databases and virtual machines.

In summary, the main difference between NAS and SAN is the way they are connected to the
network and accessed by clients. NAS devices are connected to the network using network
protocols and are accessed directly by clients over the network, while SAN devices are
connected to the network using a high-speed connection and are accessed by servers using a
storage protocol.

b. List six attributes of a file.

ANSWER:
A file is a collection of data that is stored on a computer or other storage device. There are
several attributes or characteristics that describe a file, including:

Name: The name of a file is a unique identifier that is used to identify the file on the storage
device. The name of a file typically consists of one or more characters, and it may include letters,
numbers, and special characters.

Type: The type of a file describes the format of the file's data and the software that can be used to
open and read the file. For example, a file with the ".txt" extension is a text file that can be
opened and read with a text editor, while a file with the ".jpg" extension is an image file that can
be opened and viewed with an image viewer.

Size: The size of a file is the amount of storage space that the file occupies on the storage device.
The size of a file is typically measured in bytes or kilobytes, and it can be used to determine how
much space the file takes up on the device and how long it will take to transfer the file over a
network.

Location: The location of a file is the path or address on the storage device where the file is
stored. The location of a file typically consists of the names of the directories or folders that
contain the file, along with the file's name.
Permissions: The permissions of a file determine which users or groups are allowed to access the
file and what actions they are allowed to perform on the file. For example, a file may have
read-only permissions, which allow users to read the file but not modify it, or it may have
read-write permissions, which allow users to read and modify the file.

Timestamps: Timestamps are dates and times that are associated with a file and that indicate
when the file was created, modified, or accessed. Timestamps can be used to track the history of
a file and to determine whether the file has been modified recently.

c. Briefly describe the access methods in file system.

ANSWER:
In a file system, an access method is a mechanism for accessing data stored on a storage device,
such as a hard drive. There are several different access methods that can be used, depending on
the specific needs of the system and the type of data being accessed. Some common access
methods include:

Sequential access: In this method, data is accessed in a linear, sequential order, starting from the
beginning of the file and moving towards the end. This is the simplest and most basic access
method, and is often used for files that are read or written in a single pass.

Random access: In this method, data is accessed in any order, without regard to its physical
location on the storage device. This allows the user to quickly access specific pieces of data
without having to read through the entire file.

Indexed access: In this method, an index is used to quickly locate specific pieces of data within
the file. The index contains pointers to the locations of the data within the file, allowing the
system to quickly access the desired data without having to search the entire file.

Direct access: In this method, the system uses the physical address of the data on the storage
device to access it directly, without having to search the file for the desired data. This method is
often used for large files or files that are accessed frequently, as it allows for fast access to
specific pieces of data.