Topic

1)Thermal
properties
of
matter

And

2) Heat
flow
 index
Sl no. Topic daTe T.Sign pg no.
1 introduction

2 Heat capacity and

specific heat
3 Change of state

4 Heat transfer

5 conclusion

6 bibliography
inTroducTion:
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to increase in length, area, or volume, changing its size
and density, in response to an increase in temperature (usually excluding phase
transitions).[1] Substances usually contract with decreasing temperature (thermal contraction), with
rare exceptions within limited temperature ranges (negative thermal expansion).

Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a substance. As

energy in particles increases, they start moving faster and faster, weakening the intermolecular
forces between them and therefore expanding the substance. When a substance is heated,
molecules begin to vibrate and move more, usually creating more distance between themselves.

The relative expansion (also called strain) divided by the change in temperature is called the
material's coefficient of linear thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature.
Thermal expanSion
Thermal expansion is the phenomenon observed in solids, liquids, and gases. In this process, an
object or body expands on the application of heat (temperature). Thermal expansion defines the
tendency of an object to change its dimension either in length, density, area, or volume due to heat.
When the substance is heated it increases its kinetic energy. Thermal expansion is of three types:

• Linear expansion

• Area expansion

• Volume expansion

The relative expansion of the material divided by the change in temperature is known as the
coefficient of linear thermal expansion. The coefficient of linear thermal expansion generally varies
with temperature.

Read more: Thermal expansion of solids

Formulas of various types of thermal expansion like linear expansion, area expansion, and volume
expansion are as given below.

Linear Expansion

Linear expansion is the change in length due to heat. Linear expansion formula is given as,

ΔLLo=αLΔT

Where,

L0 = original length,

L = expanded length,

α = length expansion coefficient,

ΔT = temperature difference,

ΔL = change in length

Volume Expansion

Volume expansion is the change in volume due to temperature. Volume expansion formula is given
as

ΔVVo=αVΔT

Where,

V0 = original volume,

V = expanded volume,

αv = volume expansion coefficient,

ΔT = temperature difference,

ΔV = change in volume after expansion

Area Expansion

Area expansion occurs is the change in area due to temperature change. Area expansion formula is
given as,

ΔAAo=αAΔT

Where,

A = original area,

ΔA = change in the area,

αA = area expansion coefficient,

ΔT = temperature difference,

A0 = expanded area.
.
heaT capaciTy and
Specific heaT capaciTy
Thermodynamics in its totality is concerned about heat. The meaning of heat today is energy in
transit. Before the development of thermodynamic laws, the heat was considered as the measure of
an invisible fluid, caloric, present in any matter. The capability of a substance to hold this fluid was
then referred to as the heat capacity of that substance. The development in thermodynamics and
dependence of heat transfer on temperature changed the definition of heat.

Modern thermodynamics defines heat as the measure of the total internal energy of a system. In
order to quantify the heat energy associated with matter and its dependence on temperature, two
properties were defined. These properties were named as specific heat capacity and heat capacity of
the system.

Scientists needed a quantity that has no dependence on the quantity or size of matter under
consideration for thermodynamic studies this made them define specific heat capacity. It is an
intensive property as it is independent of the quantity or size of the matter. Specific heat capacity for
any substance or matter can be defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of that substance by one degree Celsius. Mathematically it is given as:

Q= m c ΔT

Here Q is the amount of heat energy required to change the temperature of m (kg) of a substance by
ΔT, s is the specific heat capacity of the system.

Thermodynamics continues to play a vital role in our lives directly or indirectly. Scientists and
engineers use the laws of thermodynamics to design new processes for reactions that would have
high efficiency and product yield. Chemical and mechanical engineers apply the concepts of
thermodynamics for designing heat engines with high efficiency and better outputs.

Change of state

A change of state is a physical change in a matter. They are reversible changes and do not involve any
changes in the chemical makeup of the matter. Common changes of the state include melting,
freezing, sublimation, deposition, condensation, and vaporization. These changes are shown in the
figure given below.

Why do Phase Changes Occur?

When temperature or pressure change of a system occurs, phase changes occur. When the
temperature or pressure increases, the interaction between the molecules increases. Similarly, when
the temperature decreases, it is easier for molecules and atoms to settle into a more rigid structure.

Changes Between Liquids and Solids

How would you make ice cubes in a tray? First, you would fill the tray with water from a tap. Then
you would place the tray in the freezer compartment of a refrigerator. The freezer is very cold. What
happens next?
Freezing

Heat transfer occurs between the warmer tray and the colder air in the freezer. The warm water
loses heat to the cold air in the freezer. This heat transfer occurs until no energy is available for the
particles to slide past each other. This forces them to remain in fixed positions, locked in place by the
force of attraction between them. This way liquid water is changed into solid ice. The process of
liquid water changing to solid ice is termed as freezing. The temperature at which it occurs is known
as the freezing point.

Melting

If you took out the ice cubes from the freezer and placed them in a warm room, the ice would absorb
energy from the warmer air around them. This absorbed energy would facilitate them to overcome
the force of attraction holding them together, enabling them to slip out of the fixed position that
they held as ice. The process in which a solids change to a liquid is called melting. The melting point
is the temperature at which a solids change to a liquid.

You might want to read the following articles for a deeper understanding of the topic.

• Three States of Matter

• Physical and Chemical Changes

76,725

Changes Between Liquids and Gases

If you fill a pot with cold tap water and heat it on a hot stovetop, the water heats up. Heat energy
travels from the stovetop to the pot, and the water absorbs the energy from the pot. What happens
to the water next?

Vaporization

If the water is hot enough, it starts to boil. Bubbles of water vapor are formed in the boiling water.
This happens as particles of liquid water gain enough energy to completely overcome the force of
attraction between them and change to the gaseous state. The bubbles rise through the water and
escape from the pot as steam. The process in which a liquid boils and changes to a gas is called
vaporization. The temperature at which a liquid boils is its boiling point.

Condensation

When you take a hot shower in a closed bathroom, the mirror is likely to fog up. You may wonder
why does this happen? Some hot water from the shower evaporates and when it comes in contact
with cooler surfaces such as the mirror, it cools and loses energy. The cooler water particles no
longer have the energy to overcome the forces of attraction between them. They come together and
form droplets of liquid water. This process in which a gas changes to liquid is known as condensation.

Changes Between Solids and Gases

Solids that change to gas pass through the liquid state first. However, sometimes solids change
directly to gases and skip the liquid state. The reverse can also occur. Sometimes gases change
directly to solids.

Sublimation

The process in which solids directly change to gases is known as sublimation. This occurs when solids
absorb enough energy to completely overcome the forces of attraction between them. Dry ice is an
example of solids that undergo sublimation.

Five Changes of State are:

• Melting

• Freezing

• Evaporation

• Condensation

• Sublimation

The process by which a substance changes from the solid phase to the liquid phase is known as
melting.
The process by which a substance changes from the liquid phase to the solid phase is known as
freezing.
The process by which a substance changes from the liquid phase to the gaseous phase is known as
evaporation. The process by which a substance changes from the gaseous phase to the liquid phase
is known as condensation. The transition of the solid phase to the gaseous phase without passing the
intermediate liquid phase is known as sublimation.

Conclusion

It will interest you to know that every object in existence undergoes a state change. It is only a
question of the amount of heat supplied to the substance. If you supply enough heat, everything on
this planet can be made to change its state. The thing is though not every substance has to follow the
solid-liquid-gas path. Some substances can naturally change from their solid-state to their gaseous
state without entering the liquid state. This phenomenon is known as Sublimation. Examples of
sublimation are, the element Iodine, Dry ice (solid CO2) and high-quality coal which at high-
temperature burns and sublimates into vapour.
heaT TranSfer
According to thermodynamic systems, heat transfer is defined as

“The movement of heat across the border of the system due to a difference in temperature between
the system and its surroundings.”

Interestingly, the difference in temperature is said to be a ‘potential’ that causes the transfer of heat
from one point to another.

How is Heat Transferred?

Heat can travel from one place to another in several ways. The different modes of heat transfer
include:

1)Conduction

2)Convection

3)Radiation

Meanwhile, if the temperature difference exists between the two systems, heat will find a way to
transfer from the higher to the lower system.

What is Conduction?
Conduction is defined as the process of transmission of energy from one particle of the medium to
another with the particles being in direct contact with each other.

An area of higher kinetic energy transfers thermal energy towards the lower kinetic energy area.
High-speed particles clash with particles moving at a slow speed, as a result, slow speed particles
increase their kinetic energy. This is a typical form of heat transfer and takes place through physical
contact. Conduction is also known as thermal conduction or heat conduction.

Conduction Equation
The rate of conduction can be calculated by the following equation:

Q=kA(T1-T2)/d;

Where,
Q is the transfer of heat per unit time

K is the thermal conductivity of the body

A is the area of heat transfer

T1hot is the temperature of the hot region

T2cold is the temperature of the cold region

d is the thickness of the body

The coefficient of thermal conductivity shows that a metal body conducts heat better when it comes
to conduction.

Conduction Examples
Following are the examples of conduction:

Ironing of clothes is an example of conduction where the heat is conducted from the iron to the
clothes.

Heat is transferred from hands to ice cube resulting in the melting of an ice cube when held in hands.

Heat conduction through the sand at the beaches. This can be experienced during summers. Sand is
a good conductor of heat.

What is Convection?

Convection is defined as

The movement of fluid molecules from higher temperature regions to lower temperature regions.

Convection Equation

As the temperature of the liquid increases, the liquid’s volume also has to increase by the same
factor and this effect is known as displacement. The equation to calculate the rate of convection is as
follows:

Q = hc ∙ A ∙ (Ts – Tf)

Where,

Q is the heat transferred per unit time

hc is the coefficient of convective heat transfer

A is the area of heat transfer

Ts is the surface temperature

Tf is the fluid temperature

Convection Examples

Examples of convection include:

Boiling of water, that is molecules that are denser move at the bottom while the molecules which are
less dense move upwards resulting in the circular motion of the molecules so that water gets heated.

Warm water around the equator moves towards the poles while cooler water at the poles moves
towards the equator.

Blood circulation in warm-blooded animals takes place with the help of convection, thereby
regulating the body temperature.

Learn more about Convection.

What is Radiation?
Radiant heat is present in some or other form in our daily lives. Thermal radiations are referred to as
radiant heat. Thermal radiation is generated by the emission of electromagnetic waves. These waves
carry away the energy from the emitting body. Radiation takes place through a vacuum or
transparent medium which can be either solid or liquid. Thermal radiation is the result of the random
motion of molecules in matter. The movement of charged electrons and protons is responsible for
the emission of electromagnetic radiation. Let us know more about radiation heat transfer.

Radiation heat transfer is measured by a device known as thermocouple. A thermocouple is used for
measuring the temperature. In this device sometimes, error takes place while measuring the
temperature through radiation heat transfer.

Radiation Equation

As temperature rises, the wavelength in the spectra of the radiation emitted decreases and shorter
wavelengths radiations are emitted. Thermal radiation can be calculated by Stefan-Boltzmann law:

P = e ∙ σ ∙ A· (Tr – Tc)4

Where,

P is the net power of radiation

A is the area of radiation

Tr is the radiator temperature

Tc is the surrounding temperature

e is emissivity and σ is Stefan’s constant (σ = 5.67 × 10-8Wm-2K-4

Radiation Example

Following are the examples of radiation:

Microwave radiation emitted in the oven is an example of radiation.

UV rays coming from the sun is an example of radiation.

The release of alpha particles during the decaying of Uranium-238 into Thorium-234 is an example of
radiation.

Unit of Heat Transfer

SI system Joule

MKS system cal

Rate of transfer of heat KW

To know more about heat transfer in detail, click on the video below .
Convection:

• Sea breeze: This phenomenon occurs during the day. The sun heats up both the sea surface
and land. As the sea has a greater heating capacity, it absorbs much of the sun’s energy but
gets warmed up much slower than the land. As a result, the temperature above the land
rises and heats the air in the atmosphere above it. Warm air is less dense, and hence, it
expands, creating a low-pressure area over the land near the coast. Meanwhile, there is
relatively high pressure over the sea. The difference in air pressure causes the air to flow
from sea to land. The sudden gush of wind felt due to this is known as the sea breeze.

• Land Breeze: This phenomenon occurs during the night when the situation reverses. As the
sun sets, the land and sea start cooling down. The land quickly loses heat when compared to
water due to the differences in heat capacity. Consequently, the temperature of the sea is
relatively higher, which creates low air pressure there. This sets up a flow of cool breeze
offshore, known as the land breeze
concluSion
Heat transfer refers to the phenomenon of transferring energy from one point to another. This
specific mechanism includes heat conduction, convection, and radiation heat transfer. Conduction is
the process of transfer of heat during the heat conduction process, which is a slow process.

In conclusion, Heat Transfer is done in three methods. First, Conduction where the heat is transferred
when the objects are in contact with each other. Second, Convection where it is a cycle of heat rising
due to its density while the cooler air stays at the bottom. And third is Radiation, where the heat is
transferred through waves of radiation like the sun.
BiBliography
https://brainly.ph/question/30726650

https://byjus.com/physics/heat-transfer-conduction-convection-and-radiation/

https://www.pw.live/study/batches?batchChildUrl=%2Fbatches-
new%2Fbatches%2F65d86238cdb6ea00181bdcfe%2Fbatch-
overview%3Fcame_from%3Dstudy%23Description_1

https://www.youtube.com/