PROBLEM 2.

6
KNOWN: One-dimensional system with prescribed thermal conductivity and thickness.
FIND: Unknowns for various temperature conditions and sketch distribution.
SCHEMATIC:

L = 0.35 m

T1
dT , Temperature gradient
dx

T2
k = 50 W/
qx“

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction, (3) No internal heat
generation, (4) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: The rate equation and temperature gradient for this system are
dT dT T2 T1
qx k and . (1,2)
dx dx L
Using Eqs. (1) and (2), the unknown quantities for each case can be determined.
dT 20 50 K
(a) 200 K/m < 50°C
qx“
dx 0.35m
W K
qx 50 200 10.0 kW/m2 . < -20°C
<
m K m

dT 10 30 K
(b) 57 K/m < qx“ -10°C
dx 0.35m
W K
qx 50 57 2.86 kW/m 2 . < <
m K m -30°C

x
W K
(c) qx 50 160 8.0 kW/m 2 <
m K m qx“
dT K dT
T2 L T1 0.35m 160 70 C. = 160 K/m
dx m dx
70°C
T2 126 C. < <
x

Continued …
 PROBLEM 2.6 (Cont.)

W K qx“
(d) qx 50 80 4.0 kW/m 2 < dT
m K m = -80 K/m
dx
dT K
T1 T2 L 40 C 0.35m 80 40°C <
dx m
T1 68 C. < x

W K
(e) qx 50 200 10.0 kW/m 2 < 30°C
m K m qx“
dT
dT K = 200 K/m
T1 T2 L 30 C 0.35m 200 40 C. < dx
dx m

x <
 PROBLEM 2.7
KNOWN: Plane wall with prescribed thermal conductivity, thickness, and surface temperatures.
FIND: Heat flux, q x , and temperature gradient, dT/dx, for the three different coordinate systems
shown.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional heat flow, (2) Steady-state conditions, (3) No internal
generation, (4) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: The rate equation for conduction heat transfer is
dT
qx k , (1)
dx
where the temperature gradient is constant throughout the wall and of the form

dT T L T 0
. (2)
dx L
Substituting numerical values, find the temperature gradients,

dT T2 T1 700 500 K
(a) 1667 K/m <
dx L 0.120m
dT T1 T2 500 700 K
(b) 1667 K/m <
dx L 0.120m
dT T2 T1 700 500 K
(c) 1667 K/m. <
dx L 0.120m
The heat rates, using Eq. (1) with k = 120 W/m K, are
W
(a) qx 120 1667 K/m=-200 kW/m 2 <
m K
W
(b) qx 120 ( 1667 K/m)=+200 kW/m 2 <
m K
W
(c) qx 120 (1667 K/m)=-200 kW/m 2 <
m K
 PROBLEM 2.8
KNOWN: Two-dimensional body with specified thermal conductivity and two isothermal surfaces
of prescribed temperatures; one surface, A, has a prescribed temperature gradient.
FIND: Temperature gradients, T/ x and T/ y, at the surface B.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Two-dimensional conduction, (2) Steady-state conditions, (3) No heat

generation, (4) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: At the surface A, the temperature gradient in the x-direction must be zero. That is,
( T/ x) A = 0. This follows from the requirement that the heat flux vector must be normal to an
isothermal surface. The heat rate at the surface A is given by Fourier’s law written as

T W K
q y,A k wA 10 2m 30 600W/m.
y A m K m

On the surface B, it follows that

T/ y B 0 <
in order to satisfy the requirement that the heat flux vector be normal to the isothermal surface B.
Using the conservation of energy requirement, Eq. 1.12c, on the body, find
q y,A q x,B 0 or q x,B q y,A .

Note that,
T
q x,B k wB
x B
and hence
q y,A 600 W/m
T/ x B 60 K/m. <
k wB 10 W/m K 1m
COMMENTS: Note that, in using the conservation requirement, q in q y,A and q out q x,B .
 PROBLEM 2.9
KNOWN: Temperature, size and orientation of Surfaces A and B in a two-dimensional geometry.
Thermal conductivity dependence on temperature.
FIND: Temperature gradient T/ y at surface A.

SCHEMATIC:
k = ko + aT B, T A = 100°C

1m

x
2m

A, T A = 0°C

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) No volumetric generation, (3) Two-dimensional

conduction.

ANALYSIS: At Surface A, k A = k o + aT A = 10 W/m K – 10-3 W/m K2 273 K = 9.73 W/m K while

at Surface B, k B = k o + aT B = 10 W/m K – 10-3 W/m K2 373 K = 9.63 W/m K. For steady-state
conditions, Ein Eout which may be written in terms of Fourier’s law as

T T
kB AB kA AA
x B y A

T T k B AB 9.63 1
or 30K/m 14.85 K/m <
y A
x B k A AA 9.73 2

COMMENTS: (1) If the thermal conductivity is not temperature-dependent, then the temperature
gradient at A is 15 K/m. (2) Surfaces A and B are both isothermal. Hence, T / x A T / y B 0.
 PROBLEM 2.10
KNOWN: Electrical heater sandwiched between two identical cylindrical (25 mm dia. 60 mm
length) samples whose opposite ends contact plates maintained at T o .
FIND: (a) Thermal conductivity of SS316 samples for the prescribed conditions (A) and their
average temperature, (b) Thermal conductivity of Armco iron sample for the prescribed conditions
(B), (c) Comment on advantages of experimental arrangement, lateral heat losses, and conditions for
which T1 T 2.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional heat transfer in samples, (2) Steady-state conditions, (3)
Negligible contact resistance between materials.

PROPERTIES: Table A.2, Stainless steel 316 T=400 K : k ss 15.2 W/m K; Armco iron
T=380 K : k iron 67.2 W/m K.

ANALYSIS: (a) For Case A recognize that half the heater power will pass through each of the
samples which are presumed identical. Apply Fourier’s law to a sample
T
q = kA c
x
q x 0.5 100V 0.250A 0.015 m
k=
2
15.3 W/m K. <
Ac T 0.025 m / 4 25.0 C

The total temperature drop across the length of the sample is T 1 (L/ x) = 25 C (60 mm/15 mm) =
100 C. Hence, the heater temperature is T h = 177 C. Thus the average temperature of the sample is

T= To Th / 2 127 C=400 K. <

We compare the calculated value of k with the tabulated value (see above) at 400 K and note the good
agreement.
(b) For Case B, we assume that the thermal conductivity of the SS316 sample is the same as that
found in Part (a). The heat rate through the Armco iron sample is

Continued …
 PROBLEM 2.10 (Cont.)

2
0.025 m 15.0 C
qiron q heater qss 100V 0.425A 15.3 W/m K
4 0.015 m
qiron 42.5 7.51 W= 35.0 W

where

q ss k ssA c T2 / x 2 .

Applying Fourier’s law to the iron sample,

qiron x 2 35.0 W 0.015 m

k iron
2
71.3 W/m K. <
A c T2 0.025 m / 4 15.0 C

The total drop across the iron sample is 15 C(60/15) = 60 C; the heater temperature is (77 + 60) C =
137 C. Hence the average temperature of the iron sample is

T= 137 + 77 C/2=107 C=380 K. <

We compare the computed value of k with the tabulated value (see above) at 380 K and note the good
agreement.

(c) The principal advantage of having two identical samples is the assurance that all the electrical
power dissipated in the heater will appear as equivalent heat flows through the samples. With only
one sample, heat can flow from the backside of the heater even though insulated.

Heat leakage out the lateral surfaces of the cylindrically shaped samples will become significant when
the sample thermal conductivity is comparable to that of the insulating material. Hence, the method is
suitable for metals, but must be used with caution on nonmetallic materials.

For any combination of materials in the upper and lower position, we expect T 1 = T 2 . However,
if the insulation were improperly applied along the lateral surfaces, it is possible that heat leakage will
occur, causing T 1 T2.
 PROBLEM 2.11

KNOWN: Dimensions of and temperature difference across an aircraft window. Window

materials and cost of energy.

FIND: Heat loss through one window and cost of heating for 130 windows on 8-hour trip.

SCHEMATIC:
bb==0.3
0.4m
m

a = 0.3 m
a = 0.4 m

T
T1
qcond
T2
x
k
L = 0.01
0.012mm

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction in the x-

direction, (3) Constant properties.

PROPERTIES: Table A.3, soda lime glass (300 K): k gl = 1.4 W/m K.

ANALYSIS: From Eq. 2.1,

dT (T - T )
q x = -kA =kab 1 2
dx L
For glass,
W 90°C
q x,g = 1.4
m K
× 0.4 m × 0.4 m ×
0.012m
= 1680 W <

The cost associated with heat loss through N windows at a rate of R = $1/kW h over a t =
8 h flight time is
$ 1kW
Cg = Nq x,g Rt = 130 × 1680 W × 1
kW h
×8h×
1000W
= $1750 <
Repeating the calculation for the polycarbonate yields
q x,p = 252 W, C p = $262 <
while for aerogel,
q x,a = 16.8 W, Ca = $17.5 <

COMMENT: Polycarbonate provides significant savings relative to glass. It is also lighter ( p =

1200 kg/m3) relative to glass ( g = 2500 kg/m3). The aerogel offers the best thermal performance
and is very light ( a = 2 kg/m3) but would be relatively expensive.
 PROBLEM 2.12

KNOWN: Temperatures of various materials.

FIND: (a) Graph of thermal conductivity, k, versus temperature, T, for pure copper, 2024 aluminum
and AISI 302 stainless steel for 300 T 600 K, (b) Graph of thermal conductivity, k, for helium and
air over the range 300 T 800 K, (c) Graph of kinematic viscosity, , for engine oil, ethylene glycol,
and liquid water for 300 T 360 K, (d) Graph of thermal conductivity, k, versus volume fraction, ,
of a water-Al 2 O 3 nanofluid for 0 0.08 and T = 300 K. Comment on the trends for each case.

ASSUMPTION: (1) Constant nanoparticle properties.

ANALYSIS: (a) Using the IHT workspace of Comment 1 yields

Thermal Conductivity of Cu, 2024 Al, and 302 ss

500
Copper
400

300
2024 Aluminum
200

100
302 Stainless steel
0
300 400 500 600

T, Celsius

Note the large difference between the thermal conductivities of these metals. Copper conducts thermal
energy effectively, while stainless steels are relatively poor thermal conductors. Also note that,
depending on the metal, the thermal conductivity increases (2024 Aluminum and 302 Stainless Steel)
or decreases (Copper) with temperature.

(b) Using the IHT workspace of Comment 2 yields

Thermal Conductivity of Helium and Air

0.4

0.3
Helium

0.2

0.1 Air

0
300 400 500 600 700 800

T, Celsius

Note the high thermal conductivity of helium relative to that of air. As such, He is sometimes used as a
coolant. The thermal conductivity of both gases increases with temperature, as expected from
inspection of Figure 2.8.

Continued…
 PROBLEM 2.12 (Cont.)

(c) Using the IHT workspace of Comment 3 yields

Kinematic Viscosity of Engine Oil, Ethylene Glycol and H2O

0.01

0.001 Engine Oil

0.0001
Ethylene Glycol
1E-5

1E-6 H2O

1E-7
300 320 340 360

T, Celsius

The kinematic viscosities vary by three orders of magnitude between the various liquids. For each case
the kinematic viscosity decreases with temperature.

(d) Using the IHT workspace of Comment 4 yields

Thermal Conductivity of Nanofluid and Base Fluid

0.8

Nanofluid
0.7

0.6
Base fluid (H 2O)

0.5
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08

Volume fraction, j

Note the increase in the thermal conductivity of the nanofluid with addition of more nanoparticles. The
solid phase usually has a higher thermal conductivity than the liquid phase, as noted in Figures 2.5 and
2.9, respectively.

COMMENTS: (1) The IHT workspace for part (a) is as follows.

// Copper (pure) property functions : From Table A.1
// Units: T(K)
kCu = k_T("Copper",T) // Thermal conductivity,W/m·K

// Aluminum 2024 property functions : From Table A.1

// Units: T(K)
kAl = k_T("Aluminum 2024",T) // Thermal conductivity,W/m·K

// Stainless steel-AISI 302 property functions : From Table A.1

// Units: T(K)
kss = k_T("Stainless Steel-AISI 302",T) // Thermal conductivity,W/m·K

T = 300 // Temperature, K

Continued…
 PROBLEM 2.12 (Cont.)

(2) The IHT workspace for part (b) follows.

// Helium property functions : From Table A.4

// Units: T(K)
kHe = k_T("Helium",T) // Thermal conductivity, W/m·K

// Air property functions : From Table A.4

// Units: T(K); 1 atm pressure
kAir = k_T("Air",T) // Thermal conductivity, W/m·K

T = 300 // Temperature, K

(3) The IHT workspace for part (c) follows.

// Engine Oil property functions : From Table A.5

// Units: T(K)
nuOil = nu_T("Engine Oil",T) // Kinematic viscosity, m^2/s

// Ethylene glycol property functions : From Table A.5

// Units: T(K)
nuEG = nu_T("Ethylene Glycol",T) // Kinematic viscosity, m^2/s

// Water property functions :T dependence, From Table A.6

// Units: T(K), p(bars);
xH2O =0 // Quality (0=sat liquid or 1=sat vapor)
nuH2O = nu_Tx("Water",T,xH2O) // Kinematic viscosity, m^2/s

T = 300 // Temperature, K

(4) The IHT workspace for part (d) follows.

// Water property functions :T dependence, From Table A.6

// Units: T(K), p(bars);
xH2O =0 // Quality (0=sat liquid or 1=sat vapor)
kH2O = k_Tx("Water",T,xH2O) // Thermal conductivity, W/m·K
kbf = kH2O
T = 300

j = 0.01 // Volume fraction of nanoparticles

//Particle Properties

kp = 36 // Thermal conductivity, W/mK

knf = (num/den)*kbf
num = kp + 2*kbf-2*j*(kbf - kp)
den = kp + 2*kbf + j*(kbf - kp)
 PROBLEM 2.13

KNOWN: Ideal gas behavior for air, hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
FIND: The thermal conductivity of each gas at 300 K. Compare calculated values to values from
Table A.4.

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Ideal gas behavior.

PROPERTIES: Table A.4 (T = 300 K): Air; c p = 1007 J/kg K, k = Hydrogen; c p =

14,310 J/kg K, k = Carbon dioxide; c p = 851 J/kg K, k = . Figure 2.8:
Air; M = 28.97 kg/kmol, d = 0.372 × 10-9 m, Hydrogen; M = 2.018 kg/kmol, d = 0.274 × 10-9 m,
Carbon Dioxide; M = 44.01 kg/kmol, d = 0.464 × 10-9 m.

ANALYSIS: For air, the ideal gas constant, specific heat at constant volume, and ratio of specific
heats are:

R 8.315 kJ/kmol K kJ
R 0.287 ;
M 28.97 kg/kmol kg K
kJ kJ kJ cp 1.007
cv cp R 1.007 0.287 0.720 ; 1.399
kg K kg K kg K cv 0.720

From Equation 2.12

9 5 cv M k BT
k
4 d2 N
9 1.399 5 720 J/kg K 28.97 kg/kmol 1.381 10-23 J/K 300 K
= 2
4 0.372 10-9 m 6.024 1023 mol -1 1000 mol/kmol
W
0.025 <
m K

The thermal conductivity of air at T = 300 K is 5

% of the reported value.

For hydrogen, the ideal gas constant, specific heat at constant volume, and ratio of specific heats are:

R 8.315 kJ/kmol K kJ
R 4.120 ;
M 2.018 kg/kmol kg K
kJ kJ kJ cp 14.31
cv cp R 14.31 4.120 10.19 ; 1.404
kg K kg K kg K cv 10.19

Equation 2.12 may be used to calculate

W
k 0.173 <
m K
Continued...
 PROBLEM 2.13 (Cont.)

The thermal conductivity of hydrogen at T

within 6 % of the reported value.

For carbon dioxide, the ideal gas constant, specific heat at constant volume, and ratio of specific heats
are:

R 8.315 kJ/kmol K kJ
R 0.189 ;
M 44.01 kg/kmol kg K
kJ kJ kJ cp 0.851
cv cp R 0.851 0.189 0.662 ; 1.285
kg K kg K kg K cv 0.662

Equation 2.12 may be used to calculate

W
k 0.0158 <
m K

The thermal conductivity of carbon dioxide at T the computed

value is within 5 % of the reported value.

COMMENTS: The preceding analysis may be used to estimate the thermal conductivity at various
temperatures. However, the analysis is not valid for extreme temperatures or pressures. For example,
(1) the thermal conductivity is predicted to be independent of the pressure of the gas. As pure vacuum
conditions are approached, the thermal conductivity will suddenly drop to zero, and the preceding
analysis is no longer valid. Also, (2) for temperatures considerably higher or lower than normally-
encountered room temperatures, the agreement between the predicted and actual thermal
conductivities can be poor. For example, for carbon dioxide at T = 600 K, the predicted thermal
conductivity is k , while the actual (tabular) value is k For extreme
temperatures, thermal correction factors must be included in the predictions of the thermal
conductivity.
 PROBLEM 2.14

KNOWN: Thermal conductivity of helium.

FIND: The helium temperature. Compare to value from Table A.4.
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Ideal gas behavior.
PROPERTIES: Table A.4: Helium; M = 4.003 kg/kmol, c p = 5.193 kJ/kg K (independent of
temperature). Figure 2.8: Helium, d = 0.219 nm.

ANALYSIS: For helium, the gas constant, specific heat at constant volume, and ratio of specific heats
are:

R 8.315 kJ/kmol K kJ
R 2.077 ;
M 4.003 kg/kmol kg K
kJ kJ kJ cp 5.193
cv cp R 5.193 2.077 3.116 ; 1.667
kg K kg K kg K cv 3.166

From Equation 2.12

9 5 cv M k BT
k
4 d2 N
2
N 4k d 2
T
M k B (9 5)cv
2 2
23 -1
6.024 10 mol 1000 mol/kmol 4 0.15 W/m K 0.219 10-9 m
=
4.003 kg/kmol 1.381 10-23 J/K (9 1.667 5) 3166 J/kg K

288 K <

From Table A.4, the thermal conductivity of helium is 0.15 W/m K when T = 294 K. <
The computed value of 288 K is within 2% of the reported value.

COMMENTS: The preceding analysis may be used to estimate the thermal conductivity at various
temperatures. However, the analysis is not valid for extreme temperatures or pressures. For example,
(1) the thermal conductivity is predicted to be independent of the pressure of the gas. As pure vacuum
conditions are approached, the thermal conductivity will suddenly drop to zero, and the preceding
analysis is no longer valid. Also, (2) for temperatures considerably higher or lower than normally-
encountered room temperatures, the agreement between the predicted and actual thermal
conductivities can be poor. For example, for carbon dioxide at T = 600 K, the predicted thermal
conductivity is k k For extreme
temperatures, thermal correction factors must be included in the predictions of the thermal
conductivity.
 PROBLEM 2.15
KNOWN: Identical samples of prescribed diameter, length and density initially at a uniform
temperature T i , sandwich an electric heater which provides a uniform heat flux q o for a period of
time t o . Conditions shortly after energizing and a long time after de-energizing heater are
prescribed.
FIND: Specific heat and thermal conductivity of the test sample material. From the properties,
identify type of material using Table A.1 or A.2.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One dimensional heat transfer in samples, (2) Constant properties, (3)
Negligible heat loss through insulation, (4) Negligible heater mass.
ANALYSIS: The density of the sample is

m 0.078 kg 3
2 2

Now consider a control volume about the two samples (of mass 2m) and heater, and apply
conservation of energy over the time interval from t = 0 to

E in E out E = Ef Ei

P to 0 2mcp T Ti

where energy inflow is prescribed by the power condition and the final temperature T f is known.
Solving for c p ,

P to 20 W 100 s
cp
2m T Ti 2 0.078 kg 39.80-23.00 C

cp 763 J/kg K <

The transient thermal response of the heater is given by

Continued …
 PROBLEM 2.15 (Cont.)

1/ 2
t
To t Ti 2q o
cp k
2
t 2q o
k=
c p To t Ti

2
60 s 2 5093 W/m 2
k= 46.0 W/m K <
3970 kg/m3 764 J/kg K 26.77 - 23.00 C

where

P P 20 W
qo 5093 W/m 2 .
2As 2 D2 / 4 2 0.0502 / 4 m 2

With the following properties now known,

3
= 3970 kg/m c p = 763 J/kg K k = 46 W/m K

entries in Table A.1 are scanned to determine whether these values are typical of a metallic material.
Consider the following,

metallics with low generally have higher thermal conductivities,

specific heats of both types of materials are of similar magnitude,

the low k value of the sample is typical of poor metallic conductors which generally have
much higher specific heats,

more than likely, the material is nonmetallic.

From Table A.2, the first entry, sapphire, has properties at 300 K corresponding to those found for the
samples. <
 PROBLEM 2.16
KNOWN: Five materials at 300 K.
FIND: Heat capacity, c p . Which material has highest thermal energy storage per unit volume.
Which has lowest cost per unit heat capacity.

ASSUMPTIONS: Constant properties.

PROPERTIES: Table A.3, Common brick (T = 300 K): = 1920 kg/m3, c p = 835 J/kg K. Table
A.1, Plain carbon steel (T = 300 K): = 7854 kg/m3, c p = 434 J/kg K. Table A.5, Engine oil (T = 300
K): = 884.1 kg/m3, c p = 1909 J/kg K. Table A.6, Water (T = 300 K): = 1/v f = 997 kg/m3, c p =
4179 J/kg K. Table A.3, Soil (T = 300 K): = 2050 kg/m3, c p = 1840 J/kg K.
ANALYSIS: The values of heat capacity, c p , are tabulated below.

Material Common Plain carbon Engine oil Water Soil

brick steel
Heat Capacity 1603 3409 1688 4166 3772
(kJ/m3 K)
<
Thermal energy storage refers to either sensible or latent energy. The change in sensible energy per
unit volume due to a temperature change T is equal to c p T. Thus, for a given temperature change,
the heat capacity values in the table above indicate the relative amount of sensible energy that can be
stored in the material.

Of the materials considered, water has the largest capacity for sensible energy storage. <
Various materials also have the potential for latent energy storage due to either a solid-liquid or liquid-
vapor phase change. Taking water as an example, the latent heat of fusion is
333.7 kJ/kg. With a density of 1000 kg/m3 at 0 C, the latent energy per unit volume associated
with the solid-liquid phase transition is 333,700 kJ/m3. This corresponds to an 80 C temperature
change in the liquid phase. The latent heat of vaporization for water is very large, 2257 kJ/kg, but it is
generally inconvenient to use a liquid-vapor phase change for thermal energy storage because of the
large volume change.

The two materials with the largest heat capacity are also inexpensive. The consumer price of soil is
around $15 per cubic meter, or around $4 per MJ/K. The consumer price of water is around $0.40 per
cubic meter, or around $0.10 per MJ/K. In a commercial application, soil could probably be obtained
much more inexpensively.

Therefore we conclude that water has the lowest cost per unit heat capacity of the materials
considered. <
COMMENTS: (1) Many materials used for latent thermal energy storage are characterized by
relatively low thermal conductivities. Therefore, although the materials may be attractive from the
thermodynamics point of view, it can be difficult to deliver energy to the solid-liquid or liquid-vapor
interface because of the poor thermal conductivity of the material. Hence, many latent thermal energy
storage applications are severely hampered by heat transfer limitations. (2) Most liquids and solids
have a heat capacity which is in a fairly narrow range of around 1000 – 4000 kJ/m3 K. Gases have
heat capacities that are orders of magnitude smaller.
 PROBLEM 2.17
KNOWN: Diameter, length, and mass of stainless steel rod, insulated on its exterior surface other
than ends. Temperature distribution.
FIND: Heat flux.
SCHEMATIC:
Stainless steel D = 20 mm
T(x) = 305 K – 10 K (x/L)

x
L = 100 mm

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction in x-direction, (3)

Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: The heat flux can be found from Fourier’s law,

dT
qx k
dx

Table A.1 gives values for the thermal conductivity of stainless steels, however we are not told which
type of stainless steel the rod is made of, and the thermal conductivity varies between them. We do
know the mass of the rod, and can use this to calculate its density:

M M 0.248 kg
7894 kg/m3
V D2 L / 4 (0.02 m) 2 0.1 m/4

From Table A.1, it appears that the material is AISI 304 stainless steel. The temperature of the rod
varies from 295 K to 305 K. Evaluating the thermal conductivity at 300 K, k = 14.9 W/m K. Thus,

dT
qx k k ( b / L) 14.9 W/m K 10 K / 0.1 m 1490 W/m 2 <
dx

COMMENTS: If the temperature of the rod varies significantly along its length, the thermal
conductivity will vary along the rod as much or more than the variation in thermal conductivities
between the different stainless steels.
 PROBLEM 2.18
KNOWN: Temperature distribution in a plane wall. Whether conditions are steady-state or transient.
FIND: (a) Whether thermal energy is being generated within the wall, and if so, whether it is positive
or negative. (b) Whether the volumetric generation rate is positive or negative. (c) and (d) Whether the
temperature is increasing or decreasing with time.
SCHEMATIC:

qin“ qin“
T(x,t) “
“
qout qout

“ “
qout
T(x, qout T(x, T(x,t)

dx dx dx dx

x x x x

(a) (b) (c) (d)

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in x-direction, (2) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: An energy balance on the differential control volume can be expressed as

dEst
Ein Eout Eg (1)
dt

The heat flux is given by Fourier’s law,

dT
qx k (2)
dx

Assuming constant thermal conductivity, the slope of the temperature distribution indicates
the magnitude and direction of the heat flux according to Eq. (2). A positive slope means heat
is flowing from right to left and vice versa. The magnitudes and directions of the heat fluxes
are illustrated in the schematic above. With this background we can consider each scenario in
turn.

(a) Conditions are steady-state, therefore dEst/dt = 0 in Eq. (1). Since the slope of the
temperature distribution is positive, heat is flowing from right to left in the schematic.
With the slope higher at the right than the left, more heat is entering at the right than
leaving at the left. Therefore heat generation must exist and must be negative. <
(b) Conditions are steady-state, therefore dEst/dt = 0. The slope of the temperature distribution
is positive and is smaller at the right than the left, therefore less heat is entering at the right
than leaving at the left. Therefore heat generation must exist and must be positive. <

Continued …
 PROBLEM 2.18 (Cont.)

(c) Conditions are transient. There is no heat generation, therefore Eg 0 in Eq. (1). Since the
slope of the temperature distribution is negative, heat is flowing from left to right in the
schematic. With the slope steeper at the left than the right, more heat is entering at the left
than leaving at the right. Therefore, there is net heat transfer into the control volume and
dEst/dt > 0. Thus the temperature is increasing with time. <
(d) Conditions are transient. There is no heat generation. The slope of the temperature
distribution is negative and is smaller at the left than the right, therefore less heat is
entering at the left than leaving at the right. Therefore, there is net heat transfer out of the
control volume and dEst/dt < 0. Thus the temperature is decreasing with time. <
COMMENTS: If the thermal conductivity is not constant, it is not possible to tell whether the heat
flux is higher or lower at the two sides of the control volume.
 PROBLEM 2.19
KNOWN: Temperature distribution in a plane wall experiencing uniform volumetric heat generation.
FIND: Whether the steady-state form of the heat diffusion equation is satisfied. Expression for the
heat flux distribution.
SCHEMATIC:
x
-L +L

q Ts,2
Ts,1

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in x-direction, (2) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: The heat diffusion equation with constant properties is given by Eq. 2.21. Under one-
dimensional, steady-state conditions this reduces to

2
T q
0 (1)
x2 k

The temperature distribution is given in the problem statement as

qL2 x2 Ts ,2 Ts ,1 x Ts ,1 Ts ,2
T ( x) 1 2 (2)
2k L 2 L 2

This temperature distribution can be substituted into Eq. (1) to see if it is satisfied. Taking the
derivative of Eq. (2) twice,
T qL2 2x Ts ,2 Ts ,1 1
2
(3)
x 2k L 2 L

2
T qL2 2
(4)
x2 2k L2

Substituting Eq. (4) into the heat diffusion equation, Eq.(1), yields

qL2 2 q q q
0 (5)
2k L2 k k k

Therefore the steady-state form of the heat diffusion equation is satisfied. <

Continued …
 PROBLEM 2.19 (Cont.)

The heat flux is given by Fourier’s Law, with the temperature derivative from Eq. (3).
Therefore,
T qL2 2x Ts ,2 Ts ,1 1 k (Ts ,1 Ts ,2 )
q ( x) k k 2
qx (6) <
x 2k L 2 L 2L

COMMENTS: If there is no heat generation, the temperature distribution in Eq. (2) reduces to the
familiar linear form and the heat flux (Eq. (6)) becomes the well-known result from Chapter 1.
 PROBLEM 2.20
KNOWN: Diameter D, thickness L and initial temperature T i of pan. Heat rate from stove to bottom
of pan. Convection coefficient h and variation of water temperature T (t) during Stage 1.
Temperature T L of pan surface in contact with water during Stage 2.
FIND: Form of heat equation and boundary conditions associated with the two stages.
SCHEMATIC:

Stage 1
Too (t), h
x=L
Stage 2 x=0
T(L) = TL qo

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in pan bottom, (2) Heat transfer from stove is
uniformly distributed over surface of pan in contact with the stove, (3) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS:
Stage 1
2T 1 T
Heat Equation:
x2 t

T qo
Boundary Conditions: k qo
xx 0 D2 / 4

T
k h T L, t T t
xx L

Initial Condition: T x, 0 Ti
Stage 2
d 2T
Heat Equation: 0
dx 2
dT
Boundary Conditions: k qo
dx x 0

T L TL

COMMENTS: Stage 1 is a transient process for which T (t) must be determined separately. As a
first approximation, it could be estimated by neglecting changes in thermal energy storage by the pan
bottom and assuming that all of the heat transferred from the stove acted to increase thermal energy
storage within the water. Hence, with q mc p dT /dt, where m and c p are the mass and specific heat
of the water in the pan, T (t) (q/mc p ) t.
 PROBLEM 2.21
KNOWN: Steady-state temperature distribution in a cylindrical rod having uniform heat generation
of q1 6 107 W/m 3 .
FIND: (a) Steady-state centerline and surface heat transfer rates per unit length, q r . (b) Initial time
rate of change of the centerline and surface temperatures in response to a change in the generation rate
from q1 to q 2 = 108 W/m3 .

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in the r direction, (2) Uniform generation, and
(3) Steady-state for q1 6 107 W/m3 .

ANALYSIS: (a) From the rate equations for cylindrical coordinates,

T T
qr k q = -kA r .
r r
Hence,
T
qr k 2 rL
r
or
T
qr 2 kr (1)
r
where T/ r may be evaluated from the prescribed temperature distribution, T(r).
At r = 0, the gradient is ( T/ r) = 0. Hence, from Equation (1) the heat rate is

qr 0 0. <
At r = r o , the temperature gradient is

T K
2 5.26 105 ro 2 5.26 105 0.030m
r r=r
o m2
T
31.6 103 K/m.
r r=r
o

Continued ...
 PROBLEM 2.21 (Cont.)
Hence, the heat rate at the outer surface (r = r o ) per unit length is

q r ro 2 30 W/m K 0.030m 31.6 103 K/m

q r ro 1.785 105 W/m. <

(b) Transient (time-dependent) conditions will exist when the generation is changed, and for the
prescribed assumptions, the temperature is determined by the following form of the heat equation,
Equation 2.26
1 T T
kr q2 cp
r r r t
Hence

T 1 1 T
kr q2 .
t cp r r r

However, initially (at t = 0), the temperature distribution is given by the prescribed form, T(r) = 800 -
52
5.26 10 r , and

1 T k
kr r -10.52 105 r
r r r r r
k
21.04 105 r
r

30 W/m K -21.04 105 K/m 2

6.31 107 W/m 3 the original q=q1 .

Hence, everywhere in the wall,
T 1
6.31 107 108 W/m3
t 1100 kg/m3 800 J/kg K
or
T
41.91 K/s <
t

COMMENTS: (1) The value of ( T/ t) will decrease with increasing time, until a new steady-state
condition is reached and once again ( T/ t) = 0. (2) By applying the energy conservation requirement,
Equation 1.12c, to a unit length of the rod for the steady-state condition, E in E out E gen 0.

Hence q r 0 q r ro q1 ro2 .
 PROBLEM 2.22
KNOWN: Temperature distribution in a one-dimensional wall with prescribed thickness and thermal
conductivity.
FIND: (a) The heat generation rate, q, in the wall, (b) Heat fluxes at the wall faces and relation to
q.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional heat flow, (3) Constant
properties.
ANALYSIS: (a) The appropriate form of the heat equation for steady-state, one-dimensional
conditions with constant properties is Eq. 2.21 re-written as
d dT
q=-k
dx dx
Substituting the prescribed temperature distribution,
d d d
q=-k a+bx 2 k 2bx 2bk
dx dx dx

q=-2 -2000 C/m 2 50 W/m K=2.0 105 W/m3. <

(b) The heat fluxes at the wall faces can be evaluated from Fourier’s law,
dT
qx x k .
dx x
Using the temperature distribution T(x) to evaluate the gradient, find
d
qx x k a+bx 2 2kbx.
dx
The fluxes at x = 0 and x = L are then

qx 0 0 <
qx L 2kbL=-2 50W/m K -2000 C/m 2 0.050m

qx L 10, 000 W/m 2 . <

COMMENTS: From an overall energy balance on the wall, it follows that, for a unit area,
Ein E out Eg 0 qx 0 qx L qL=0
q L qx 0 10, 000 W/m2 0
q= x 2.0 105 W/m3.
L 0.050m
 PROBLEM 2.23
KNOWN: Analytical expression for the steady-state temperature distribution of a plane wall
experiencing uniform volumetric heat generation q while convection occurs at both of its surfaces.
FIND: (a) Sketch the temperature distribution, T(x), and identify significant physical features, (b)
Determine q , (c) Determine the surface heat fluxes, q x L and q x L ; how are these fluxes
related to the generation rate; (d) Calculate the convection coefficients at the surfaces x = L and x =
+L, (e) Obtain an expression for the heat flux distribution, q x x ; explain significant features of the
distribution; (f) If the source of heat generation is suddenly deactivated ( q = 0), what is the rate of
change of energy stored at this instant; (g) Determine the temperature that the wall will reach
eventually with q 0; determine the energy that must be removed by the fluid per unit area of the wall
to reach this state.
SCHEMATIC: T = a + bx + cx2
. aa == 82.0
86 C/m
oC, x(m)
Fluid q , k = 5 W/m-K bb == -210
-200oCC/m
/m
2x104 oC/m
4 2
T
Too =
T 30oC,
= 20
30 C, h
hll = 2600 kg/m3 cc == --2×10 C/m2
qx” (-L) q”x(+L) cp = 800 J/kg-K
T(-L) Fluid
T(+L)
TT 30oC,
oo ==20 C,hhrr
-L x +L==20
+L 30mm
mm

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Uniform volumetric heat generation, (3) Constant
properties.
ANALYSIS: (a) Using the analytical expression in the Workspace of IHT, the temperature
distribution appears as shown below. The significant features include (1) parabolic shape, (2)
maximum does not occur at the mid-plane, T(-5 mm) = 86.5 C, (3) the gradient at the x = +L surface
is greater than at x = -L. Find also that T(-L) = 74 C and T(+L) = 62 C for use in part (d).

Temperature Distribution

90

80

70

60
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30

x (mm)

(b) Substituting the temperature distribution expression into the appropriate form of the heat diffusion
equation, Eq. 2.21, the rate of volumetric heat generation can be determined.
d dT q
0 where T x a bx cx 2
dx dx k
d q q
0 b 2cx 0 2c 0
dx k k
Continued ...
 PROBLEM 2.23 (Cont.)

q 2ck 2 2 104 C / m 2 5 W / m K 2 105 W / m3 <

(c) The heat fluxes at the two boundaries can be determined using Fourier’s law and the temperature
distribution expression.
dT
qx x k where T x a bx cx 2
dx
qx L k 0 b 2cx x L
b 2cL k

qx L 200 C / m 2 2 104 C / m2 0.030m 5W / m K 5000 W / m2 <

qx L b 2cL k 7000 W / m2 <
From an overall energy balance on the wall as shown in the sketch below, E in E out E gen 0,

?
qx L qx L 2qL 0 or 5000 W / m 2 7000 W / m2 12, 000 W / m 2 0
5 3 2
where 2qL 2 2 10 W / m 0.030 m 12, 000 W / m , so the equality is satisfied
. .
” = 2q L
Egen T(-L) T(+L)
qq ”
cv,l
conv,l
qx”(-L) q”x(+L) ”
qqconv,r
cv,r

qx” (-L) q”x(+L)

Too , hl k k Too , hr
-L x +L
Part (c) Overall energy balance Part (d) Surface energy balances

(d) The convection coefficients, h l and h r , for the left- and right-hand boundaries (x = -L and x= +L,
respectively), can be determined from the convection heat fluxes that are equal to the conduction
fluxes at the boundaries. See the surface energy balances in the sketch above. See also part (a) result
for T(-L) and T(+L).
q conv, qx L

hl T T L hl 30 74 K 5000 W / m2 hl 114 W / m2 K <

q conv,r qx L

hr T L T h r 62 30 K 7000 W / m 2 hr 219 W / m2 K <

(e) The expression for the heat flux distribution can be obtained from Fourier’s law with the
temperature distribution
dT
qx x k k 0 b 2cx
dx

qx x 5W / m K 200 C / m 2 2 104 C / m 2 x 1000 2 105 x <

Continued …
 PROBLEM 2.23 (Cont.)
The distribution is linear with the x-coordinate. The maximum temperature will occur at the location
where q x x max 0,

1000 W / m2
x max 5.00 10 3 m 5 mm <
2 105 W / m3
(f) If the source of the heat generation is suddenly deactivated so that q = 0, the appropriate form of
the heat diffusion equation for the ensuing transient conduction is
T T
k cp
x x t
2
At the instant this occurs, the temperature distribution is still T(x) = a + bx + cx . The right-hand term
represents the rate of energy storage per unit volume,

Est k 0 b 2cx k 0 2c 5W / m K 2 2 104 C / m 2 2 105 W / m3 <

x
(g) With no heat generation, the wall will eventually (t ) come to equilibrium with the fluid,
T(x, ) = T = 30 C. To determine the energy that must be removed from the wall to reach this state,
apply the conservation of energy requirement over an interval basis, Eq. 1.12b. The “initial” state is
that corresponding to the steady-state temperature distribution, T i , and the “final” state has T f = 30 C.
We’ve used T as the reference condition for the energy terms.
Ein E out Est Ef Ei with E in 0.
L
Eout cp T T dx
L i

L L
E out cp a bx cx 2 T dx cp ax bx 2 / 2 cx 3 / 3 T x
L L

E out c p 2aL 0 2cL3 / 3 2T L

Eout 2600 kg / m3 800 J / kg K 2 86 C 0.030m 2 2 104 C / m2

3
0.030m / 3 2 30 C 0.030m

E out 6.24 106 J / m 2 <

COMMENTS: (1) In part (a), note that the temperature gradient is larger at x = + L than at x
= - L. This is consistent with the results of part (c) in which the conduction heat fluxes are
evaluated.

Continued …
 PROBLEM 2.23 (Cont.)
(2) In evaluating the conduction heat fluxes, q x x , it is important to recognize that this flux
is in the positive x-direction. See how this convention is used in formulating the energy
balance in part (c).
(3) It is good practice to represent energy balances with a schematic, clearly defining the
system or surface, showing the CV or CS with dashed lines, and labeling the processes.
Review again the features in the schematics for the energy balances of parts (c & d).
(4) Re-writing the heat diffusion equation introduced in part (b) as
d dT
k q 0
dx dx
recognize that the term in parenthesis is the heat flux. From the differential equation, note
that if the differential of this term is a constant q / k , then the term must be a linear function
of the x-coordinate. This agrees with the analysis of part (e).
(5) In part (f), we evaluated Est , the rate of energy change stored in the wall at the instant the
volumetric heat generation was deactivated. Did you notice that Est 2 105 W / m3 is the
same value of the deactivated q ? How do you explain this?
 PROBLEM 2.24
KNOWN: Transient temperature distributions in a plane wall.
FIND: Appropriate forms of heat equation, initial condition, and boundary conditions.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) Negligible radiation.
ANALYSIS: The general form of the heat equation in Cartesian coordinates for constant k is
Equation 2.21. For one-dimensional conduction it reduces to

2
T q 1 T
x2 k t

At steady state this becomes

d 2T q
0
dx 2 k

If there is no thermal energy generation the steady-state temperature distribution is linear (or could be
constant). If there is uniform thermal energy generation the steady-state temperature distribution must
be parabolic.

Continued…