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DESIGN OF LOW PASS AND HIGH PASS FILTERS BY USING PSPICE

AIM: To design the Low pass and High pass filters by using PSPICE

APPARATUS:
1. Personal computer
2. PSPICE Software

THEORY:
1. Low-Pass Filters (LPF):
A low-pass filter is a circuit designed to pass low-frequency components (from
0 Hz up to the cutoff frequency) while blocking high-frequency components.

Definition:
A low-pass filter allows signals with frequencies below a certain cutoff
frequency to pass through with minimal attenuation.
It impedes or attenuates signals with frequencies above the cutoff frequency.
Components:
Passive low-pass filters are commonly constructed using RC (Resistor-
Capacitor) networks for low-frequency applications (up to 100 kHz).
For higher frequencies (above 100 kHz), RLC (Resistor-Inductor-Capacitor)
components are used.
Passive filters consist of resistors, capacitors, and inductors and have no
amplifying elements (such as transistors or op-amps).
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First-Order Passive Filters:

These filters can be created by connecting a single resistor and a single
capacitor in series.
The type of filter (low pass or high pass) depends on how the resistor and
capacitor that are connected with respect to the output signal.
Ideal Filter Response Curves:
Filters can be active (with amplifying devices) or passive (without
amplification).
Passive RC filters attenuate the signal and have a gain less than one.
The cutoff frequency marks the transition from low attenuation to significant
attenuation.

Applications:
Low-pass filters find use in audio systems, communication circuits, and signal
processing.
They help eliminate high-frequency noise and allow only the desired low-
frequency signals.

2. High-Pass Filters (HPF):

Definition:
A high-pass filter is an electronic circuit that passes signals with frequencies
higher than a certain cutoff frequency while attenuating signals with lower
frequencies.
It is the opposite of a low-pass filter, which allows low-frequency signals to
pass through.
Basic Circuit:
The fundamental high-pass filter is constructed using a series connection of a
capacitor and a resistor.
When an input signal is applied to the capacitor, the output is taken across the
resistor.
At low frequencies, the capacitor has high reactance, acting as an open circuit
and attenuating signals.
As the frequency increases beyond the cutoff frequency (fc), the capacitor’s
reactance decreases, allowing higher frequencies to pass directly to the
output.
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Characteristics:
Cutoff Frequency (fc): The point in the frequency response where the gain is
50% of the peak gain (equivalent to -3 dB).
Gain increases with frequency in a high-pass filter.
The slope of the filter curve is +20 dB per decade (6 dB increase per octave)
after the cutoff frequency.
The cutoff frequency depends on the RC values of the circuit.
Applications:
Image Processing: HPFs are used to sharpen images by emphasizing high-
frequency details.
In audio systems, they allow higher frequencies to pass, enhancing clarity.
Frequency Response:
Frequencies below the cutoff frequency are attenuated.
At the cutoff frequency, the gain is -3 dB.
Beyond the cutoff frequency, the output response increases from 0 to Vin at a
rate of +20 dB per decade.

Procedure:
1. Open schematics and draw the circuit as shown.
2. Add vdb marker to output.
3. Go to analysis=>setup=>ac sweep
4.Select decade
5. Enter starting frequency, stop frequency
4. Run the circuit to view the output graph.
5. Put a cursor at f = fc
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1. Low Pass Filter Using OPAMP:

Output:
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2. Low Pass Filter Using RC Circuit:

Output:
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3. High Pass Filter Using OPAMP:

Output:
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4. High Pass Filter Using RC Circuit:

Output:
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TRANSIENT ANALYSIS OF SERIES RC, RL, RLC CIRCUITS

AIM: To obtain Transient Response of Series RC, RL, RLC Circuits

APPARATUS:
1. Personal computer
2. PSPICE Software

THEORY:
1) RC circuit:

Figure 1: A simple RC circuit.

The key to the analysis is to remember that capacitor voltage cannot change
instantaneously. Assuming the capacitor is uncharged, the instant power is
applied, the capacitor voltage must be zero. Therefore all the source voltage
drops across the resistor. This creates the initial current, and this current
starts to charge the capacitor (the initial rate being equal to i/C ). According to
Kirchhoff's voltage law, as the capacitor voltage begins to increase, the
resistor voltage must decrease because the sum of the two must equal the
fixed source voltage. This means that the circulating current must also
decrease. This, in turn, means that the rate of capacitor voltage increase
begins to slow. As the capacitor voltage continues to increase, less voltage is
available for the resistor, causing further reductions in current, and a further
slowing of the rate of capacitor voltage change. Eventually, the capacitor
voltage will be nearly equal to the source voltage. This will result in a very
small potential across the resistor and an equally small current, slowing
subsequent capacitor voltage increases to a near standstill. Theoretically, the
capacitor voltage approaches the source voltage but never quite equals it.
Similarly, the current drops to near zero, but never completely turns off. This is
illustrated in Figure 2.
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Figure 2 : Normalized charge and discharge curves.

The dashed red line represents the initial rate of change of capacitor voltage.
This trajectory is what would be expected if an ideal current source drove the
capacitor. As noted previously, the rate of voltage change versus times is
equal to i/C, and therefore in this case, E/RC. If the initial rate of change were
to continue unabated, the source voltage, E, would be reached in RC seconds.
Consequently, RC is referred to as the charge time constant and is denoted by
τ (Greek letter tau). Thus,
Time constant, τ=RC
As noted, once the capacitor begins to charge, the current begins to decrease
and the capacitor voltage curve begins to fall away from the initial trajectory.
The solid red curve represents the capacitor voltage. Notice that after five time
constants the capacitor is nearly fully charged and the circuit is in steady-
state (i.e., the capacitor behaves as an open).
Steady-state is reached in approximately five time constants.This sort of
recursively dependent operation is characteristic of exponential functions.
The equation for the capacitor's voltage charging curve is:
Vc(t)=E(1−e−t/τ)
Where
Vc(t) is the capacitor voltage at time t,
E is the source voltage,
t is the time of interest,
τ is the time constant,
e is the base of natural logarithms, approximately 2.718.
The dashed blue line shows the initial slope of current change. The solid blue
curve shows the circulating current (and by extension of Ohm's law, the
resistor voltage). The equation for this curve, which follows the general shape
e−t, is:
I(t)=(E/R)e−t/τ
and
VR(t)=Ee−t/τ
Once power is removed or bypassed, the stored charge on the capacitor will
dissipate through any associated resistor(s) creating a discharge current
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which will end with the capacitor voltage drained back to zero. During the
discharge phase, both the capacitor's voltage and current will follow the solid
blue curve. The discharge time constant may be different from the charge
times constant, depending on the associated resistances.

2) RL circuit:
An RL circuit (also known as an RL filter or RL network) is defined as an
electrical circuit consisting of the passive circuit elements of a resistor (R) and
an inductor (L) connected together, driven by a voltage source or current
source.
Due to the presence of a resistor in the ideal form of the circuit, an RL circuit
will consume energy, akin to an RC circuit or RLC circuit.
This is unlike the ideal form of an LC circuit, which will consume no energy
due to the absence of a resistor. Although this is only in the ideal form of the
circuit, and in practice, even an LC circuit will consume some energy because
of the non-zero resistance of the components and connecting wires.

Consider a simple RL circuit in which resistor, R and inductor, L are connected

in series with a voltage supply of V volts. Let us think the current flowing in
the circuit is I (amp) and current through resistor and inductor is IR and IL
respectively. Since both resistance and inductor are connected in series, so
the current in both the elements and the circuit remains the same. i.e IR = IL =
I. Let VR and Vl be the voltage drop across resistor and inductor.
Applying Kirchhoff voltage law (i.e sum of voltage drop must be equal to apply
voltage) to this circuit we get,

Consider a circuit in which resistance is connected in series with inductor and

voltage source of V volts, is applied across it. Initially the switch is open. Let
us say at time ‘t’ we close the switch and the current ‘i’ starts flowing in the
circuit but it does not attains its maximum value rapidly due to the presence of
inductor in the circuit as we know inductor has a property to oppose the
change in the current flowing through it.
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Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the above series RL circuit,

Rearranging the above equation,

Integrating both sides, we get,

Now integrate right hand side by using substitution method,

Substituting the values we get,

We know that integration of,

So we get,

By applying limits we get,

Simplifying again,

Taking antilog on both sides,

We know that e ln x = x, so we get,

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Moving the term containing ‘i’ on one side we get,

The term L/R in the equation is called the Time Constant, (τ) of the RL series
circuit, and it is defined as time taken by the current to reach its maximum
steady state value and the term V/R represents the final steady state value of
current in the circuit.

3) RLC circuit:
Consider a Transient Response of RLC Circuit consisting of resistance,
inductance and capacitance as shown in Fig. 12.11.

The capacitor and inductor are initially uncharged and are in series with a
resistor. When switch S is closed at t = 0, we can determine the complete
solution for the current. Application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the Transient
Response of RLC Circuit results in the following differential equation.
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By differentiating the above equation, we have

The above equation is a second order linear differential equation, with only
complementary function. The particular solution for the above equation is
zero. Characteristic equation for the above differential equation is

The roots of Eq. 12.15 are

By assuming

Here K2 may be positive, negative or zero.

K2 is positive, when (R/2L)2 > 1/LC
The roots are real and unequal, and give the over damped response as shown
in Fig. 12.12. Then Eq. 12.14 becomes

The solution for the above equation is

i = c1 e(K1 + K2)t + c2 e(K1 – K2)t

The current curve for the over-damped case is shown in Fig. 12.12.
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K2 is negative, when (R/2L)2 < 1/LC

The roots are complex conjugate and give the under-damped response as
shown in Fig. 12.13. Then Eq. 12.14 becomes

The solution for the above equation is

The current curve for the under-damped case is shown in Fig. 12.13.

K2 is zero, when (R/2L)2 = 1/LC

The roots are equal, and give the critically damped response as shown in Fig.
12.14. Then Eq. 12.14 becomes

The solution for the above equation is

The current curve for the critically damped case is shown in Fig. 12.14.

The transient response of all three cases is shown below:

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Procedure:
1. Open the PSPICE schematics.
2. Now, click on the DRAW > GET NEW PART menu.
3. Place R, L, Vin Switch and enter their values respectively according to
circuit.
4. Place a probe across the element across which the response is to be found.
5. From the menu select Analysis > Setup.
6. Enable Transient and open the Transient options.
7. Set up the final time.
8. Select Ok to close the window.
9. Now Run The simulation.
10. The output waveform is thus obtained.
11. Follow the above procedure for different inputs/circuits and observe the
waveforms.
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RC Circuit:

Voltage Output :
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Current Output :
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RL Circuit:

Voltage Output :
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Current Output :
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RLC Circuit:

Output :
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HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF NON-SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORMS

AIM : To perform harmonic analysis of non-sinusoidal waveforms.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED : PSPICE Software

THEORY :
All repetitive waveforms can be composed of combinations of many
sinusoidal waves. Any waveform can be analyzed to determine the component
quantities. In this article, learn how to use Fourier Analysis to determine the
amplitudes of harmonic components and their phase relationship to the
fundamental component in various periodic non-sinusoidal waveforms.
A harmonic is a frequency that is an integer (whole number) multiple (second,
third, fourth, etc.) of the fundamental frequency. The fundamental frequency
on power distribution lines is 60 Hz and changes from positive to negative 60
cycles per second. For instance, the second harmonic on a 60 Hz power
distribution line is 120 (60 × 2) Hz. The second harmonic waveform completes
two cycles during one cycle of the fundamental waveform over the same
period of time.

Fourier analysis (developed by mathematician Jean Fourier) is a mathematical

operation that analyzes the waveforms to determine their harmonic content.
Each harmonic's amplitude, as well as its phase relationship to the
fundamental, can be determined. Also, the level of any DC component can be
computed.
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1. Square Wave :
A pure square wave, symmetrical above and below ground level, can be shown
by Fourier analysis to be represented by the following equation,

where
e is an instantaneous value at time t
4Em/π is the peak value of a waveform
sinωt is a Fundamental component
sin3ωt/3 is third harmonic
sin5ωt/5 is fifth harmonic

As shown by the equation, a symmetrical square wave can be made up of

fundamental component and odd harmonics but has no even harmonics and
no DC component.
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2. Sawtooth Wave :
The Fourier equation for the sawtooth waveform is,

3. Triangle Wave :
Consider a symmetric triangle wave T(x) of period 2L. Since the function is
odd,
a0 = 0 ,an = 0
and

The Fourier series for the triangle wave is therefore,

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PROCEDURE :

1. Open PSPICE Schematics and draw the circuit as shown.

2. Open Vpulse & enter the parameters as shown in the circuit.
3. Go to Analysis => Setup => Transient & give print step & final value inputs.
Select Enable Fourier & enter values for centre frequency, no. of harmonics
& output vars-V(1).
4. Save the schematic as filename.sch & run the schematic.
5. Input waveform is plotted. Go to Trace => Fourier (or) click on FFT icon to
view the fft graph.
6. Click on View Simulation Output File to view the total harmonic distortion &
fourier components.

1. SQUARE WAVE :
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OUTPUT :
FOURIER COMPONENTS OF TRANSIENT RESPONSE V(1)
DC COMPONENT = -3.960396E-01
HARMONIC FREQUENCY FOURIER NORMALIZED PHASE
NORMALIZED
NO (HZ) COMPONENT COMPONENT (DEG) PHASE(DEG)

1 1.000E+03 5.093E+01 1.000E+00 -8.911E-01 0.000E+00

2 2.000E+03 7.925E-01 1.556E-02 -9.178E+01 -9.000E+01
3 3.000E+03 1.698E+01 3.334E-01 -2.673E+00 7.994E-15
4 4.000E+03 7.936E-01 1.558E-02 -9.356E+01 -9.000E+01
5 5.000E+03 1.020E+01 2.002E-01 -4.455E+00 5.329E-15
6 6.000E+03 7.955E-01 1.562E-02 -9.535E+01 -9.000E+01
7 7.000E+03 7.290E+00 1.431E-01 -6.238E+00 -1.030E-13
8 8.000E+03 7.983E-01 1.567E-02 -9.713E+01 -9.000E+01
9 9.000E+03 5.677E+00 1.115E-01 -8.020E+00 -1.194E-12
TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION = 4.302880E+01 PERCENT
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OUTPUT GRAPHS:
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2. SAWTOOTH WAVE :

OUTPUT :
FOURIER COMPONENTS OF TRANSIENT RESPONSE V(1)
DC COMPONENT = -2.003341E+00
HARMONIC FREQUENCY FOURIER NORMALIZED PHASE
NORMALIZED
NO (HZ) COMPONENT COMPONENT (DEG) PHASE(DEG)

1 1.000E+03 2.537E+01 1.000E+00 -1.710E+02 0.000E+00

2 2.000E+03 1.254E+01 4.943E-01 -1.620E+02 1.800E+02
3 3.000E+03 8.198E+00 3.232E-01 -1.530E+02 3.600E+02
4 4.000E+03 5.982E+00 2.358E-01 -1.440E+02 5.400E+02
5 5.000E+03 4.617E+00 1.820E-01 -1.349E+02 7.200E+02
6 6.000E+03 3.680E+00 1.451E-01 -1.260E+02 9.000E+02
7 7.000E+03 2.988E+00 1.178E-01 -1.170E+02 1.080E+03
8 8.000E+03 2.452E+00 9.667E-02 -1.080E+02 1.260E+03
9 9.000E+03 2.022E+00 7.971E-02 -9.902E+01 1.440E+03

TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION = 6.986151E+01 PERCENT

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OUTPUT GRAPHS:
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3. TRIANGULAR WAVE :

OUTPUT :
FOURIER COMPONENTS OF TRANSIENT RESPONSE V(1)
DC COMPONENT = 4.742029E-01
HARMONIC FREQUENCY FOURIER NORMALIZED PHASE
NORMALIZED
NO (HZ) COMPONENT COMPONENT (DEG) PHASE(DEG)

1 1.000E+03 2.547E+01 1.000E+00 1.774E+00 0.000E+00

2 2.000E+03 1.274E+01 5.002E-01 3.548E+00 1.896E-04
3 3.000E+03 8.501E+00 3.338E-01 5.322E+00 4.155E-04
4 4.000E+03 6.383E+00 2.506E-01 7.097E+00 1.108E-03
5 5.000E+03 5.114E+00 2.008E-01 8.872E+00 2.069E-03
6 6.000E+03 4.269E+00 1.676E-01 1.065E+01 3.603E-03
7 7.000E+03 3.667E+00 1.440E-01 1.242E+01 5.687E-03
8 8.000E+03 3.217E+00 1.263E-01 1.420E+01 8.369E-03
9 9.000E+03 2.867E+00 1.126E-01 1.598E+01 1.174E-02

TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION = 7.363685E+01 PERCENT

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OUTPUT GRAPHS: