THREE STEPS for

diagnostic testing of bushings

Dielectric Frequency
Response Measurements

Narrowband Dielectric
Frequency Response

Line Frequency Power

Factor Testing
Introduction

In the early 1900s, it was demonstrated that a capacitancegraded design

helps achieve a better radial voltage distribution, thus enabling relatively
smaller bushings to be used in higher voltage applications. Today,
condenser bushings are used everywhere in applications exceeding 25 kV.
Based on the materials used in the insulation system, condenser bushings
can be classified into – oil impregnated paper (OIP), resin impregnated
paper (RIP), resin bonded paper (RBP) and resin impregnated synthetic
(RIS) bushings. Among these technologies, OIP is perhaps the most
widely used. OIP relies on the combination of mineral oil with kraft paper
to make a composite dielectric with superior insulating characteristics.

In the substation, bushings serve as the interface between the transformer and the rest of the system. They
are designed to withstand high voltage stress during operation, to carry a high amount of current, and
to operate under high temperatures. Being external, they are exposed to atmospheric conditions which
can be harsh at times. Before installation, they can be easily damaged during transportation and once
installed are a target for vandalism. Because of these factors, bushing failure is, alongside tap-changers,
one of the main causes of transformer failure. A transformer failure can be an expensive affair. Hence,
bushing insulation health needs to be monitored effectively during its service life to ensure bad bushings
are replaced in a timely manner. Several online and offline testing methods exist to monitor the condition
of transformer bushings. Periodic testing of capacitance and power factor has been done on bushings for
close to a century now. In recent times, the use of dielectric frequency response, an advanced application
of power factor testing, has become an increasingly popular and effective method for bushing diagnostics.

Sanket Bolar, MSc is a Ankit Porwal, works

Substation Applications for Megger India and
engineer at Megger. is responsible for the
From the beginning of power transformer seg-
his professional career, ment in South Asia.
Sanket was directly More than ten years of
involved with testing and experience in the area
condition assessment of substation appa-ratus
of power transformers testing allowed him to
working for Siemens Ltd (India). While working successfully support a large customer community in
on his Master’s Degree, Sanket became part of dif-ferent commercial and technical topics. For the
Megger as part of the internship educational last 8 years working for Megger, Ankit has provided
program. In 2015 upon graduation, he joined engineering consultation and recommendations
Megger as Applications Engineer covering a broad to better test and evalu-ate the condition of
spectrum of substation products from transformer substation equipment with special focus on power
to power quality applications. Sanket graduated and distribu-tion transformers. His expertise with
from Mumbai University, India in 2009 with a rou-tine and advance diagnostic methods led him
Bachelor’s in Electrical Engineering and received his to author and co-author several techni-cal articles.
Master’s in Electrical Engineering specializing in Ankit received his Engineering degree from the
Power Systems from North Carolina State University University Uttar Pradesh in Lucknow (India) in 2009.
in 2015. He is a member of IEEE.

Three steps for diagnostic testing of bushings 2

Step 1:
Line frequency power factor testing (LFPF) on oip bushings

The term power factor is used historically in the US, but

the term dissipation factor or tanδ is used in other parts
of the world. It is important to note that while power
factor and dissipation factor are mathematically two different
terms, they have numerically equivalent values when
it comes to insulation. Hence, these terms can be used
interchangeably for practical purposes with regards to insulation.

These terms are related to each other through the formulae

below:
Power factor = cos φ
Dissipation factor = tan φ
Delta = 90° – φ
Figure 1. The relationship
between φ and δ

Condenser bushing insulation system has two capacitance

components – C1 and C2. In an OIP bushing, the capacitance
grading is achieved by wrapping a conductive foil in oilimpregnated
kraft paper multiple times around the conductor core. One of
the outermost layers is connected to a test tap. The multiple
layers of capacitors between the conductor core and the test
tap can be represented by a single equivalent term C1. The test
tap itself is isolated from the grounded flange and this insulation
can be represented by the term C2. In service, the test tap is
grounded. Capacitance and power factor measurement involves
the measurement of dielectric losses in the C1 insulation that lies
between the conductor core and the test tap at 10 kV. Power
factor values obtained are numerically low numbers and hence
are expressed in % instead of absolute values. Typical factory
values lie in the range of 0.2 – 0.4% [1]. Factory testing yields
reference values which are etched on the nameplates of bushings.
Figure 2. Insulation system
Field test values are compared to these nameplate values. Any of condenser bushing
significant change in C1 power factor values points towards
insulation deterioration of bushings.
Additional measurements may be done on the C2 insulation that lies between the test tap and the
grounded bushing flange. A fair C2 comparison may not be possible as different values could be obtained
when the bushing is on a stand, and when it is mounted on a transformer. Besides, most of the time
the C2 values are not even provided on the nameplate of the bushing. There are several other reasons
why people tend to stay away from C2 analysis and focus on the C1 power factor values. It is important
to look for changes in C1 capacitance too. An increase in capacitance can be a result of shorted layers,
whereas a decrease in capacitance most commonly results from a test tap connection problem. There
are several documents available that provide guidelines on interpretation and validation of power factor
test results, both during factory acceptance testing (FAT) and field testing.

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The following standards provide acceptance limits for C1 power factor:
IEEE C57.19.01 – IEEE Standard Performance Characteristics and Dimensions for Outdoor Apparatus
Bushings [2]; and IEC 60137 – Insulated bushings for alternating voltages above 1000 V [3]
The limits are specified in Table 1.

C1 acceptance Power factor limits C1 acceptance Power factor limits

Bushing type
as per IEEE C57.19.01 [2] as per IEC 60137 [3]
OIP 0.5% 0.7%
RIP 0.85% 0.7%
RBP 2% 1.5%

Table 1. Bushing C1 acceptance %pf limits specified in standards

All of the limits specified in Table 1 are meant for power factors measured at 20°C or normalized to 20°C.
IEEE C57.152 – IEEE Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of Fluid-Filled Power Transformers, Regulators, and
Reactors [4] says:

A. A change from the initial reading by 1.5 to 2 times warrants more frequent testing of bushings;
B. A change from the initial reading by more than 3 times warrants removing the bushing from service;
C. A change in capacitance by more than 5% is a cause to investigate the suitability of bushing for
continued service;
D. These guidelines are in line with the guidelines provided in IEEE C57.19.100 – IEEE Guide for Application
of Power Apparatus Bushings [5].

As can be seen from these guidelines, validation involves either comparing power factor values against
the set limits or observing the change in power factor over time. One point that is often overlooked

while analyzing power factor results is the effect of temperature. Measuring at different temperatures
can yield different values, so it is important to normalize the measured power factor values by correcting
them to a reference temperature (20°C). There are correction factors available from manufacturers or
other references, but those are generic and cannot be relied upon in all cases.

Three steps for diagnostic testing of bushings 4

Step 2:
Narrowband Dielectric Frequency Response (NBDFR) on IP Bushings

Standard 10 kV power factor test sets withexpanded

capabilities of frequencies from 1 Hz to 505 Hz
can run power factor measurements at multiple
frequencies. The curve obtained by plotting these
power factor values, called Narrowband Dielectric
Frequency Response (NBDFR), gives us additional
information on the overall insulation condition of
the bushing. This reduced frequency band does
not provide the level of moisture in the insulation,
but it does point to the presence of moisture and/
or impurities in the insulation.
Figure 3. Dielectric frequency response

NBDFR is a continuum in the evolution of power factor testing. In about three minutes, valuable
information is added to the routine power factor test. It provides early indication of changes in the
dielectric response, potentially related to aging and insulation degradation. This measurement can
reveal an emerging problem in the insulation at an early stage and represents a proactive way to
prioritize maintenance activities and dedicate
resources to more advanced testing practices. NBDFR is typically performed at a low voltage of 250 V.
As a low energy test, it is safer to perform so that it allows visualization of the unique dielectric signature
of the object under test. Therefore, a graphical comparative analysis between sister bushings mounted
on one common object is possible and it also provides the opportunity to set limits and analyze the
dielectric behavior in other frequencies more sensitive than line-frequency (50/60 Hz) i.e. 1 Hz and 10
Hz. NBDFR also provides the means to determine a specific insulation system sensitivity to temperature
and an accurate temperature correction factor (ITC) to correct to an equivalent 20°C power factor.

1.
Measuring at different temperatures can yield
different values, so it is important to normalize the
measured power factor values by correcting them
to a reference temperature (20°C). The correction
factors that are available from manufacturers or
other references are generic and cannot be relied
upon in all cases.

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Effect of Temperature

IEEE C57.12.90 section 10.10.4 Note 3 (b) states that “Experience has shown that the variation in
dissipation factor with temperature is substantial and erratic so that no single correction curve will fit all
cases.” [6] Power factor is temperature dependent. It has been found that the frequency response and
thermal response of a dielectric are related. The dielectric frequency response of an OIP system shifts
horizontally with change in temperature, without any change in the shape of the curve itself. Using
Arrhenius equation, it is possible to determine the exact horizontal shift that would occur in a curve for
a certain change in temperature.

This enables us to determine the power factor that would be obtained at 20°C, while running a DFR
measurement at any other temperature. Figure 5 shows dielectric frequency response curve obtained
with the temperature correction applied, alongside the measured curve. Figure 6 shows the temperature
dependence curve obtained for the same bushing utilizing the data obtained from DFR.

Getting temperature corrected DFR curves enables us to assess the correct values at 1 Hz, 10 Hz and 60
Hz without having to worry about the effect of temperature on the assessment. There is no need to wait
until the temperature is close to 20°C to test the bushings, or to rely on generic correction factors which
may or may not be apt depending on the insulation condition of the bushings.
This method is known as Individual Temperature Correction (ITC). More information about ITC is provided
in [7] and [8].

Figure 4. DFR curves obtained at

different temperatures

Three steps for diagnostic testing of bushings 6

Step 3:
Dielectric Frequency Response Measurements on Bushings

Figure 5. Measured and temperature Figure 6. Temperature dependence of bushing

corrected DFR curves dissipation factor determined from DFR measurement

The insulation system of an OIP bushing is made up of multiple layers of capacitors formed by conductive
foil wrapped in oil impregnated kraft paper. The oil and paper form a composite dielectric system, and
the dielectric frequency response obtained from the bushing is a combination of the individual responses
from the oil and paper insulation. The permittivity of the insulation can be expressed as a complex term:

A. The relative permittivity of a dielectric is a complex term and can be represented as

A. The dissipation factor is related to the permittivity by the following equation:

The dissipation factor varies with frequency as both dielectric constants are frequency dependent. The
behavior of these constants differs for oil and paper. Figures 7 and 8 illustrate how the typical response
obtained from a bushing is an amalgamation of the individual responses from oil and paper.
In cases where it is not possible to get definitive answers through narrowband dielectric frequency
testing, a more in-depth analysis can be carried out by measuring the dissipation factor over a wider
range of frequencies. Analysis of DFR curves can yield important information such as moisture content or
contamination in the paper, and conductivity of the oil. The presence of contamination or other physical
issues can result in atypical responses with the most prominent deviations seen in the lower frequencies.

Effect of Noise

DFR measurements are typically carried out at a low voltage of 140 V. Because of the test involving a
wide range of frequencies and low currents, the presence of noise can adversely affect the accuracy of
the measurements. This can happen in highly noisy environments even though the instrument may have
a high signal-noise ratio. The influence of noise can easily be observed in the obtained DFR curves.

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 Noise disturbances can be overcome by testing at a higher voltage. The use of a voltage amplifier in
conjunction with the DFR measurement device can significantly improve the signalnoise ratio, resulting in
accurate and reliable DFR measurements. Figure 9 shows the measurement curve on the B phase bushing
obtained through a DFR test that was carried out on the line bushings of a 50 MVAr reactor using an
IDAX. As can be seen, there is a fluctuation in the measured power factor values due to the presence
of noise. The effect of noise is more commonly observed while testing objects with low capacitance like
bushings, instrument transformers, etc. because in these cases the magnitude of the measured current is
lower, and hence more susceptible to noise. The magnitude of the capacitive component of the current
is given by the following equation:

The DFR test was repeated on the same bushing at a voltage of 1.4 kVrms by using a voltage amplifier
VAX. The results are shown in Figure 10.

Figure 7. DFR responses from individual Figure 8. Dielectric Frequency Response of an

dielectrics and composite dielectric OIP bushing

Figure 9. DFR measurement under the Figure 10. The noise was overcome by
influence of noise conducting a DFR test at a higher voltage of
1.4 kV rms

Three steps for diagnostic testing of bushings 8

1.
In cases where it is not possible to get definitive
answers through narrowband dielectric frequency
testing, a more in-depth analysis can be carried out by
measuring the dissipation factor over a wider range
of frequencies. Analysis of DFR curves can provide
important information on the moisture content or
contamination in the paper, and conductivity of the oil.

Conclusion
The line frequency power factor testing, which has traditionally been used for the bushing condition
assessment, has its limitations. These limitations can be overcome by conducting dielectric frequency
response tests. Owing to the increased sensitivity of power factor to moisture and contamination at
lower frequencies, DFR enables us to detect bushing insulation problems at an earlier stage. Any inde-
cisiveness over the course of action to be taken after the conducted narrowband dielectric frequency
response test can be eliminated by conducting a full dielectric frequency response test, which enables us
to estimate the presence of moisture in the solid insulation and conductivity of the oil. DFR also solves
the problem of temperature dependence of the power factor, enabling us to get values for the power
factor corrected at 20°C. Testing in a noisy environment can lead to disturbances in the DFR measure-
ment caused by the frequency range and the low currents involved. In this case, testing at higher volt-
ages (1.4 kV rms) enables us to get better DFR results.

References
1. W. A2.34, “Guide for transformer maintenance,” Cigre, 2011
2. IEEE C57.19.01-2017 - IEEE Standard for Performance Characteristics and Dimensions for Power
Transformer and Reactor Bushings
3. IEC 60137:2017 - Insulated bushings for alternating voltages above 1 000 V
4. IEEE C57.152-2013 - IEEE Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of Fluid-Filled Power Transformers,
Regulators, and Reactors
5. IEEE C57.19.100-2012 - IEEE Guide for Application of Power Apparatus Bushings
6. IEEE C57.12.90-2015 - IEEE Standard Test Code for Liquid- Immersed Distribution, Power, and
Regulating Transformers
7. Dr. P. Werelius, Dr. D. Robalino, J. Cheng and M. Ohlen, “Dielectric Frequency Response
Measurements and Dissipation Factor Temperature Dependence,” 2012
8. Dr. D. Robalino, “Accurate Temperature Correction of Dissipation Factor Data for Oil- Impregnated
Paper Insulation Bushings: Field Experience,” 2011

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