14.

Measurement and Effects of Heat

Can you recall?

1. Which sources do we get heat from?

2. How is heat transferred?
3. Which effects of heat do you know?
Some effects of heat are shown in figure 14.1
What are they?
We have seen in previous standards that
heat is a form of energy which flows from an
object at high temperature to an object at
low temperature. Temperature of an object
tells us how hot or cold that object is. The
temperature of a cold object is lower than the
temperature of a hot object. Thus, the
temperature of ice cream is less than the
temperature of tea. 14.1 Various effects of heat
We have also seen that when we give heat to an object it expands and it contracts on
cooling. Also, the state of matter changes due to heat.
The unit of heat in SI system is Joule while that in CGS units is calorie. One calorie is
equivalent to 4.18 Joule. One calorie heat is the heat required to increase the temperature of 1
gm of water through 10C.
Solved examples Sources of heat
1. How much heat will be needed to raise the 1. Sun : The Sun is the biggest source of heat
temperature of 1.5 kg of water from 15 0C to received by the earth. A large amount of heat
45 0C ? Give the answer in calories as well as is generated due to the nuclear fusion taking
in Joule. place in its centre. In this process hydrogen
Given : mass of water = 1.5 kg = 1500 gm. nuclei fuse together to form helium nuclei,
Change in temperature = 45 0C - 15 0C generating heat in the process. Some of it
= 30 0C. reaches the earth in the form of light and
Heat required for temperature change = ? heat.
Heat required for temperature change = mass 2. Earth : As the temperature at the centre of
of water (gm) x change in temperature (0C) the earth is high, the earth is also a source of
cal. heat. This heat is called geothermal energy.
= 1500 ´ 30 cal = 45000 cal 3. Chemical energy : When fuels like wood,
= 45000 ´ 4.18 J = 188100 J coal, petrol etc, burn, there is chemical
2. If the temperature of water changes by reaction between the fuel and oxygen. Heat
10 0C on giving 300 cal of heat, what is the is generated in these reactions.
mass of water? 4. Electrical Energy : In your daily life, you
Given : Amount of heat given to water = 300 have seen several equipments which produce
cal, change in temperature = 10 0C, mass of heat with the help of electricity e.g. electric
water = m = ? press, electric heater etc. Thus, electricity is
Amount of heat given (cal) = mass of water a source of heat.
(gm) x change in temperature (0C)
300 = m ´ 10
m = 300 / 10 = 30 gm.
95
5. Atomic energy : A huge amount of heat is produced in a very short time when the nuclei
of some elements like uranium, thorium etc undergo fission. This is used in atomic energy
projects.
6. Air : A large amount of heat is present in the air around us.
Temperature : We can find out how hot or cold an object is by touching the object. However,
our sense of ‘hot’ or ‘cold’ is relative. This can be understood from the following experiment.

Try this

1. Take three similar vessels. Let us call

them ‘A’, ‘B’and ‘C’(see figure 14.2 )
2. Fill A with hot water and B with cold
water. Put some water from A and B in C.
3. Dip your right hand in A and left hand in Vessel A Vessel C Vessel B
B, and keep them immersed for 2 to 3
minutes.
4. Now dip both the hands in C. What do
you feel? 14.2 Relative sensation
Even though, both the hands are dipped in water in the same vessel i.e. water at the same
temperature, your right hand will find the water to be cold while the left hand will find it to be
hot. What is the reason for this? Think about it.
You must have understood from the above activity that we cannot determine the
temperature of an object accurately by simply touching it. Also you may hurt yourself by
touching very hot or cold objects. So we feel the need of some device for measuring temperature.
Thermometer is a device for measuring temperature. You have read about thermometer in the
previous class. In this lesson you are going to learn about the construction of a thermometer.

Can you recall? What are potential and kinetic energies?

Heat and Temperature : What is the difference

between heat and temperature? We know that a
substance is made of atoms. The atoms in a substance Hot gas Cooler gas
are always in motion. The total kinetic energy of the
atoms in a substance is a measure of the heat contained
in that substance, while the temperature of a substance
is related to the average kinetic energy of atoms. If the
average kinetic energy of atoms in two objects is equal (a) (b)
then their temperatures will also be equal.
Figure 14.3 ‘a’and ‘b’ show the velocities of atoms Atom
in a gas at high and low temperature, respectively. The
direction and the length of the arrows attached to the
Solid
atoms show the direction and magnitude of the velocity
of the atoms. The velocity of atoms in the gas at higher
temperature is larger than the velocity of atoms in the (c)
gas at lower temperature.
14.3 Motion of atoms in gas and
solid
96
 The velocities of atoms in a solid object are shown by arrows in figure 14.3(c). The atoms
in a solid object are tied to one another because of the forces acting between them. So they
cannot be displaced from their places. Because of heat, they oscillate around their fixed
position. Higher the temperature of the solid, faster is their velocity of oscillation.
Suppose A and B are two objects made from the same substance. The mass of A is twice
the mass of B which means that the number of atoms in A is twice the number of atoms in B.
Even if the temperatures of A and B are equal, i.e. the average kinetic energy of atoms in A is
same as that in B, the total kinetic energy of atoms in A is twice that in B. Thus, the heat
content of A is twice that of B even though, they both have the same temperature.

Try this 1. Take two steel vessels A and B of the same size.

2. Fill some water in A and double that amount in B. Make sure that the water in both vessels
are at the same temperature.
3. Raise the temperatures of water in both vessels by 10 0 C using a spirit lamp. Did it take the
same time to increase the temperature in the two vessels?
You must have required more time to raise the temperature of water in B. This means that
for the same increase in temperature, you had to give more amount of heat to B. Thus, even
though the water in A and B have the same temperature, the amount of heat in B is more than
that in A.
Temperature is measured in units of Celsius (0C), Fahrenheit (0F) and Kelvin (K). Kelvin
is used in scientific experiments, while the other two are used in daily life. The relation between
the three units is shown by the following formulae.

(F-32) = C --------(1)
9 5 Description 0
F 0
C K
Boiling point of water 212 100 373.15
K = C + 273.15 -------(2) Freezing point of water 32 0 273
Some specific temperatures are given in Room temperature 72 23 296
the three scales in the following table. Verify Boiling point of mercury 356.7
that they satisfy the above relations and fill Freezing point of mercury -38.8
appropriate numbers in the blanks.
Sloved examples
1. How much will the temperature of 68 0F be in Celsius and Kelvin?
Given : Temperature in Fahrenheit = F = 68, Temperature in Celsius = C= ?,
Temperature in Kelvin = K = ?
According to formula (1), (F-32) = C
9 5
(68-32) = C
9 5
C = 5 x 36 = 20 0C According to formula (2)
9
K = C + 273.15 = 20 + 273.15 = 293.15
Thus, the temperature in Celsius = 20 0C and in Kelvin = 293.15 K

97
2. At what temperature will its value be same in Celsius and in Fahrenheit?
Given : If the temperature in Celsius is C, then the temperature in Fahrenheit (F) will be same,
i.e. F= C.
Using formula (1), (F-32) = C
9 5
or, (C-32) = C
9 5
(C-32) ´ 5 = C ´ 9
5C - 160 = 9 C
4 C = - 160
C = F = - 40 The temperatures in Celsius and in Fahrenheit will be same at - 400

Thermometer : You must have seen the This does not use the expansion of liquid due
thermometer that is used when someone at to heat. Instead, it has a sensor which can
home has fever. That thermometer is called measure the heat coming out from the body
clinical thermometer. Different thermometers directly and from that can measure the
are used for different purposes. Let us first temperature of the body.
learn about the working of a thermometer. The thermometers used in laboratory
A thermometer is shown in figure 14.4 are similar to the one shown in figure 14.4 a
a. It has a narrow glass tube which has a except that the range of temperatures that it
bulb at one end. The bulb and part of the tube can measure is large spanning 40 0C to
is filled with a liquid. Earlier, mercury was 110 0C or even larger. A special type of
used but, as it is harmful for us, it has been thermometer is used to measure the minimum
replaced with alcohol. The rest of the volume and maximum temperatures in a day. It is
of the tube has vacuum and its other end is called the maximum minimum thermometer.
closed. The bulb is kept in contact with the It is shown in figure 14.4 d.
object whose temperature is to be measured
so that its temperature becomes same as that
of the object. Because of the increased
temperature the alcohol inside it expands b. Clinical
and its level in the tube rises. Using the thermometer
properties of the expansion of alcohol (to be
discussed below), the temperature can be
obtained from the level of the alcohol. The
tube of the thermometer is marked
accordingly. a. A thermometer
Figure 14.4 (b) shows a clinical
thermometer. As the body temperature of a
healthy person is 37 0C, clinical thermometers
are designed to measure temperatures c. Digital
between 35 0C and 42 0C. These days, instead thermometer
of the above type, digital thermometers are d. Maximum
used for clinical puroses. One such - minimum
thermometer is shown in figure 14.4 c. thermometer

14.4 : Different thermometers

98
 When a hot object is kept in contact with a cold object they both exchange heat. The hot
object gives away heat while the cold object absorbs heat. Thus, temperature of the hot object
decreases, while that of the cold object increases. This means that the kinetic energy of atoms
in the cold object goes on incresing while that in the hot object goes on decreasing. A time
comes when the average kinetic energies of atoms in both objects become equal, which means
that the temperatures of both objects become equal.
Specific heat : The specific heat of an object is the amount of heat required to increase the
temperature of unit mass of that substance through one degree. This is represented by the
symbol ‘c’. Its unit in SI is Joule /(kg 0C) and in CGS is cal/(gm 0C). Suppose Q amount of
heat is required to increase the temperature of an object of mass m and specific heat c, from
Ti to Tf This amount depends on the mass and specific heat of the object as well as on the
increase in temperature and can be written as.
Q = m x c x (Tf - Ti)....................... (3)
Substances Specific heat Substance Specific heat
Different substances have cal/(gm 0C) cal/(gm 0C)
different specific heats. We are going Aluminium 0.21 Iron 0.11
to learn more about it in future classes. Alcohol 0.58 Copper 0.09
The specific heats of a few substance Gold 0.03 Mercury 0.03
are given in the following table. Hydrogen 3.42 Water 1.0

Calorimeter : We have seen that a Water at a fixed temperature is placed

thermometer is used to measure the inside the calorimeter. This means that the
temperature of an object. A calorimeter is temperature of the inner vessel and that of
used to measure the heat content of an object. the water in it are the same. When a hot
Using this equipment, we can measure the object is placed in water, heat is exchanged
heat produced or absorbed in a physical or between the hot object, water and the
chemical process. calorimeter and all three reach the same
A calorimeter is shown in figure 14.5 temperature. As the calorimeter is thermally
Similar to a thermosflask, a calorimeter has isolated from the surroundings, the total heat
two vessels, an inner and an outer one. This lost by the hot object is equal to the total heat
way, no heat can be transferred from the absorbed by the calorimeter and water inside
inner to the outer vessel or from the outer to it.
the inner vessel. Thus, the inner vessel is Similarly if we put a cold object in the
thermally isolated from the surroundings. calorimeter, the cold object will receive heat
The inner vessel is made of copper. A from the water and its temperature will
thermometer for measuring the temperature increase, while water and calorimeter will
and a stirrer for stirring the liquid in the lose heat and their temperature will decrease.
calorimeter are fitted in it. Suppose the mass of the inner vessel in
the calorimeter is ‘mc’ and its initial
temperature is ‘Ti’and the mass of the water
Use your brain power in the calorimeter is ‘mw’. The temperature
of water will also be ‘Ti’ . Suppose we place
1. Why does your mother put folded cloth an object of mass ‘mO’ and temperature ‘To’
strips soaked in cold water on your in the calorimeter. If ‘To’ is higher than Ti the
forehead when you have high fever? object will give away heat to the calorimeter
2. Why is the calorimeter made of copper? and water. Soon the temperature of all three
will become the same.

99
 Let us call this final temperature ‘Tf’ . The
Thermometer total heat given away by the object (‘Qo’)
will be equal to the sum of the heat gained by
Heat resistant lid Stirrer the calorimeter (‘Qc’) and by water (‘Qw’).
We can write this as.
Heat
resistant Qo = QC + QW ........................... (4)
ring
Inner As seen above Qo, Qc and Qw depend on
vessel Outer mass, specific heat and change in temperature
vessel
DT. If the specific heats of the material of
Air calorimeter, water and the object are cc , cw
cavity and co respectively, we can write using
formula (3),
14.5 Caloriemeter

QO = mO ´ DTO ´ CO, DTO = TO – Tf

QW = mW ´ DTW ´ CW, DTW = Tf – Ti
QC = mC ´ DTC ´ CC, DTC = Tf – Ti = DTW
Using (4), mo ´ DTo ´ co = mw ´ DTw ´ cw + mc ´ DTc ´ cc ............................ (5)
We can measure all the masses and temperatures. If we know the specific heats of the
material of the calorimeter i.e. copper and that of water, we can calculate the value of the
specific heat of the object using formula (5). We will learn about this in more details in higher
standards.
Solved Examples
1. Suppose the masses of the calorimeter, the water in it and the hot object made up of copper
which is put in the calorimeter are the same. The initial temperature of the calorimeter and
water is 30 0C and that of the hot object is 60 0C. The specific heats of copper and water are
0.09 cal / (gm 0C) and 1 cal / (gm 0C) respectively. What will be the final temperature of
water?
Given : mw = mo = mc = m, Ti = 30 oC, To = 60 oC, Ti = ?
Using formula (5), m ´ (60 - Tf ) ´ 0.09 = m ´ (Tf - 30) ´ 1 + m ´ (Tf - 30) ´ 0.09
(60 - Tf ) ´ 0.09 = (Tf - 30) ´ 1.09
60 ´ 0.9 + 30 ´ 1.09 = (0.09 + 1.09) Ti
T1 = 32.29 0C
The final temperature of water wil be 32.29 0C.
Effects of heat
In previous standards, we have studied two effects of heat on matter : 1. expansion and
contraction and 2. change of state. In this lesson, we are going to learn more about expansion.
You will learn about change of state of matter in higher standards.
Expansion
When heat is given to any substance, its temperature increases and it expands. Its
expansion depends on the increase in its temperature. Solids, liquids and gases, all expand on
receiving heat.

100
Expansion of solids The expansion coefficients of different
Linear expansion : The linear expansion of substances are different. From the above
a solid is the increase in length of a wire or a formula we can see that if we take two rods
rod of a solid due to increase in its of different substances, both having the same
temperature. length, and increase their temperatures by
When we increase the temperature of a rod the same amount, the rod of the substance
of length l1 from T1 to T2, its length becomes having higher expansion coefficient will
l2. The change in length is proportional to the expand more. Thus, the increase in its length
original length and the increase in will be larger.
temperature, (D T=T2 - T1). So we can write From formula (6), we can write the
the change in length as follows. expansion coefficient as
Change in length a original length x change l = (l2 - l1) / (l1 DT) ..................... (8)
in temperature Thus, the expansion coefficient is the
l2 - l1 a l1 ´ DT change in length of a rod of unit length when
l2 - l1 = l ´ l1 ´ DT ................... (6) its temperature is increased by 1 degree.
l2 = l1 (1+ lDT) ......................... (7) From formula (8) we can see that the unit of
Here l (lambda) is the constant of expansion coefficient is the inverse of the
proportionality and it is called the unit of temperature, i.e. 1/0C. The expansion
coefficient of linear expansion of the coefficients of some substances are given in
solid substance. the following table.
Solid Coefficient Liquid Coefficient Gas Expansion coefficient
of linear of volume x 103 (1/0C)
expansion x expansion x
106 (1/0C) 103 (1/0C)
Copper 17 Alcohol 1.0 Hydrogen 3.66
Aluminium 23.1 Water 0.2 Helium 3.66
Iron 11.5 Mercury 0.2 Nitrogen 3.67
Silver 18 Chloroform 1.3 Sulphur dioxide 3.90
14.6 : Coefficient of expansion of some substances
Solved Examples
Example : What will be the increase in length of a steel rod of length 0.5 m, when its
temperature is increased by 60 0C? The coefficient of linear expansion of steel is
0.000013 (1/0C).
Given : Initial length of the rod = 0.5 m, change in temperature = 60 0C, change in length =
Dl = ?
Using formula (6), Dl = l ´ l1 ´ DT = 0.000013 ´ 0.5 ´ 60 = 0.00039 m
Increase in length = 0.039 cm
Areal expansion of solids : Similar to linear expansion, the area of a sheet of a solid material
also increaes on heating. This is called the areal expansion of solids. This is given by the
following formula.
A2 = A1 (1 + s DT) ............................. (9)
Here, DT is the change in temperature and A1 and A2 are the initial and final areas of the
sheet. s is the coefficient of areal expansion of the solid.
Volumetric expansion of solids : Similar to a sheet, a three dimensional piece of solid
expands on all sides when heated and its volume increases. This is called the volumetric
expansion of a solid. This is given by the following formula.
V2 = V1 (1 + b DT) ............................. (10) Here, DT is the change in temperature and and V1
and V2 are the initial and final volumes of the solid. b is the volumetric expansion coefficient
of the solid.
101
 Do you know?

Have you seen rails? They are not

continuous. A small gap is kept between them
at regular intervals. This is shown in the figure.
This is kept to accommodate the change in the
length of the rails with change in temperature.
If this gap is not kept, then the rails will get
distroted due to expansion in summer which
may lead to accidents.
Similar to rails, the length of bridges can also increase due to expansion in summer.
The length of the 18 km long great belt bridge in Denmark increases by 4.7 m in summer.
Therefore, provision is made in the construction of the bridges to accommodate this
expansion.

Expansion of liquids
Movable Piston
A liquid does not have a definite shape but it Fixed Piston
has a definite volume. So we can define a Motion of air
molecule
volumetric expansion coefficient for a liquid
as follows.
V2 = V1 (1 + b DT) ............................. (11)
Here, DT is the change in temperature and
V1 and V2 are the initial and final volumes of
the liquid. b is the volumetric expansion Burner
coefficient of the liquid.
14.7 Effect of heat on a gas
Use your brain power 1. Using the formula density = mass / volume,
explain what will be the effect of heat on
Which use of the expansion of liquids the gas kept in a closed bottle.
in daily life do you know? 2. If the bottle is not closed but has a movable
The effect if heat on water is piston attached to its open end (see the
somewhat different from that for other figure), what will be the effect of heating
liquids. This is called anomalous the gas in the bottle?
behaviour of water. We are going to learn Therefore, the expansion of a gas is
about it in higher standard. measured by keeping its pressure constant.
Expansion of gases This volumetric expansion coeffcient is
A gas does not even have a fixed called the constant pressure expansion
volume. Gas expands on heating but if the coefficient and is given by the following
gas is kept in a closed box, its volume formula.
cannot increase but its pressure increases. V2 = V1 (1 + b DT) ............................. (12)
This is shown in figure 14.7 Here, DT is the change in temperature and
Observe figure 14.7 and find out V1 and V2 are the initial and final volumes of
answers to the questions. the gas at costant pressure. b is the constant
pressure expansion coefficient of the gas.

102
 The density of a gas decreases on heating. Which of the
Use your brain power pictures in figure 14.1 makes use of this?

Exercises
1. A. Whom should I pair with? 4. Solve the following examples.
Group A Group B a. What must be the temperature in
a. Temperature of a i. 296 K Fahrenheit so that it will be twice its
healthy human body value in Celsius?
b. Boiling point of water ii. 98.6 0F (Ans. 320 0F)
c. Room temperature iii. 0 0C b. A bridge is made from 20 m long iron
d. Freezing point of water iv. 212 0F rods. At temperature 18 0C, the distance
B. Who is telling the truth? between two rods is 0.4 cm. Up to what
a. The temperature of a substance is temperature will the bridge be in good
measured in Joules. shape?
b. Heat flows from an object at higher (Ans. 35.4 0C)
temperature to an object at lower c. At 15 0C the height of Eifel tower is 324
temperature. m. If it is made of iron, what will be the
c. Joule is the unit of heat. increase in length in cm, at 30 0C?
d. Objects contract on heating. (Ans. 5.6 cm)
e. Atoms of a solid are free. d. Two substances A and B have specific
f. The average kinetic energy of atoms in a heats c and 2 c respectively. If A and B
hot object is less than the average kinetic are given Q and 4Q amounts of heat
energy of atoms in a cold object. respectively, the change in their
C. You will find if you search. temperatures is the same. If the mass of
a. A thermometer is used to measure.......... A is m, what is the mass of B?
b. The apparatus used to measure heat is (Ans. 2 m)
called a ............. e. When a substance having mass 3 kg
c Temperature is the measure of the ........... receives 600 cal of heat, its temperature
kinetic energy of the atoms in a substance. increases by 10 0C. What is the specific
d. The heat contained in a substance is the heat of the substance?
measure of the .............. kinetic energy (Ans.0.0033 cal /(gm 0C))
of atoms in the substance.
2. Nishigandha kept a vessel containing all Project :
the ingredients for making tea in a solar Collect information about bimetallic strips
cooker. Shivani kept a similar vessel on a and discuss in your class how a fire alarm is
stove. Whose tea will be ready first and made using it.
why?
3. Write brief answers.
a. Describe a clinical thermometer. How
does it differ from the thermometer used
in laboratory?
b. What is the difference between heat and
temperature? What are their units?
c. Explain the construction of a calorimeter.
Draw the necessary figure.
d. Explain why rails have gaps at specific
distances.
e Explain with the help of formulae the
expansion coefficients of liquid and gas.
103
 15. Sound

Can you recall? How is sound produced ?

Production of Sound
We have learnt that sound can be generated from a vibrating
object.With an example of tuning fork, we will now learn about
how a sound is produced due to such vibrations. A photograph of
tuning fork is shown in Figure 15.1.
A tuning fork is made of two prongs and a stem. Keeping the
Prong
stem steady, if the prongs are struck, they start vibrating.
Figure 15.2 (a) shows a stationary tuning fork. To show the
state of air around the tuning fork, vertical lines are used. Here,
the vertical lines are equally spaced. It indicates that the average
Stem distance between the air molecules is the same everywhere and the
average air pressure in three regions ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’ is also the
15.1 Tuning Fork same.
If the stem is kept steady and the prongs are
struck, the prongs are set into vibrations. It means
that they are set into periodic motion in forward and
(a)
backward direction. We will see, step by step, the
result of such a motion.
If during the vibration, the prongs of the tuning
fork go away from each other, as shown in Figure
(b)
15.2 (b), the air outside the prongs is compressed
and the pressure there increases. Such a state of
high pressure is created in region A in the figure.
The region in which air is at high pressure and high
density is called compression. In the next step of (c)
vibration, the prongs of the fork come close to each
other, as shown in Figure 15.2 (c). In this case, the
air molecules near the prongs get more space to move
away from each other. As a result, the air pressure 15.2 Production of sound by tuning
in this region (Region A) decreases. Such region in fork
which air is at low pressure and low density is called
rarefaction.
However, the air molecules in this region, which were in compressed state earlier (Figure
15.2 (b), region A) transfer their energy to the air molecules in the next region (region B). So,
the air in that region goes to compressed state (See Figure 15.2 (c), region B). Such a periodic
motion of the prongs creates compression and rarefaction in the air and these are propagated
away from the prongs. These are nothing but the sound waves. When these waves reach our
ear, the ear-drum vibrates. Accordingly, specific signals reach the brain and we get a sense
of hearing a sound.
If sound waves are generated in air, what moves away
Use your brain power from the source? Is it the air itself or the state of compression
and rarefaction created in the air?
104
 Propagation of sound and Medium: We have learnt
in the sixth standard that sound travels through some
material medium like solid, liquid or gas and reaches
Bell jar
us. But what if such medium does not exist between the
source of sound and our ear?
Sound generation and propagation needs medium
like air. A simple experiment can prove this. The
Electric bell
experimental arrangement is shown in Figure 15.3. In
this experiment, a vaccum tight bell jar is placed on a
smooth horizontal surface. The bell jar is connected to a
vacuum pump via a tube. We can remove air inside the
bell-jar, using the vacuum pump. As shown in the figure,
To vaccum pump
the bell jar contains an electric bell, which is connected
15.3 Medium is necessary for
to the power supply through the lid of the bell jar.
propogation of sound
At the start of experiment, the vacuum
Always remember
pump is off and the bell-jar contains air. If the
key to electric bell is now switched on, the bell Two astronauts on the moon
start ringing and the ringing can be heard from talking to each other directly, will be
outside the bell jar. Now, if the vacuum pump unable to listen to each other, even if
is switched on, it starts removing the air from they are very close to each other. The
the bell jar. As the quantity of air inside the bell moon does not have atmosphere. Since
jar decreases, the level of ringing sound heard there is no medium which is necessary
outside also decreases. If the pump is operated for generation and propagation of
for sufficiently long period, the quantity of air sound, between the astronauts, direct
like inside the bell jar will be low. At this point sound propagation between them is not
the level of ringing sound will also be very possible. Therefore, the astronauts use
some technology like the one used in our
low. This experiment demonstrates that sound
cell-phones to communicate with each
generation and propagation needs a medium. other. The waves used in cell-phone do
If the air inside the bell jar is totally removed, not need any medium for propagation.
will we be able to hear the sound of ringing bell?
Why?
Frequency of Sound Waves : Using figure 15.2, we learnt about how the vibrations of tuning
fork result in generation of compressions and rarefactions in air. More detail observation
shows that, the actual variation in the air density and pressure are as shown in Figure 15.4. If
any object vibrates in the air, such sound waves are produced in the air.
Increased pressure
(compression) Reduced pressure Atmospheric pressure
(rarefaction)

One oscillation consisting of

compression and rarefaction Motion of air molecules Propagation of sound
due to sound
15.4 Cycles of compression and rarefaction in a sound wave and change in air pressure
105
 As shown in the Figure 15.4, one compression and one rarefaction together forms one
cycle of the wave. The number of cycles formed in the air in one second will be decided by the
number of times the prongs of the tuning fork (or any other vibrating body) vibrates back and
forth i.e. the number of vibrations of the tuning fork in one second.
Number of such cycles that are produced in the air (or other medium) per second is
called as the frequency of the sound wave. The frequency is measured in Hertz. If one cycle
is completed in one second, the frequency is said to be 1 Hz. For example, the tuning fork
in Figure 15.1 shows its frequency to be 512 Hz. It means that the fork vibrates 512 times
per second. These vibrations will set 512 cycles of compression and rarefaction in the air,
per second. Thus, the sound generated by the fork will have a frequency of 512 Hz. The
frequency of a tuning fork is decided by the dimensions of the prongs (length, thickness) and
the material used for making the fork.

Try this
Use of ICT
Take 6-7 glass cups. Arrange them in a line and fill them Download videos
with water with gradually increasing water level from one end
of Jaltarang from
to other. Take a pencil and strike the cups sequentially. The
youtube and send them
sound generated by each cup will be different. Why it is so?
When a cup is struck, waves are set up in the air column to your friends by email.
above the water level in the cup. The frequency of the generated
wave depends on the height of the air column inside the glass
cup. Since the water level in each glass is different, the height
of the air column in each glass is also different. Therefore, the
frequency of sound generated by each glass cup will also be
different. So, the sound generated is different.
An ‘app’ for measurement of sound frequency may be
available on cell-phones. With the help of your teacher, use the app to measure the frequency of
the sound generated from each glass cup. Do you observe any relation between the frequency
of generated sound and the height of the air column in the glass-cup? This is your simple ‘Jal-
tarang’! Can this experiment be performed with stainless steel pots of different sizes?
Sound and Music
From the above activity, it is clear that if the
frequency of sound wave is changed, different sound is Do you know?
produced. Sound waves of different frequencies produce
different sound notes. In the field of music, various musical What are the frequencies of
instruments are used for creation of sound notes. This
musical notes ‘sa’, ‘re’, ‘ga’,
includes instruments like sitar, violin, guitar which use
strings for production of sound and instruments like flute, ma’, ‘pa’, ‘dha’, ‘ni’ in the
‘madhya saptak’?
shehnai which use air blown into pipes for the production
of sound. Note Frequency (Hz)
In string based instruments, the frequency of vibration sa 256
of the string is changed by changing the tension on the
re 280
string and/or by changing the vibrating length of the string
using fingers. This results in generation of different notes. ga 312
In musical instruments like flute, the holes on the flute ma 346
are opened or closed to change the length of vibrating air pa 384
column in the flute. The frequency of waves, therefore,
dha 426
changes and it results in the production of different notes.
In flute, different notes can be generated by changing the ni 480
way of air-blowing also.
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 Identify the instruments and discuss sound production in them.
Observe and discuss.

‘Apps’ for generation of different sound notes (sound note

Try this generator app) may be available on cell-phones. With the help of your
teacher, using such an app, generate sound notes listed in the table.
Sound Produced by Human
Either speak a little loudly or sing a song
or produce humming sound like a bee and put
your fingers on your throat. Do you feel some
vibrations?
In the humans, sound is produced in the
larynx. While swallowing food, we can feel
with our finger a hard bump that seems to move.
This is nothing but larynx. As shown in Figure Epiglottis
15.5, it is at the upper end of the windpipe. Two (A flap that closes
vocal cords, are stretched across the voice box or air-track during
larynx in such a way that it leaves a narrow slit swallowing
between them for the passage of air. Vocal Chords
When the lungs force air through the slit, the Trachea
vocal cords vibrate, producing sound. Muscles Esophagus
attached to the vocal cords can make the cords
tight or loose. When the vocal cords are tight and 15.5 : Larynx in human
thin, the type or quality of voice is different.
Take two rubber strips out of an unused
Vocal cords are 20 cm in length in
bicycle tube. Place these two pieces one above
male, about 15 cm in female and even
the other and stretch them tight. Now blow air
smaller in children. Therefore the
through the gap between them. As the air blows
voice of male, female and children are
through the gap between the rubber strips, a
different.
sound is produced. Human larynx works in a
similar way.
Produce a sound ‘bho…bho..’ just like a dog-barking and ‘meow..
meow..’ just like a mewing cat. Carefully notice the tension on the vocal
Try this
cords, when you produce these sounds. Do you feel that the tension on
the vocal cords changes when you produce these two different sounds?

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