Class 1 & 2 Mechanics
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Vectors ............................................................................................................ page 3
Newton’s Laws ............................................................................................. page 13
Velocity & Acceleration ................................................................................ page15
Angular Motion ............................................................................................. page 20
Moments ....................................................................................................... page 24
Work & Power ............................................................................................... page 34
Impulse & Momentum .................................................................................. page 36
Gearboxes ..................................................................................................... page 43
Strength of Materials .................................................................................... page 47
Dry Sliding Friction ...................................................................................... page 57
Beams ........................................................................................................... page 69
Torsion .......................................................................................................... page 85
Springs………………………..……………………...……………….…………... page 90
Centripetal Acceleration …………………………………..…………………... page 94
Balancing………………………………………..………………….………….… page 96
Clutches & Brakes……………..………………………….…………………… page 105
Governors …………………………………………………………………….…. page 116
Fluids…………………………………………………….………………………...page 119
Simple Harmonic Motion………………………………………………..……. page 143
Lifting Machines………………………………………………………………... page 150
Februa
Course 20822/20824 Subject Class 1 & 2 Mechanics Unit # MARL6002A/6007A
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ry 2014
VECTORS
Vector Quantities
A vector quantity is a quantity which has both magnitude and direction. Two common vector
quantities used in engineering design are force and velocity. The following sketches illustrate
force and velocity vectors:-
Force Vectors
Eg 1 Eg 2 150 N
100 N 20 o
E
Velocity Vectors
Eg 1 Eg 2 20 m/s
10 m/s 25 o
W
Vectors
A vector is a vector quantity represented by a line drawn to scale with an arrow head to
indicate its direction and point of application.
Vector Diagrams
A number of vectors drawn to scale, in order and at their respective directions, forms a vector
diagram. Vector diagrams can be used to graphically solve force systems, they are also very
useful when solving force systems mathematically. A vector diagram must show all the forces
acting on a system ie it must include the known forces and the unknown forces, reaction
forces and equilibrant force.
Forces Vectors
When considering force vectors we need to know the magnitude and direction of the forces
involved and also the point of application of each force.
Resultant Force
When a number of forces act on a point they can be resolved into one force which is referred
to as the "resultant force". When a force system is in equilibrium the equilibrant force is equal
to but opposite in direction to the resultant force.
Concurrent Forces
Concurrent forces act through a common point i.e. they do not produce a "turning moment".
The system can be put in equilibrium with an equilibrant force which acts through the
concurrent or common point of application
Non-concurrent Forces
Non-concurrent forces do not act through a common point and therefore produce a turning
moment. To put a non-concurrent force system in equilibrium requires an equal and opposite
turning moment i.e., a force acting at some distance.
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Forces in Equilibrium
A single force acting on a point has to have an equal and opposite force (opposite in
direction) for it to be balanced or in equilibrium e.g. a 100 N force acting due east on a point
must have a 100 N force acting due west on the same point for it to be in equilibrium. The
force which opposes the initial force and puts the system in equilibrium is called the
"equilibrant force". Likewise, when more than one force act on a point, an equilibrant force is
required to place the system in equilibrium.
Resultant Force of Concurrent Forces
When more than one force acts through a common point vectors can be used to resolved the
forces into a resultant force. Consider a number of forces acting as shown below in the space
diagram:
Space Diagram
+y
50 N
B C
x 80 N +x
30o
A 40 N
y
The three forces shown can be replaced by one force which will produce the same result.
This one force is called the resultant force and it has magnitude and direction. The resultant
force can be found either graphically or by calculation.
Graphical Solution
Each force is drawn to scale and in the direction indicated. Each force is used only once and
are drawn "arrow head to arrow tail". The forces can be represented by letters using Bow's
Notation where the spaces between the forces on the space diagram are given a letter and
the force takes the letters on either side.
Vector diagram
c
40 N
Resultant Force
50 N a Equilibrant Force
b 80 N a
The resultant force can be found by measuring the distance from the tail of the first force
drawn (starting point) to the arrow head of the last force drawn
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(finishing point). The angle can be found using a protractor. The equilibrant force has the
same magnitude as the resultant force but the angle will be 180 i.e. opposite in direction to
the resultant. This method is not exact but provided a reasonable scale is used and the
vector diagram is drawn accurately, reasonable accuracy can be achieved. Graphical
solution can be used as a quick check for mathematically solutions.
Note: if the vector diagram is re-drawn including the equilibrant force the vector diagram will
be "closed" ie the equilibrant force will complete the diagram, returning to the starting point.
Note: if you are asked to calculate the answer then graphical means cannot be used although
as mentioned it can be used as a quick check of the answer.
Mathematical Solution
Trigonometry can be used to calculate the resultant force but this method becomes difficult
for all but simple vector diagrams. To use trigonometry the vector diagram has to be divided
up into a number of triangles for which enough information is available.
When the shape of the vector diagram becomes more complicated, i.e. a polygon produced
by more than 3 forces, it is more convenient to solve the problem mathematically by resolving
all the forces into horizontal and vertical components. Converting the forces from polar to
rectangular form allows all the forces to be expressed in two planes only i.e. the horizontal
plane and the vertical plane. Once all forces are resolved into horizontal and vertical
components then the components can be summated in each plane to give the components of
the resultant force. The resultant force is found by converting the components of the resultant
from rectangular to polar form.
Sign Convention for Forces and Moments
When using horizontal and vertical components correct sign convention must be followed.
The diagram below illustrates conventional sign convention:
Anti-clockwise +y Clockwise
moments are + moments are
negative positive
+
Forces acting up
are positive
Forces acting left Forces acting right
are negative are positive
+
x +x
Forces acting down
are negative
y
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Sign Convention for Angles
Angles are measured with reference to the +x axis:
Angles measured anti-clockwise from +x axis are positive angles;
Angles measured clockwise from +x axis are negative angles.
Components of a Force
The components of a force are shown in the following example:
60 N
Vertical Component = + 60 Sin 35
= + 34.41 N
35 o
Horizontal Component = + 60 Cos 35
= + 49.15 N
The 60 N force acting up to the right at 35 has the following horizontal (x) and vertical
components (y): + 49.15N and + 34.41 N
The 60 N force can be replaced in a system by its components. The components produce the
same effect as the 60 N force.
Note : if the 60 N force was acting up to the left it would still have components of the same
magnitude but the horizontal component would be negative as it would be acting to the left,
the vertical component would be positive, and;
if the 60 N force was acting down to the left it would still have components of the same
magnitude but both components would be negative, and likewise;
if the 60 N force was acting down to the right it would still have components of the
same magnitude, the horizontal component would be positive but the vertical negative
Solving Force Systems Using Horizontal (x) and Vertical (y) Components
For equilibrium the following statements must be satisfied:
The Algebraic Summation of Horizontal Forces = 0 HF = 0
The Algebraic Summation of Vertical Forces =0 VF = 0
The Algebraic Summation of Clockwise and
Anti-clockwise Moments =0 Moments = 0
When resolving forces into horizontal and vertical components it is best to arrange the
components in a table. Also the horizontal and vertical components can be found using the
Polar/Rectangular Function on the calculator
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Using the previous example, convert the forces into horizontal and vertical components.
H Component (x) V Component (y)
80 N force: 80 0
50 N force 0 + 50
40 N force + 40 Cos 30 40 Sin 30
Components of Resultant = 45.359 + 30
Components of Equilibrant = + 45.359 30
45.359 and + 30 are the horizontal and vertical components of the resultant force
and;
+ 45.359 and 30 (signs reversed) are the horizontal and vertical components of the
equilibrant force.
Resultant and Equilibrant Force
Resultant Force 2 2 2
Resultant = 45.359 + 30
= 54.38 N
45.359
Tan =
= 33.48o
= + 146.52
o
Equilibrant Force
2
Equilibrant = 45.359 + 30
2 2
+ 45.359
= 54.38 N
= 33.48
o
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BOW’S NOTATION
From the Merriam-Webster dictionary, Bow’s Notation is “A method of lettering the cells &
outside spaces formed by the directions of the stresses in & loads on a framed structure so
that these stresses & loads can be traced by similar letters in the reciprocal diagram”. In
other words, a method of transferring the stresses & loads in a structure to a vector diagram.
The forces in the space diagram are referred to by two capital letters placed one in each
space either side of the force. Thus if the spaces on either side of the force are labelled A &
B, the force is referred to as AB & the corresponding vector on the force diagram is ab.
Example: Two ropes are slung from a beam and their lower ends are connected by a shackle
from which a load of 400N hangs. If the ropes make angles of 50 & 60 degrees respectively
to the vertical, find the pull on each rope.
Firstly, the space diagram is dr4awn (see figure) to illustrate the connections of the
ropes & the load. The shackle becomes the “node3” where the three forces meet & arrows
are inserted to indicate the directions in which the forces pull on this node.
Using Bow’s Notation the vector diagram is then constructed thus: Draw to scale the vector
ab vertically downwards to represent the force AB which is 400N. From b draw a line parallel
to BC (at 50O to the vertical), as the magnitude of this force is not yet known we do not know
the length of bc so it is drawn a little longer than we think it should be. Now ca is the vector
representing the force CA but as the point c has not yet been determined we cannot start
here to draw the vector, however we do know that ca finishes at point a because it is to form
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a closed figure, therefore draw back from point a in the direction of 60O to the vertical until it
cuts the previous vector. This gives us point c. The forces in the ropes can now be found by
measuring to scale the lengths of the vectors bc & ca.
To calculate the forces:
Angle acb (opposite 400 N vector) = 180 – (60 + 50) = 70O
By the sine rule ac = 400
sin 50 sin 70
ac = 400 x 0.866
0.9397
= 326 N
bc = 400
sin 60 sin 70
bc = 400 x 0.866
0.9397
= 368.6 N
Therefore, force in rope AC = 326 N & force in rope BC = 368.6 N
NON-COPLANAR FORCES OR THREE DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURES (from
Reed’s)
A system of forces which are not in the same plane can be reduced to a coplanar system by
substituting an imaginary member for each pair of straddled members of the structure. This is
demonstrated in the following.
Example: A set of shear legs, as illustrated in the following diagram, consists of front legs 6m
long that are straddled 5m apart at their bases. The back stay is 11m long & its base fixture is
7m horizontally from the centre of the feet of the front legs. Find the force in each member
when a mass of 15.29 tonnes hangs from the crane head, (i) by measurement of the vector
diagram, (ii) by calculation.
Load = 15.29 x 103 kg
= 15.29 x 103 x 9.81 N
= 150 kN
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The two front legs can be replaced temporarily by one imaginary leg in the centre of the two
& in the same plane as the back stay & the hanging load, as in the figure below.
Length of imaginary leg = √(62 – 2.52) = 5.455 m
The space diagram is now drawn to scale with the imaginary leg in position. Being now a
simple system of coplanar forces the vector diagram of the forces at the crane head can be
drawn to scale by constructing the vectors parallel to the forces indicated by the arrows on
the space diagram. Measuring the vector diagram, the force in the back stay scales 157 kN,
& the force in the imaginary leg scales 258 kN.
Now the force in the imaginary leg is really the resultant of the forces in the two actual front
legs, drawing this resultant force vector diagram as in the (lower) figure above , the force in
each front leg scales 142 kN.
Therefore, by measurement,
Force in back stay = 157 kN
Force in each front leg = 142 kN
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By calculation.
By referring to the space diagram above, & using the cosine rule:
cos C = 112 + 5.4552 - 72
2 x 11 x 5.455
= 101.76 = 0.8480
120
Therefore, C = 32O
By sine rule,
5.455 = _ 7__
sin θ sin 32O
sin θ = 5.455 x 0.5299
7
Therefore, θ = 24O 24’
α = 180O – (32O + 24O 24’) = 123O 36’
Referring to the vector diagram for the shear legs,
Angle c = 32O
Angle a = 123O 36’ – 90O = 33O 36’
Angle b = 24O 24’ + 90O = 114O 24’
By sine rule,
Force in back stay = load
sin a sin c
Force in back stay = 150 x sin 33O 36’
sin 32O
= 156.6 kN
Force in imaginary leg = load
sin b sin c
Force in imaginary leg = 150 x sin 114O 24’
sin 32O
= 257.8 kN
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Referring back to the diagram, force in each real front leg = 257.8 x __6__
2 5.455
= 141.8 kN
Therefore, by calculation,
Force in back stay = 156.6 kN
Force in each front leg = 141.8 kN
VECTORS - EXAMPLES
1. A slow speed crosshead diesel engine has a bore of 900 mm and a stroke of 2700 mm.
The connecting rod is 3200 mm in length. If the pressure in the cylinder is 90 bar when the
piston is 20 past top dead centre, find:
a) the force in the connecting rod.
b) the force on the guide.
2. For the jib crane shown, find the force in the jib and the tie.
Tie
52 o
Post
Jib Load
o
48 8 tonne
3. Two ropes are slung from a beam and their lower ends are connected by a shackle which
carries a mass of 400 kg. If the ropes make an angle of 50 and 60 to the vertical
respectively. Find the tension in each rope.
4. A crosshead engine has a bore of 800 mm, a stroke of 2400 mm and a connecting rod
3200 mm long. When the crank is 20 past T.D.C. the cylinder pressure is 90 bar. Find:
a) the crosshead guide force; (585 kN)
b) the connecting rod force. (4562 kN)
5. A diesel engine has a stroke of 2400 mm and its connecting rod is 3000 mm long. The
gas load on the piston is 3000 kN when the crank angle is 30 past top dead centre, find:
a) The cross head guide force.
b) The force in the connecting rod.
6. A slow speed crosshead engine has a bore of 840 mm and a stroke of 2400 mm. The
connecting rod is 3200 mm in length. If the pressure in the cylinder is 100 bar when the
piston is 20 past top dead centre, find:
a) the force in the connecting rod. (5587.9 kN)
b) the force on the guide. (716.7 kN)
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NEWTON'S LAWS
First Law:
A body continues in a state of rest or uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force.
An accelerating force or decelerating force is required to change the velocity of a body,
remembering that a change in velocity may involve a change in speed in the same direction,
a change in direction at the same speed, or a change in both speed and direction.
Second Law:
The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the external force applied to it
and takes place in the direction of the force.
The rate of acceleration or deceleration is directly proportional to the accelerating force (F).
Accelerating Force the rate of change in momentum
the mass change in velocity
F = ma
Where: F = the accelerating force in Newtons (N)
m = the mass in kilograms (kg)
a = the acceleration in metres per second per second (m/s 2)
Third Law:
To every force there is an equal and opposite reaction force.
From the third law we derive the following statements for equilibrium:
For a body at rest or moving at constant velocity:
Vertical Forces =0
Horizontal Forces = 0
For bodies which are accelerating or decelerating:
Vertical Forces = ma
Horizontal Forces = ma
Force Unit
The unit for force is the Newton. A force of one Newton is required to accelerate one kilogram
at one metre per second per second.
Earth's Gravitational Force
Earth's gravity exerts a force which attracts everything towards its centre therefore
gravitational force always acts vertically downwards. The earth's gravitational force changes
slightly throughout the world so in most cases it is taken as standard where gravitational
force "g" = 9.81 N/kg.
Force Due to Gravity = mg = Accelerating Force if free falling
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Acceleration Due to Gravity
g = 9.81 N/kg then the acceleration force due to gravity will be 9.81 N/kg. Using F= ma:
a = F For 1 kg: a = mg a = 1 9.81 = 9.81 m/s2
m m 1
For any mass a = mg a = m 9.81 = 9.81 m/s2
m m
The standard acceleration due to gravity is 9.81 m/s 2 and is independent of the mass as
shown above, i.e. the accelerating force increases in proportion to the mass but the mass to
be accelerated increases by the same proportion.
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VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
LINEAR MOTION
Symbols:
U = the initial velocity in metres per second (m/s)
V = the final velocity in metres per second (m/s)
a = the acceleration or deceleration in metres per second per second (m/s 2)
S = the displacement or distance travelled in metres (m)
t = the time in seconds (s)
Displacement "S"
The displacement of a body is the distance it travels from its starting point in a given time. For
uniform motion i.e. constant velocity, or constant acceleration or deceleration, the distance
travelled will be the average velocity multiplied by the time taken.
Displacement: S = Average Velocity Time
S =U+Vt U + V is the average velocity
2 2
Acceleration and Deceleration (a)
Acceleration and deceleration are a change in velocity divided by the time taken to change
velocity.
VU (V U) is the change in velocity
a = t
Acceleration may be positive or negative ie increasing or decreasing in velocity
Negative acceleration can referred to as deceleration or retardation.
Transposing the above formula to make V the subject:
V = U at
The indicates that the formula can be used for acceleration or deceleration. If a body is
accelerating then the + sign is used, the sign is used for deceleration.
Accelerating V = U + at (positive acceleration - velocity increasing)
Decelerating V = U at (negative acceleration - velocity decreasing)
By substitution, V = U at and S = U + V can be combined to produce the following
formulae: 2
S = Ut ½at2
V2 = U2 2aS
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Velocity Time Graphs for Linear Motion
1. Constant Velocity
m/s Area = Displacement in metres
V Area = V x t = S
but: S = U + V x t
2
Velocity
At constant velocity U = V, therefore
S = V+ V x t
2
0 Time t s S = Vxt
2. Constant Acceleration - Initial Velocity = Zero
m/s Area = Displacement in metres
V Area = U + V x t
2
S=U+V x t
Velocity 2
ie S = Average Velocity x time
U
0 Time t s
3. Constant Acceleration - Initial Velocity > Zero
m/s
V Area = Displacement in metres
U+V Area = U + V x t
2 2
U S=U+V x t
Velocity 2
ie S = Average Velocity x time
0 Time t s
4. Changing Acceleration with Periods of Constant Acceleration
m/s
a2 a3 Total Displacement = A1 + A2 + A3
Velocity
S Total = S1 + S2 + S3
a1
Area1 Area 2 Area 3
0 Time t s
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5. Non-uniform Acceleration
When the acceleration is non-uniform, i.e. constantly changing in a random manner, the
velocity is changing continuously in a random manner and therefore the velocity time graph
will follow a curve. The previous formula do not apply.
LINEAR MOTION EXAMPLES
1. A mass, with an initial velocity of 10 m/s, is accelerated uniformly with an acceleration of
2 m/s2 for 6 seconds.
a) Find its velocity after 6 seconds of acceleration. (22 m/s)
b) Find the distance travelled during the 6 seconds. (96 m)
2. When a lift is travelling up at 9.81 m/s and is at a point 50 metres above the bottom of the
lift well, a bolt suddenly detaches from underneath the lift, find:
a) the velocity of the bolt when it reaches the bottom of the lift well. (32.8 m/s)
b) the total time from when the bolt detaches until it reaches the bottom of the
lift well. (4.35 s)
Note: Don’t forget that the bolt is moving up when it detaches.
3. A cargo crane hoists a load of 5 tonnes from the bottom of a hold with an acceleration of
2 m/s2 until it reaches a velocity of 5 m/s after which the velocity is constant. If the distance
from the bottom of the hatch to the top of the hatch coaming is 20 m, find:
a) the maximum tension in the wire during hoisting; (59.05 kN)
b) the time it takes to accelerate the load to 5 m/s; (2.5 s)
c) the distance travelled during the acceleration period; (6.25 m)
d) the total hoisting time for the load to just clear the hatch. (5.25 s)
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ANGULAR MOTION
Symbols:
1 = the initial angular velocity in radians per second (rads/s)
2 = the final angular velocity in radians per second (rads/s)
= the angular acceleration or deceleration in radians/second/second (rads/s 2)
= the angular displacement in radians (rads)
t = the time in seconds (s)
Definition of a Radian
a
r Circumference of a circle = 2 r
Radians in 1 Revolution = 2 r
b r
Radius: r =2
= 1 radian = 360
o
2
o
= 57.3 (approximately)
When a point "a" on the circumference of a circle rotates to point "b" a distance around the
circumference equal to the radius "r" then the angular displacement is equal to one radian
(rad). One complete revolution equals an angular displacement of 2 radians ie 1 rev = 2
rads (a distance of approximately 6.3 radii)
Displacement ""
The displacement of a rotating body is the radians turned through relative to a starting point
in a given time. For uniform motion i.e. constant velocity, or constant acceleration or
deceleration, the displacement in radians will be the average velocity by the time taken.
Displacement: = Average Velocity Time
= 1 + 2 t 2 1 is the average velocity
2 2
Acceleration and Deceleration ()
Acceleration and deceleration are a change in velocity divided by the time taken to change.
= 2 t 1 (2 1) is the change in velocity
Acceleration may be positive or negative i.e. increasing or decreasing in velocity
Negative acceleration can referred to as deceleration or retardation.
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Transposing the above formula to make 2 the subject:
2 = 1 t
The indicates that the formula can be used for acceleration or deceleration. If a body is
accelerating then the + sign is used, the sign is used for deceleration.
Accelerating 2 = 1 + t (positive acceleration - velocity increasing)
Decelerating 2 = 1 t (negative acceleration - velocity decreasing)
By substitution, 2 = 1 t and = 1 + 2 can be combined to produce the following
formulae: 2
= 1 t ½ t 2
22 = 1 2 2
Conversion of Linear and Angular Values
Velocity:
A Va If point 'A' is rotating at a speed of 1 rps then:
Va = 2 r m/s
= 2
2 = Va
r =
= V and V = r
r
Acceleration:
= 2 t 1 = V
r
sub for
= V2 rt v1 but a = V2 v1
t
= ar
= a
r and a = r
Displacement:
1 revolution = 2 radians and 1 revolution = 2r metres
= 2 S = 2 r 2 = S
r
=S S = r
r
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ANGULAR MOTION
Accelerating Torque
To accelerate a mass in a straight line, a linear accelerating force is required. To produce
angular acceleration an accelerating torque is required.
For linear motion the accelerating force, 'F' = Ma, the linear accelerating force acts through
the centre of gravity of the mass being accelerated, and the mass moves in the same
direction as the applied accelerating force.
A balanced rotating mass rotates about its centre of gravity. If the accelerating force, to
accelerate the mass, was to act at the centre of gravity then there would be no accelerating
torque just linear motion if unrestrained.
For angular motion, the accelerating force required to accelerate a mass must act at some
radius to produce a turning moment or accelerating torque.
Radius of Gyration 'k'
As previously stated, for angular motion to occur, the accelerating force required to
accelerate a mass must act at some radius. This radius is known as the radius of gyration.
The radius of gyration is the radius of a thin rim into which all the mass can be considered to
be concentrated so that it would exhibit the same dynamic properties as the actual rotating
mass.
Solid Disc
Accelerating Force
k
Thin Rim
Accelerating Torque
From linear motion: F = ma; Torque ‘T’ = Fr and a = r
Accelerating Torque 'T' = Fr (sub for F)
T = ma r (sub for a)
T = m r r
T = mr2
If the mass is considered to be concentrated at the radius of gyration, then r = k.
Accelerating Torque: T = mk2 (Newton metres)
The term mk2 is called the Moment of Inertia '' (a second moment of mass) i.e. = mk2.
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Accelerating Torque: T = (Nm)
k values for regular shapes can be obtained using formulae obtained from data sheets.
ACCELERATION DUE TO CHANGE IN DIRECTION
Acceleration is a change in velocity and velocity is a vector quantity possessing both speed
and direction therefore a body is accelerating when it changes speed or direction.
E.g. 1.
a) A body travelling due east at 30 m/s accelerates to 50 m/s in the same direction in
8 seconds, find the acceleration.
Vector Diagram V
a=
V t V- U
30 m/s 50 - 30 or a=
a= t
50 m/s 8
a = 2.5 m/s2
b) A body travelling due east at 30 m/s accelerates to 50 m/s in the opposite direction
8 seconds, find the acceleration.
Vector Diagram V
a=
V
t
50 + 30
a=
8
50 m/s 30 m/s a = 10 m/s2
E.g. 2. A body, having a mass of 5 kg, moving due north at 20 m/s is acted upon by a force
for 4 s which causes it to change velocity to 20 m/s due east. Find the acceleration and the
accelerating force.
Space Diagram Vector Diagram
N 20 m/s N
E
Initial Change in Velocity
20 m/s Velocity
E
Final Velocity
________
Change in Velocity = 202 + 202 Acceleration = 28.28 Force = ma
= 28.28 m/s 4 = 5 x 7.07
a = 7.07 m/s2 = 35.35 N
Note: The vector diagram is not drawn the same way as the vector diagram of forces. Both
vectors are drawn from a common origin starting with the initial velocity, then the final velocity
is drawn from the same starting point as the initial velocity. The change in velocity is
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represented by a line drawn from the arrow head of the initial velocity vector to the arrow
head of the final velocity vector.
E.g. 3. A mass of 50 kg is travelling at 20 m/s due east, it is acted upon by a force which
causes the mass to change velocity to 40 m/s due south. Find the force and the angle of
application.
PROJECTILES
Fired Horizontally.
Assuming no air resistance a projectile travels at constant velocity in the horizontal plane.
UH
U H = V H (horizontally)
UV = 0
SV
SH
As soon as the projectile leaves the barrel it starts to accelerate downwards at 9.81 2m/s
due to the effect of gravity. The initial vertical velocity (Uv) is zero.
Vertically: VV = UV at (UV = 0)
VV = at
t = VV
a
Horizontally: SH = UH t (UH is constant velocity)
Where the time t is the same for both cases.
Fired Upwards at an Angle:
The projectile leaves the barrel with an initial velocity of U and at an angle of to the
horizontal. Assuming UH remains constant, the horizontal distance can be found by finding
the total time taken to travel to maximum height and then fall to ground.
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U
UV
UH
When a projectile is fired in an upward direction its horizontal velocity will be the horizontal
component UH. The vertical component UV is the initial vertical velocity with deceleration
of 9.81 m/s 2. When the projectile reaches maxium height the vertical velocity is zero and it
then accelerates down at 9.81 m/s2.
E.g. A projectile is fired upwards at an angle of 30 degrees to the horizontal from a canon on
level ground. If the initial velocity of the projectile leaving the canon is 600 m/s, find;
a) the maximum height attained; (4587 m)
b) the horizontal distance the projectile travels. (31.8 km)
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MOMENTS
A moment is the product of a quantity and a distance. Examples of common moments are:
moments of area: - areas distances;
moments of volume: - volumes distances;
moments of mass :- masses distances;
moments of force :- forces distances.
Moments provide a means of solving problems mathematically.
Moments are taken from a particular point or axis, and are expressed as a moment about
that point.
First Moments
First Moments are the summation of the product of a number of values of a quantity and their
distances from the particular point or axis e.g. for an area:
First Moment = (a1 d1) + (a2 d2) + (a3 d3) + (a4 d4)....... (m3)
Example of First Moments of Area
d 1 = the distance from axis AA to the
centroid of Area 1
d 2 = the distance from axis AA to the
Centroids centroid of Area 2
d2
d1 Area 1 Area 2
A A
First Moment of Area about AA =(Area 1 d1) + (Area 2 d2) (m3)
First Moments can be used to find:
the centroids of areas and volumes,
centres of gravity of masses,
unknown forces and reactions,
moments of forces and force couples, turning moments and torques.
E.g. a) Centroid of an Area = First Moment of Area = First Moments of Area
Total Area Areas
Centroid of an Area = (Area 1 d1) + (Area 2 d2) (m)
about AA Area 1 + Area 2
b) Centroid of an Mass = First Moment Mass = First Moments Mass
Total Mass Mass
Centroid of an Mass = (Mass 1 d1) + (Mass 2 d2)+ (Mass 3 d3)...... (m)
Mass 1 + Mass 2 + Mass 3 .......
When finding a centre of gravity, d1, d2 and d3.... are the distances to the centres of
gravity of the individual masses from the axis the moments are taken from.
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Second Moments ""
Second Moments are the summation of the product of a number of values of a quantity and
their distances squared from the particular point or axis e.g. for an area:
Second Moment = (a1 d1 d1) + (a1 d1 d1) + (a3 d3 d3) + (a4 d4 d4)...... (m4)
Second moments are used to calculate: bending stresses in beams; torsional stresses in
shafts; inertia torque for rotating masses; centres of pressure of bulkheads; and free surface
effect and stability of ships.
eg. a) Beam formula: M = where = the second moment of cross-sectional area
y about the neutral axis (through centroid)
b) Torsion formula: T = where J = the second moment of cross-sectional area
J r about the centre of the shaft. J is referred to
as the polar moment of inertia ( P or J).
c) Inertia Torque = where = the moment of inertia, = mk2
d) Centre of Pressure = Second Moment
First Moment
First and second moments of curved shapes can be found by Simpson's Rules. In Naval
Architecture Simpson's Rules combined with first and second moments are used to calculate:
centroids of ships waterplanes; centre of pressure of bulkheads; free surface effect and ship
stability.
Calculus is used to develop second moments. The value for the second moment may be
given in a question, or it can be calculated using Simpson's Rules for curved shapes, or for
standard shapes there are formula given in tabular form.
Examples of Second Moments For Standard Shapes:
Rectangle: NA = bh3 BASE = bh3
12 3
Triangle: NA = bh3 BASE = bh3 (Triangle apex up)
36 12
Circle: NA = r4 P = r4 = d
4
4 2 32
Note: when finding second moments of rectangular shapes with the formula it is always the
distance at right angles to the axis which is cubed.
For example when finding the second moments of area for a rectangular waterplane area
about a longitudinal axis through the centroid (NA), cube the beam.
NA = lb
3 where: l = length of waterplane area
12 b = breadth of waterplane area
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For a transverse axis through the centroid the formula would be the same but the length
would be cubed i.e. always cube the dimension at right angles to the axis used.
SECOND MOMENT OF AREA FOR A RECTANGLE ABOUT THE BASE
b
b = the breadth
h = the height
y = the width of a very thin strip
y h y = the distance from xx axis to
y the centroid of the strip
x x
Consider a very thin strip y in width and y distance from xx the axis
Area of the strip = b y
Taking moments about the base of the rectangle i.e. at xx:
First moment of strip = byy (area distance to centroid of strip from xx)
Second moment of strip = by2y (area distance2 to centroid of strip from xx)
Total First moment = byy (the summation of all moments of the strips
between the limits of y = 0 and y = h)
Total Second moment = by2y (the summation of all moments of the strips
between the limits of y = 0 and y = h)
Integrating: h
First moment = byy
0
2
2 h (the integral of y = y
= [ by ] 2
2 0 (raise power by 1 and divide by new power)
= [ bh2 b02 ] (substitute for y between the limits of y = h
2 2 and y = 0, 02 = 0 therefore second term is 0)
2
First Moment XX = bh = bh h = Area Distance to Centroid = FM
2 2
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h
Second Moment XX = by2y
0
3
3 h (the integral of y2 = y
= [ by ] 3
3 0 (raise power by 1 and divide by new power)
= [ bh3 b03 ] (substitute for y between the limits of y = h
3 3 and y = 0, 03 = 0 therefore second term is 0)
XX
3
= bh
3
SECOND MOMENT OF AREA FOR A RECTANGLE ABOUT
THE NEUTRAL AXIS (NA)
b b = the breadth
h = the height
y = the width of a very thin strip
y y +h y = the distance from xx axis to
2 the centroid of the strip
h NA = Neutral axis (through centroid)
N A
Moments are taken above and below
Centroid h the NA therefore positive and negative
2 sign is used - above are positive
- below are negative
Consider a very thin strip y in width and y distance from xx the axis and taking moments
about the neutral axis (NA)
Area of the strip = b y
First moment of strip = byy (area distance to centroid of strip from NA)
Second moment of strip = by2y (area distance2 to centroid of strip from NA)
Total Second moment: NA = by2y (the summation of moments of all the strips
between 0 and h)
2
Integrating: +h
2
Second moment NA = by2y (integrating between the limits of +h and h )
h 2 2
2
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+h
2
3
= [ by3 ] (Integral of y2 is y ie raise power
3 h 3
2 by 1 and divide by new power)
= [ bh3 b(-h)3 ] (substitute +h and -h for y)
3 23 3 23 2 2
3
= bh b (h)3 ( minus, minus = plus)
24 24
3 3
= bh + bh = 2bh3
24 24 24
NA = bh
3
**** Remember it is always the dimension at
12 right angles to the axis that is cubed.
The NA is always the lowest numerical value of all second moments therefore all other
second moments about axes other than the neutral axis will be larger, i.e. XX NA.
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THEOREM OF PARALLEL AXES
It is sometimes necessary to calculate a "second moment" about another axis which is
parallel to the neutral axis. If NA represents the second moment about the neutral axis (about
an axis passing through the centroid or centre of gravity) then using the Theorem of Parallel
Axes it is possible to transfer the second moment about the neutral axis to a new axis, say
xx. The second moment thus found will be about the new axis xx, i.e. xx.
Note: With the Theorem of Parallel Axes a second moment can be transferred to any axis as
long as the calculation uses the second moment about the neutral axes ( NA). If XX is known
and OO is required then it is incorrect to use the distance between the "xx" and "oo" axes.
To find OO its distance from the centroid must be used.
b
NA = bh
3
12
XX = bh
3
Centroid
3
N A h Theorem of Parallel Axes:
y XX = NA + A y 2
x x NA = XX A y 2
z OO = NA + A z 2
o o OO = ( XX A y 2 ) + A z 2
Where: NA = the second moment of area about the neutral axis
XX = the second moment of area about the xx axis
OO = the second moment of area about the OO axis
A = the total area
y = the distance between the neutral axis and the axis considered
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Example:
Using the Theorem of Parallel Axes, for a rectangle prove that:
XX = bh3 , given: NA = bh3
3 12
XX = NA + Ay2
= bh + b h ( h )
3 2
12 2
3 3
= bh + bh
12 4
3 3
= bh + 3bh
12 12
3
= 4bh
12
XX = bh3
3
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TAKING MOMENTS OF FORCE
When taking moments the following rules apply:
* All moments must be taken about the same point and so all distances must be measured
from that point.
* Distances and forces must be perpendicular to each other.
* Forces which are not perpendicular to the point can be converted into components and the
appropriate component used for calculating its moment, or alternatively the line of the force
can be projected and the perpendicular distance found for calculating its moment
* The answer found when using moments relates to the axis used.
* Clockwise moments are positive and anticlockwise moments are negative. The position of
the force relative to the point about which the moments are taken, and not the direction of the
force, determines whether a moment is clockwise or anticlockwise.
* Forces with a line of action passing through the point about which the moments are taken
have no moment. All other forces must be multiplied by their distance from the axis.
* When deciding which axis to take moments about try to eliminate unknown forces and/or
select an axis which results in the simplest calculation.
* When moments are taken, a resultant moment is found. A resultant moment requires an
equilibrant moment to put a system in equilibrium ie Moments = 0.
Determining the Distance When Taking Moments
The distance must be measured perpendicular to the line of action of the force.
Eg1 Perpendicular Force Eg 2a Force at Angle Eg 2b Force at Angle
Fy
F
Fx
d d F F
d Line of action
In example 2a the force has been converted into its components. The moment = Fx d.
Fy passes through the point about which moments are being taken and can be neglected.
In example 2b the line of action of the force is used to find the perpendicular distance to the
point about which moments are being taken. The moment = F d.
Turning Moment
When a moment of force, or a moment produced by the resultant of a number of forces,
causes rotation the moment is referred to as a turning moment or torque.
Turning Moment or Torque = Force Perpendicular Distance (Nm)
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Resultant Moment and Equilibrant Moment
When a number of non-concurrent forces act on a system they will result in a turning moment
or torque ie a resultant moment. To place the system in equilibrium an opposing torque or
equilibrant moment must be applied to the system. As with forces, the resultant moment must
be balanced by an equilibrant moment of the same numerical value but opposite in direction.
When a number of non-concurrent forces act on a system the resultant moment can be found
by taking moments.
dx
d2 F2 F3 V
F3
F3 H
d1 R RH
F1
d3 RV
When the system is not in equilibrium: Moments = Resultant Moment
Taking moments at LHE: Resultant Moment = F2 d2 + F3V d3 F1 d1
When the system is in equilibrium: Moments = 0.
Equilibrant Moment = Resultant Moment
FV Equilibrant Force dx = F2 d2 + F3V d3 F1 d1
Example: For the link shown, find:
a) the magnitude, angle and position of the equilibrant force;
b) the equilibrant moment.
9N
4N
60 o Link
35 o
65 o 7N
2m
5N
a)
Force Angle H(x) V(y)
4N 215 3.2766 2.2943
7N 180 7 0
9N 300 4.5 7.7942
5N 65 2.1131 4.5315
Components of Resultant: 3.6635 5.557
Components of Equilibrant: +3.6635 +5.557
By polar rectangular function:
Equilibrant Force = 6.656 N at 56.605
To find the position take moments at the left hand end (LHE):
For equilibrium: Moments = 0
FV 4N 2 = FV Equivalent d
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d = 2.2943 2
5.557
d = 0.8257 m from LHE
b) Equilibrant Moment = FV Equivalent d
= 5.557 0.8257
= 4.588 Nm
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WORK AND POWER
Linear Work (W):
Work can be defined as the energy expended when a force (F) moves a mass a given
distance (D) i.e. work is the average force the distance moved.
W = Average Force Distance Moved (Newton metres or Joules - 1 Nm = 1 J)
W=FD (J)
Linear Power (P):
Power can be defined as the rate at which work is done or how much work is done per
second i.e. power is the work per second.
P = Average Force the Distance Moved (Watts)
Time Taken in Seconds
P= FD (W)
t
Rotary Work and Power:
Torque T = Force Radius
Rotating Mass T = F r (Nm)
Work W = F D
F For one revolution:
W = F 2r (Nm per revolution)
r W = 2T (Nm/rev) T = Fr
Power P = the work per second:
P = 2T N where N = RPM
60
2 NT
P= (W)
60
2 N = radians per second = P = T (W)
60
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MECHANICAL ENERGY
Potential Energy (PE)
Potential energy is the mechanical energy a mass possesses due to its position, i.e. its height
above a datum point.
PE = mgh (Joules) Mass “m”
Where: m = mass in kg
: g = gravitational force in Newtons/kg
: h = height above datum in metres Height “h”
Datum
Kinetic Energy (KE)
Kinetic energy is the mechanical energy a mass possesses due to its velocity.
From first principles:
F = force Mass “m” Displacement “S”
U = initial velocity a = acceleration V = final velocity
Accelerating Force “F” = ma a = VU S = U+V t
t 2
Work Done “W” = Force Distance
W =FD
= ma S (substitute for “a” and “S”)
=m VU U+V t (time “t” cancels)
t 2
= m (V U) (U + V)
2
= m V2 VU + VU U2 (if U = 0 then)
2
W = ½ mV2
The work energy used to accelerate the mass is converted into kinetic energy, therefore:
KE = ½ mV2 (Joules)
Where: m = mass in kg, V = velocity in m/s
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IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
Momentum is a property of a body due to its mass and velocity, i.e. momentum = mass
velocity, it is a vector quantity having magnitude and direction. Momentum can be defined as
the "quantity of motion" possessed by a moving body and is measured in kgm/s. Momentum
is distinct from, and should not be confused with, the kinetic energy
(KE Linear = ½mv2 Joules) a body possesses due to its mass and velocity. Momentum may be
linear or angular depending on the motion of the body.
When a force "F" is applied to a mass "m" for a given time "t" then there will be a change in
momentum of the mass in the direction of the force.
For linear motion: Newton's Second Law states that an accelerating force is the rate of
change in momentum, ie F= ma, where acceleration "a" is the rate of change in velocity.
F = ma but a = (v u)
t
F = m (v u) i.e. Accelerating Force = Change in Momentum
t Change in Time
Ft = m (v u)
m (v u) = change in momentum (kgm/s), and F t = an impulse force (Ns) i.e. an
average force time. An impulse force is a force applied for a given time.
COLLISIONS AND THE CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
When two bodies collide, each body exerts an equal but opposite force on the other for an
equal time period until both bodies are travelling at the same velocity. During this time the
change in momentum of one body will be equal to, but opposite in direction to, the change in
momentum of the other. From this the Law for the Conservation of Momentum is deduced
which states that the momentum immediately before the collision must be equal to the
momentum immediately after the collision. This assumes there is no rebounding and that no
mass is lost in the collision.
Momentum Before Collision = Momentum After Collision
m1v1 m2v2 = m3v3 m3 = (m1 m2)
E.g. 1. A mass of 20 kg travelling to the right at 8 m/s collides with a stationary mass of
12 kg. If the collision follows the laws of conservation of momentum, find: the velocity of the
combined mass and the change in momentum of the moving mass.
a) m1v1 m2v2 = m3v3 b) Momentum m1 = m1 (v3 v1)
m1v1 m2v2 = (m1 m2) v3 (lost) = 20 (5 8)
(20 8) (12 0) = (20 12) v3 = 60 kgm/s
v3 = (20 8) Momentum m2 = m2 (v3 v2 )
20 + 12 (gained) = 12 (5 0 )
= + 5 m/s = + 60 kgm/s
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Note: the change in momentum is the same for both masses but opposite in direction and the
momentum immediately before the collision is the same as the momentum immediately after
the collision.
Momentum Before = 20 8 = + 160 kgm/s
Momentum After = (20 + 12) 5 = + 160 kgm/s
E.g. 2. A mass of 20 kg travelling to the right at 8 m/s collides with a mass of 12 kg travelling
in the same direction at 4 m/s. Find the velocity of the combined mass and the change in
momentum of the moving masses.
a) m1v1 m2v2 = m3v3 b) Momentum m1 = m1 (v3 v1)
m1v1 m2v2 = (m1 m2)v3 (lost) = 20 (6.5 8)
(20 8) (12 4) = (20 12) v3 = 30 kgm/s
v3 = (20 8) + (12 4) Momentum m2 = m2 (v3 v2 )
20 + 12 (gained) = 12 (6.5 4 )
= + 6.5 m/s = + 30 kgm/s
Momentum Before = (20 8) + (12 4) = + 208 kgm/s
Momentum After = (20 + 12) 6.5 = + 208 kgm/s
E.g. 3. A mass of 20 kg travelling to the right at 8 m/s collides with a mass of 12 kg travelling
in the opposite direction at 4 m/s. Find the velocity of the combined mass and the change in
momentum of the moving masses.
a) m1v1 m2v2 = m3v3 b) Momentum m1 = m1 (v3 v1)
m1v1 m2v2 = (m1 m2)v3 (lost) = 20 (3.5 8)
(20 8) (12 4) = (20 12) v3 = 90 kgm/s
v3 = (20 8) + (12 4) Momentum m2 = m2 (v3 v2 )
20 + 12 (gained) = 12 (3.5 (4) )
= + 3.5 m/s = + 90 kgm/s
Momentum Before = (20 8) + (12 4) = + 112 kgm/s
Momentum After = (20 + 12) 3.5 = + 112 kgm/s
Eg 4. A mass of 20 kg travelling to the right at 8 m/s collides with a mass of 12 kg travelling in
the opposite direction at 16 m/s. Find the velocity of the combined mass and the change in
momentum of the moving masses.
a) m1v1 m2v2 = m3v3 b) Momentum m1 = m1 (v3 v1)
m1v1 m2v2 = (m1 m2)v3 (lost) = 20 (1 8)
(208) (12 16) = (20 12) v3 = 180 kgm/s
v3 = (20 8) + (12 16) Momentum m2 = m2 (v3 v2 )
20 + 12 (gained) = 12 (1 (16) )
= 1 m/s = + 180 kgm/s
Momentum Before = (20 8) + (12 16) = 32 kgm/s
Momentum After = (20 + 12) 1 = 32 kgm/s
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Note: the negative sign, in e.g. 3 & 4 denotes direction of velocity, and in e.g. 4 the direction
of momentum. In e.g. 4 the momentum is negative therefore after the collision motion would
be to the left at 1 m/s i.e. momentum to the left is greater than to the right.
PILE DRIVER
The simple pile driver is an example of the conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy
and the application of the Law of Conservation of Momentum.
m1 m1 = pile driver mass As the pile driver falls from rest it converts its potential
energy P.E. into kinetic energy K.E. Neglecting air
resistance:
mg
h=
Height of pile driver KE just before impact = PE given up by mass "m1"
mass above the pile
KE1 = PE1
Distance pile is
x=
driven each impact
½m1v 2 = m1gh
m2 m2 = pile mass
v1 = 2gh
Average
R = Resistance
of Ground
also KE1 = ½m1v1 2
The above assumes there are no other forces acting on
the pile driver mass. In the case of a steam or diesel pile
driver an extra force is applied via fluid pressure.
Following the laws of conservation of momentum:
m1v1 m2v2 = m3v3 m3 = (m1 m2) & v2 = 0
v3 = m1v1
(m1 m2)
then KE just after impact: KE2 = ½m3v3 2
KE2 supplies energy to do work to help overcome the resistance of the ground.
There is also a second energy source to help overcome the resistance of the ground. The
second source of energy is the potential energy (PE 2) that made available by the combined
mass of the pile and the driving mass moving down the driven distance "x", ie PE 2 = m3gx
Total energy available to do work = KE2 + m3gx
but Total Work = Resistance "R" x (Average Force Distance)
Rx = KE2 + m3gx
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During the collision there is a loss of mechanical energy:
Energy Lost due to Impact = KE1 KE2
PILE DRIVER
Potential Energy - Kinetic Energy - Conservation of Momentum Examples
1. A pile driver having a mass of 500 kg falls vertically 3 m before impact with a pile having a
mass of 1.2 t. If the pile is driven 40 mm into the harbour bottom each impact, find:
a) the average resisting force of the harbour bottom (125.2 kN)
b) the mechanical energy lost by the impact; (10.4 kJ)
2. A pile driver having a mass of 500 kg falls vertically 2.4 m before impact with a pile having
a mass of 145 kg. If the pile is driven 150 mm into the harbour bottom each impact, find:
a) the velocity of the pile driver and pile immediately after impact; (6.86 m/s)
b) the average resisting force of the harbour bottom (67.4 kN)
3. A pile driver having a mass of 1.2 t falls vertically 3 m before impact with a pile having a
mass of 600 kg. If the average resisting force of the harbour bottom is 150 kN, find:
a) the velocity of the pile driver immediately before impact with the pile; (7.672 m/s)
b) the velocity of the pile driver and pile immediately after impact; (5.115 m/s)
c) the mechanical energy lost by the impact; (11.8 kJ)
d) the distance the pile is driven each impact. (178 mm)
4. A pile driver having a mass of 2 t falls vertically 4 m before impact with a pile having a
mass of 1 t. If the average resisting force of the harbour bottom is 800 kN, find:
a) the velocity of the pile driver immediately before impact with the pile; (8.86 m/s)
b) the velocity of the pile driver and pile immediately after impact; (5.91 m/s)
c) the mechanical energy lost by the impact; (26.2 kJ)
d) the distance the pile is driven each impact. (67.9 mm)
5. A pile driver having a mass of 135 kg falls vertically 2 m before impact with a pile having a
mass of 120 kg. If the average resisting force of the harbour bottom is 45 kN, find:
a) the velocity of the pile driver immediately before impact with the pile; (6.26 m/s)
b) the velocity of the pile driver and pile immediately after impact; (3.32 m/s)
c) the mechanical energy lost by the impact; (1.25 kJ)
d) the distance the pile is driven each impact. (33 mm)
6. A pile driver having a mass of 400 kg falls vertically 3.75 m before impact with a pile
having a mass of 45 kg. If the average resisting force of the harbour bottom is 45 kN, find:
a) the velocity of the pile driver and pile immediately after impact; (7.7 m/s)
b) the distance the pile is driven each impact. (325 mm)
7. A pile driver having a mass of 700 kg falls vertically 0.2 m before impact with a pile having
a mass of 500 kg. If the pile is driven 75 mm into the harbour bottom each impact, find:
a) the velocity of the pile driver and pile immediately after impact; (1.155 m/s)
b) the mechanical energy lost by the impact; (572 J)
c) the average resisting force of the harbour bottom (22.45 kN)
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8. A pile driver consists of a steam hammer having a mass of 8 t which moves a vertical
distance of 2 m before impact with a pile having a mass of 1 t. The hammer moves under the
influence of its own weight and a constant force of 120 kN due to steam pressure. If the
steam pressure is cut off at impact, there is no rebounding of the hammer and the pile is
driven 450 mm with each impact, find:
a) the velocity of the pile driver immediately before impact with the pile; (9.96 m/s)
b) the velocity of the pile driver and pile immediately after impact; (8.85 m/s)
c)the average resisting force of the ground.
SUDDENLY-APPLIED OR IMPACT LOADS (from Reed’s)
Consider a solid bar of metal, let a load W fall through a distance h before
striking the bar, & let the initial amount of compression be x as illustrated in the
following diagram. Provided the initial stress is within the elastic limit, then:
Potential energy given up by = Elastic strain energy taken up
by the falling weight by the bar
W x ( h + x) = stress2 x volume
2E
From which the stress can be calculated if the other quantities are known.
If the value of h is nil, it becomes the pure case of a “suddenly applied load”
without impact, thus:
W x x = stress2 x volume
2E
Substituting, x = strain x length
= stress x length
E
and volume = area x length, we have
W x stress x length = stress2 x area x length = stress x area
E 2E 2
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Therefore, stress = 2W
area
that is, the stress from an impact load is twice the stress from a gradually added
load.
Example: A load of 10kN falls 6mm on to the end of a vertical bar 200mm long
& 2500mm2 cross-sectional area. Calculate the instantaneous compression &
stress, taking the modulus of elasticity of the material as 195 GN/m 2. If the
same load had been ;
a. Gradually applied; or
b. Suddenly applied but without impact, what would be the stress in the
bar?
Potential energy lost = Elastic strain taken up
by the weight by the bar
W + (h + x) = stress2 x volume
2E
There are two unknowns in this case, therefore one must be expressed in
terms of the other.
Stress in terms of x: stress = strain x E
= x x E
length
Substituting for stress & also (area x length) for volume:
W x (h + x) = x2 x E2 x area x length
Length2 x 2 x E
h + x = x2 x E x area
length x 2 x W
0.006 + x = x2 x 195 x 109 x 2500 x10-6
0.2 x 2 x 10 x 103
0.006 + x = 1.128 x 105 x x2
1.218 x 105x2 – x – 0.006 = 0
Solving this quadratic,
x = instantaneous compression
= 0.2261 x 10-3 m
= 0.2261 mm
Stress = strain x E
= x xE
Length
= 0.2261 x 195 x 109
200
= 2.205 x 108 N/m2
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= 220.5 MN/m2 or 22.05 hbar
Note that x is a small quantity & makes only a small difference when added to h.
An approximate value of the stress can be obtained by neglecting x thus:
W (h+x) = stress2 x volume
2E
Neglecting x,
W x h = stress2 x volume
2E
Stress = √((2EWh)/volume)
If the same load of 10 kN had been gradually applied:
Stress (N/m2) = load (N)
area (m2)
= 10 x 103
2500 x 10-6
= 4 x 106 N/m2
= 4MN/m2 or 0.4 hbar
If the same load had been suddenly applied:
Stress = 2 x load
Area
= 8MN/m2 or 0.8 hbar
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GEARBOXES
GEAR RATIOS
Single Reduction:
Output RPM = Input RPM Gear Ratio
Double Reduction:
Output RPM = Input RPM (1st Gear Ratio 2nd Gear Ratio)
Output RPM = Input RPM Overall Gear Ratio
Triple Reduction:
Output RPM = Input RPM (1st Gear Ratio 2nd Gear Ratio 3rd Gear Ratio)
Output RPM = Input RPM Overall Gear Ratio
Note: Same principle is applied if the gearbox is a step-up or speed increasing gearbox.
Output speed would be found by multiplying by the overall gear ratio.
POWER
P = 2NT Where N = RPM; T = torque in Nm
60
P = T Where = 2N = Angular velocity in radians/second
60
GEARBOX EFFICIENCY ""
Gearboxes generally have a high efficiency and therefore losses are often neglected, ie the
efficiency is assumed to be 100% so losses are zero. If a gearbox efficiency is mentioned in
the question then it must be taken into account in the calculations.
If the efficiency is 100% ie no losses:
Power Output = Power Input (ie the energy input = the energy output)
If an efficiency is mentioned there will be an energy loss due to friction and windage,
therefore with losses:
Power Output = Power Input Losses
Power Output = Power Input Efficiency ()
Power Output = Power Input
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TORQUE
P = T i.e. Power RPM T
If the power is constant in and out of the gearbox, i.e. no losses, then the torque will vary
inversely to the RPM. Therefore as the RPM decreases through a reduction gearbox the
torque increases, and as the RPM increases through a step-up gearbox the torque
decreases.
With no losses:
Torque in RPM in = Torque out RPM out
T1 N1 = T2 N2
T2 = T1 N1 N1
N2 N2 = Gear Ratio (Reduction gearing)
T2 = T1 Gear Ratio (Reduction gearbox)
T2 = T1 Gear Ratio (Step-up gearbox)
With losses:
T2 = T1 Gear Ratio (Reduction gearbox)
T2 = T1 Gear Ratio (Step-up gearbox)
Alternatively, the power in and out can be found using the efficiency then torque calculated
using the power formula.
Eg.1 A double reduction gearbox has primary and secondary gear ratios of 4:1 and 15:1
respectively. The input shaft power is 1200 kW at a speed of 6000 rpm.
a) Find:
i. the speed of the primary wheel/secondary pinion shaft; (1500 rpm)
ii. the speed of the output shaft; (100 rpm)
iii. the overall gear ratio. (60:1)
b) Neglecting losses, find:
i. the output power and torque; (1200 kW; 114.6 kNm)
ii. the power and torque transmitted by the primary wheel/secondary pinion shaft.
(1200 kW; 7.64 kNm)
c) If the gearbox has an overall efficiency of 98% due to friction losses and windage,
find:
i. the output power and torque; (1176 kW)
ii. the energy lost per hour due to friction and windage; (112.3 kNm)
d) the force normal on the gear teeth if:
i. the primary wheel has a mean diameter of 400 mm; (38.2 kN)
ii. the secondary pinion has a mean diameter 150 mm. (101.87 kN)
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2. The double reduction gearing shown has a primary reduction gear ratio of 3:1 and an
overall reduction ratio of 60:1. The output power is 8,000 kW when the output shaft rotates at
80 rpm. Neglecting gearbox losses, find:
a) the torques on the output, input and intermediate shafts;
b) the force normal on the teeth if the primary and secondary pinions are 400 mm and
500 mm diameter respectively.
Primary Pinion
Intput
Secondary Pinion
Primary Wheel
Intermediate Shaft Output
Secondary Wheel
EPICYCLIC GEAR TRAINS (from Hannah & Stephens)
Referring to the epicyclic train shown below, S is the sunwheel, A is the annulus having
internal teeth, & P is a planet wheel which can freely rotate on a pin attached to the arm L.
The arm L rotates freely about the axis of S.
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Suppose it is required to find the velocity ratio of S to L when A is held fixed.
The procedure is as follows:
(a) Rotate each member through one complete revolution clockwise (considered positive),
i.e., imagine the whole gear locked & rotated once.
(b) Hold the arm L fixed & rotate the annulus one revolution anti-clockwise, thus returning
it to its former position. Since the arm is fixed, wheels A, P & S form a simple train &
the revolutions of P & S due to the rotation of A are –Ta/Tp & +Ta/Ts respectively.
(c) Add the corresponding rotations of each member in operations (a) & (b) to obtain the
resultant motion.
These operations are set out in tabular form thus:
L A P S
(a) Turn the whole gear clockwise 1 rev +1 +1 +1 +1
(b) Hold arm L, turn A anticlockwise 1 rev 0 -1 -Ta +Ta
Tp Ts
(c) Resulting motion = (a) + (b) +1 0
1- Ta 1+Ta
Tp Ts
The last line of the table gives the relative motion of the arm, sunwheel & planet when the
annulus is fixed. It is always the fixed wheel which is given -1 rev in line (b).
Where all the members are rotating, a modification of the method is necessary. The whole
gear is given +a rev in line (a). In line (b), the arm is held fixed & any wheel is given +b rev.
The motion of the other wheels is then found as before. The resulting motion found by the
addition of lines (a) & (b) is in terms of the constants a & b, which are then evaluated from the
known speeds of two of the members.
Thus, in tabular form:
L A P S
(a) Give the whole gear +a rev +a +a +a +a
(b) Hold arm L, give A +b rev 0 +b +Ta.b -Ta.b
Tp Ts
(c) Resulting motion +a a+b a+Ta.b a-Ta.b
Tp Ts
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STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Many different materials are used in engineering. Engineering materials can be divided into
non-metals and metals with metals used extensively. There are many different types of
metals in use with their physical properties determining their application. Physical properties
such as strength, elasticity, ductility, and impact resistance can be determined by laboratory
tests.
Direct Stress ""
When a load or force is applied to a material stress set up in that material. Direct stress is the
stress set up in a plane perpendicular to the applied force. The magnitude of the stress
produced is determined from the force applied and the area resisting. If we divide the force
applied, by the area resisting, then the result is the stress in the material i.e. stress is the
force per unit area. The base unit will be Newtons per square metre (N/m 2 or Pa)
Force
Stress =
Area
F
= A (N/m2 or Pa)
Stress in a material can be likened to the pressure exerted by a fluid i.e. pressure per unit
area. The units are the same but for stress we are dealing with solids. Stress can be thought
of as the "pressure" set up in a solid due to the effect of an applied load or force. Stress is
directly proportional to the load applied and inversely proportional to the area resisting ie
stress increases as the load applied increases and decreases as the area resisting
increases.
Direct stress can be tensile stress which is produced by a tensile load or, compressive stress
which is produced by a compressive load.
Tensile Strength
The tensile strength of a material is a measure of its resistance to being pulled apart by a
tensile load. The tensile strength of a material is expressed as the maximum stress produced
in a test piece when ruptured under a steadily increasing tensile load. The tensile strength of
metals varies over a wide range depending on their type and composition, method of
manufacture and type of heat treatment.
Material Tensile Strength in MPa
Low Carbon Steel 430 - 500
High Tensile Steel 750 - 1100
Aluminium (soft) 90
Copper (annealed) 220
Elasticity
When a material is placed under load it will change shape e.g. when a test piece is placed
under a tensile load it will increase in length or extend slightly. Elasticity is the property of a
material that allows it to return to its original shape when the load is removed. Materials have
an elastic limit and if the load is increased so that the material is stressed beyond the elastic
limit the change in shape will be permanent and the material is said to have yielded. The
stress at which the material yields is called the yield stress.
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Strain " "
Strain is a ratio of the change in length or extension to the original length of a test piece that
is placed under a tensile load.
Strain = Extension
Original Length
= L (no units)
L
Modulus of Elasticity "E"
When a material is has a tensile load applied, the extension that occurs is proportional to the
load up to a point called the "limit of proportionality" i.e. if the load is doubled the extension
doubles etc. From this relationship between load and extension it can be stated that load is
proportional to extension or to put it another way stress is proportional to strain (Hooke's
Law).
Stress Strain
As stress is proportional to strain then a constant can be determined for a given material.
This constant is called the Modulus of Elasticity.
Modulus of Elasticity. = Stress
Strain
E =
Factor of Safety "FS"
Having stated that the Tensile Strength of a material is the maximum stress produced in
rupturing a material then it is logical that we do not want the material stresses to that point
otherwise it will fail in service. To provide a safety margin, the maximum allowable stress
must be limited to a value well below the Tensile Strength. This can be done by introducing a
suitable factor of safety.
Maximum Allowable Stress = Tensile Strength
Factor of Safety
MAS = TS
FS
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Shear Stress""
Shear stress is the stress set up in a material when a shearing force or load is applied to it.
Shear stress is set up in a plane in line with the force producing it.
Shear Stress = Force
Area
= F (N/m2 or Pa)
A
Load - Extension Diagram for Low Carbon Steel
Tensile Strength
Load
(Stress) Yield Point
(Elastic Limit) Fracture
Yield Stress
Work Hardening
Extension with little
or no increase in load
Limit of
Proportionality
c
a c
a
= = E
b d
Magnified
Scale
b d Extension (Strain)
Load Load
Test Piece
Extensionometer
The Load - Extension diagram is produced by accurately plotting the load applied to the test
piece against its extension (change in length). Stress is proportional to load and strain is
proportional to extension therefore the graph is also a Stress - Strain diagram if the
appropriate units are used.
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The tensile test gives us data on the particular material under test such as:
Tensile strength
Yield stress i.e. the point at which deformation occurs.
Elongation i.e. a measure of how far it "stretches" before failure which indicates the
materials ductility - the opposite of brittleness.
Elasticity i.e. how far it can be extended without deformation occurring.
Modulus of Elasticity.
Examples:
1. A steel rod has a diameter of 80 mm and a free length of 12 m. A tensile load of 375 kN is
applied to the rod. If the steel has a modulus of elasticity of 210 GPa and a tensile strength
of 420 MPa, find:
a) the stress
b) the length after the load is applied;
c) the factor of safety.
2. A slow speed diesel engine has a cylinder bore of 840 mm and a maximum firing pressure
of 120 bar. The piston rod is made from steel having a tensile strength of 500 MPa. If the
piston rod is designed with a factor of safety of 4, find:
a) the maximum allowable stress;
b) the diameter of the piston rod.
3. For the linkage shown, find the shear stress in the pin if it has a diameter of 30 mm.
Assume the pin is solid and that it is in double shear.
800 kN 800 kN
4. A cylinder cover for a diesel engine has an effective diameter of 600 mm and is secured
with 8 studs each having an effective diameter of 80 mm and an effective length of 500 mm.
If the bolt material has a modulus of elasticity of 210 GPa and a tensile strength of 600 MPa,
find:
a) the axial load required to tighten the studs if the maximum stress after tightening is
60 MPa;
b) the change in length of the studs due to tightening;
c) the maximum stress in the studs if the maximum firing pressure is 160 bar
d) the factor of safety;
e) the change in length due to firing.
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STRENGTH OF MATERIALS - COMPOUND BARS
1. Series Compound Bar Examples
A1 D1 A2 D2 A1 D1 A2 d2
L1 L2 L1 L2
A1 = D12 A2 = D22 Area of annulus: A2 = (D22 – d22)
4 4 4
F F1 A1 F2 A2 F
L1 L2
For series compound bars:
Load carried by each section is the same: F1 = F2 = F3 = F
Change in length total is the sum of the L total = L1 + L2 + L3 ………
change in length of each section.
2. Parallel Compound Bar Examples
a) Two columns, one F b) Two columns F
inside the other side by side
F1 F2 F1 F2
L
A1 A2 A1 A2
d2
D1
It is assumed that both columns are compressed equally
Load is shared, but not equally, between the two columns. F total = F1 + F2
The change in length of one column will equal the other: L total = L1 = L2
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Compound bars can be made from two or more different materials having different moduli of
elasticity “E”. Simple stress/Strain formulae can be used for the solution of compound bars
under direct stress.
Thermal Stress
If a material subjected to a temperature change is restricted in expansion or compression due
to being confined, the resultant stress set up in the material is referred to as thermal stress.
Example: A bar of copper 40mm in diameter & 500 mm long is firmly fixed at each end so
that it cannot expand. If it is now heated through 50 OC of temperature find the strain I the bar,
the stress & the equivalent load. Take the values for copper as α = 0.000018 per OC, E =
125GN/m2.
Thermal expansion if free = α x x θ
= 0.000018 x 500 x 50
= 0.45mm
Free length should then be (500 + 0.45)mm
If prevented from expanding the bar is then 0.45mm shorter than it should be, therefore it can
be considered as being compressed 0.45mm from its natural length of 500.45mm
Strain = change of length = 0.45
natural length 500.45
It is usual however to make a slight approximation here by taking the original cold length
(500mm) instead of the heated length (500.45mm). The difference in the final answer is
negligible & it is much more convenient for the solution of more-complicated problems to
follow. It will also be seen that by making this approximation that the length of the material is
not required to be known because the strain can be obtained direct from
Strain = change of length
original length
=αx xθ
=αθ
Hence,
Strain = 0.45 or 0.000018 x 50
500
= 0.0009
Stress = strain x E
= 0.0009 x 125 x 109
=1.125 x 108 N/m2 or 112.5 MN/m2 or 11.25 hbar
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Thermal Stress in Compound Bars
If a set of compound bars are firmly fastened together & heated the bar with the larger
coefficient of expansion will be prevented from expanding to its full amount by the bar with
the smaller coefficient, while the latter will be pulled further out from its natural expansion by
the former. Both the bars will therefore be strained.
Consider two different bars, A & B. A has a large linear expansion coefficient (α a) & B has a
small linear expansion coefficient (α b). If allowed to expand freely, the expansion of A will be
αa x x θ & the expansion of B will be αb x x θ. If these two bars are joined firmly together
when cold so that one is prevented from expanding more than the other when they are
heated, neglecting any bending tendency, A will exert an outward pull in trying to expand to
its full amount & B will exert an inward pull as a resistance to being pulled out more than its
natural heated length. The actual extension of the bars will lie somewhere between the two
amounts of free expansion. If the actual increase of length of the bars is represented by y,
then:
Bar A is pulled back a distance of αa θ - y
Bar B is pulled out a distance of y - αb θ
The sum of the two above quantities is equal to the difference between their free expansions,
thus:
(αa θ - y ) + (y - αb θ) = αa θ - αb θ
As strain is the change of length divided by the original length, then by dividing each term by
we obtain an expression in terms of the strain in each bar:
(αa θ - y ) + (y - αb θ) = αa θ - αb θ
which is:
Strain in bar A + strain in bar B = αaθ - αbθ
In words this is:
Sum of the strains = the difference in free expansion per unit length, or
The outward pull of one bar = the inward pull of the other bar
Example: A solid steel bar 80mm diameter is placed inside a brass tube 80mm inside
diameter, 10mm thick, & of equal length. The two ends of the bar & tube are firmly fixed
together & the whole length heated through 100 OC. Find the stress in the steel & brass taking
the values:
Coeff. Of linear exp. for steel = 11 x 10-6 per OC
Coeff. Of linear exp. for brass = 19 x 10-6 per OC
Modulus of elasticity for steel = 206 GN/m2
Modulus of elasticity for brass = 103 GN/m2
The brass will expand more than the steel because of its higher coefficient of linear
expansion.
Outward pull of the brass = Inward pull of the steel
StressBRASS x AreaBRASS = StressSTEEL x AreaSTEEL
StressBRASS x 0.7854(1002 – 802) = StressSTEEL x 0.7854 x 802
StressBRASS x 3600 = StressSTEEL x 6400
Therefore: StressBRASS = StressSTEEL x 16 ……. (i)
9
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The sum of the strains = the difference in expansion per unit length
StressBRASS + StressSTEEL = αbθ – αsθ
EB ES
Substituting equivalent of StressBRASS from above (i) & inserting values of E, α & θ,
StressSTEEL x 16 + StressSTEEL = 100 x 10-6 (19 - 11)
103 x 109 x 9 206 x 109
Multiplying throughout by 206 x 109 x 9 & simplifying:
32 StressSTEEL + 9 StressSTEEL = 100 x 10-6 x 8 x 206 x 109 x 9
41 StressSTEEL = 8 x 206 x 9 x 105
Therefore Stress in steel = 3.618 x 107 N/m2
= 36.18 MN/m2 or 3.618 bar
Also from (i),
Stress in brass = 36.18 x 16
9
= 64032 MN/m2 or 6.432hbar
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STRESSES IN THIN SHELL CYLINDERS
Cylindrical pressure vessels are common used in engineering. Some examples found in
ships include boiler drums, air receivers, refrigeration condensers and hydraulic
accumulators.
A cylindrical vessel is classed as "thin shell" if its diameter is large in comparison to its shell
thickness. For a thin shell vessel it can be assumed that the stresses inside and outside are
close enough to be taken as being the same. There are two simple stresses in a cylindrical
vessel to be considered:
1. Hoop Stress
Fluid pressure exerts an internal force on the cylinder which sets up a "hoop" or tensile stress
in the shell in a circumferential direction. The hoop stress is resisted by the longitudinal
strength of the cylinder i.e. 2 Thickness Length (2 t L)
Hoop Force = Pressure x Projected Area
Stress Area
F Resisting
F = P xL xD
Area
Resisting = 2 x Thickness x Length
Thickness "t" P Force
Hoop Stress =
Area Resisting
Projected
Area
F Length "L" P xL xD
Hoop Stress =
2 xt x L
Diameter PD
"D" Hoop Stress =
2t
2. Longitudinal or Axial Stress
The pressure also exerts a force in the longitudinal or axial direction creating longitudinal or
axial tensile stress. The longitudinal stress is resisted by the cross-sectional area of the
cylinder i.e. thickness circumference (t D)
Projected Force = P x D
Area Area
Resisting
Area Resisting = t x D
2
D F F 4
P x D
2
Longitudinal
=
Stress 4tx D
t
Longitudinal PD
Stress =
4t
It can be seen by comparing the Hoop and Longitudinal stress formulae that the Hoop stress
will be twice the Longitudinal stress if all other parameters are equal.
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Joint Efficiency
Where the strength of a joint under stress is different to the original strength of the parent
metal it can be expressed as a joint efficiency. If the joint efficiency is 90% then the stress
has to be reduced by a factor of 0.9.
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DRY SLIDING FRICTION
When one body slides over another the contact between their surfaces sets up a resistance
to motion which is called "frictional resistance". If one body is to just slide over another we
must apply a force which is equal to the frictional resistance. The force to overcome friction is
called the friction force (FF).
By experimentation it can be proved that the friction force (FF) is proportional to the force at
right angles between the surfaces. This force at right angles or perpendicular to the surfaces
is called the force normal (N), i.e. FF N
A constant for various surfaces (materials and surface finish) can be found. This constant is
called the coefficient of friction ' ' (Mu).
= FF FF = N
N
Laws of Dry sliding Friction
Frictional resistance: - is proportional to the perpendicular force between the surfaces;
- depends upon the nature and roughness of the surfaces;
- always opposes motion;
- is independent of the contact area;
- is independent of the velocity of sliding at low speeds.
Friction on the Horizontal Plane - Applied Force Parallel to the Plane
For the mass shown, assuming it is just on the verge of moving, or already moving at
constant velocity:
Space Diagram Vector Diagram
Motion
F = FF
F
Mg
FF Mg = N
R
N
Reaction 'R'
The reaction will always be in the opposite direction to the motion
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Friction Angle ''
If we consider the diagrams above, the reaction created by F and Mg is at an angle ' ' to the
force normal 'N'. The angle ' ' is called the friction angle.
Tan = FF but also = FF
N N
= Tan
Friction Angle = Tan-1
Friction Force FF = N = TanN
Eg. Find the force F to just move the mass ie F = FF
Space Diagram Vector Diagram
Motion
F = FF
100 kg F
Mg
FF Mg = N
R
N
Reaction 'R'
VF = 0 N = mg Tan =
= 100 9.81 Tan = 0.1
= 981 N = 5.71
Tan = FF FF = TanN
N = Tan 5.71 981
= 98.1 N
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Friction on the Horizontal Plane - Applied Force Not Parallel to the Plane
For the mass shown, assuming it is just on the verge of moving, or already moving at
constant velocity:
Note: N < Mg, the vertical component of F reduces N N = mg FV
Space Diagram Vector Diagram
Motion F
(90
(90 F
Mg
FF Mg
N R
Reaction 'R'
Using the Sine Rule: F = mg F = mg Sin
Sin Sin Sin
E.g. Method 1
Space Diagram Vector Diagram
Motion F F
o
= 0.1 100 kg 30
Mg Mg
FF
R
N
Reaction 'R'
Sin 5.71 x 100 x 9.81
Tan = = 90 + 30 5.71 F=
Sin 114.29
= 5.71o = 114.29
= 107.08 N
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Method 2.
The force F can be resolved into horizontal and vertical components, then:
VF = 0 FV = F Sin HF = 0 FF = N
N = mg FV FH = FF FH = F Cos
N = mg F Sin 30 F Cos = N
By substitution: F Cos = (mg F Sin )
F Cos 30 = (mg F Sin 30)
0.866F = 98.1 0.05F
0. 916F = 98.1
F = 107.09 N
Friction on the Horizontal Plane - Least Force
The least force to move a mass on the horizontal plane occurs when F is perpendicular to the
Reaction force i.e. when = .
FRICTION ON THE INCLINED PLANE
Inclined Plane - Mass Free to Move on Its Own
For the mass shown on the inclined plane with no other forces acting on it:
Mass will not silde down plane
Mass is on the verge of motion Mass
Mass accelerates down plane
Tan
FF
N = Mg Cos
Mg
Mg Sin
Mg Sin is the component of Mg, parallel to the plane, produced by gravity and inclination
Summation of forces parallel to the plane when just on the verge of moving or moving at
constant velocity:
Forces Parallel to Plane = 0
mgSin = FF
mgSin = N
mgSin = mgCos
= Sin Sin Tan
Cos Cos =
When = : = Tan
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Inclined Plane - Mass Moving Up Plane
F
Mass
FF = N
= Mg Cos
N = Mg Cos
Mg
Mg Sin
If the mass is just on the verge of moving or moving at constant velocity up the plane:
Forces Parallel to Plane = 0 F = mgSin + mgCos
If the mass is accelerating up the plane:
Forces Parallel to Plane = ma F = mgSin + mgCos + ma
Inclined Plane - Mass Accelerating Down Plane
F
Mass
FF
N = Mg Cos
Mg
Mg Sin
If then a force F is required accelerate the mass down the plane, ie MgSin MgCos,
then Forces Parallel to Plane = ma
F + mgSin mgCos = ma
F = mgCos - mgSin + ma
If > a force F would increase the acceleration produced by gravity (Mg Sin) as gravity is
now greater than the friction force (mgCos ), ie mgSin mgCos,
then Forces Parallel to Plane = ma
F + mgSin mgCos = ma
F = mgCos - mgSin + ma
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Note: * the component of gravity, mg Sin , always acts down the plane.
* the friction force always opposes motion, acts down the plane when the motion is up
the plane, acts up the plane when the motion is down the plane.
* if the direction of motion is not given, calculate mgSin and mgCos and
determine the direction as follows:
forces up plane > forces down plane - the motion is up the plane
forces down plane > forces up plane - the motion is down the plane
* when summating forces parallel to the plane always make the largest forces positive
to avoid negative answers - direction will be obvious from the summation of forces
E.g. 1. For the mass on the inclined plane shown below, find :
a) force F to just move the mass up the plane; (1320.8 N)
b) force F to accelerate the mass up the plane at 2 m/s 2; (1720.8 N)
c) force F to allow the mass to move down the plane at constant velocity; (641.2 N)
d) acceleration down the plane if the force F is removed. (3.2 m/s2 )
e) force F to allow it to accelerate down the plane at 0.5 m/s 2; (541.2 N)
F
= 0.2 200 kg
Questions of this type are often easier to solve if mgSin and mgCos are found
separately
mgSin = 200 9.81 Sin 30 mgCos = 0.2 200 9.81 Cos 30
= 981 N = 339.328 N
E.g. 2. For the mass on the inclined plane shown below, find the force F to just move the
mass up the plane:
F
F
500 kg
0.15
Mg
Mg R
R
N
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Method 1. Using a vector diagram including the Reaction Force R and solving with the Sine
Rule:
Tan = F = mg
= Tan1 0.15 Sin + Sin
= 8.531 F = 500 9.81 Sin (25 + 8.531)
Sin (90 + 20 8.531)
F = 2764.65 N
Method 2. Resolving the forces into x and y components with the x axis parallel to the plane:
y
F Fy = F Sin
500 kg Fx = F Cos x
0.15
FF = N
N = MgCos Fy
x Mg MgCos
Mg Sin
y
Convert F into its components: Fx = F Cos and Fy = F Sin
Forces Parallel to Plane = 0 Forces Perpendicular to Plane = 0
N + Fy mgCos = 0 FCos FF mgSin = 0
N = mgCos Fy FCos N mgSin = 0 ........
N = mgCos F Sin ........
substitute N - equation into equation
FCos = (mgCos F Sin ) + mg Sin
FCos 20 = 0.15[(500 9.81 Cos 25) (0.342F)] + 500 9.81 Sin 25
0.9397F = 666.816 0.0513F + 2072. 943
F = 666.816 + 2072. 943
0.9397 + 0.0513
F = 2764.64 N
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INCLINED PLANE EXAMPLES
1. A mass of 50 kg is held on a ramp inclined at 30. The coefficient of friction for the ramp
and mass is 0.2. If the mass is released, find its kinetic energy after it has travelled down the
ramp a distance of 20 m.
2. Two masses are connected by a cord which runs parallel to the plane and over a pulley as
shown in the sketch. Neglecting the mass of the pulley and friction of the pulley bearings,
calculate the mass of B required to accelerate the system at 2 m/s2.
Mass A
20 kg
Mass
B
3. For the inclined plane shown, find the force "F" required to:
a) move the mass up the plane at constant velocity;
b) move the mass up the plane with an acceleration of 0.5 m/s 2;
c) allow the mass to slide down the plane with an acceleration of 0.5 m/s 2.
800 kg
F
= 0 .1 5
16
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4. Two masses are connected by a cord that runs parallel to the plane and over a pulley as
shown in the sketch. The coefficient of friction between the plane and mass A is 0.2. Neglect
the mass of the pulley and the friction in its bearings.
Mass A
20 kg
15 kg Mass B
o
30
a) If mass A is held, find the tension in the cord.
b) If mass A is now released, find:
i. the magnitude and direction of the acceleration;
ii. the tension in the cord;
5.
W in ch D ru m
5 to n n e
2 0 = 0 .2
The mass shown on the inclined plane is raised at constant velocity, find:
a) the winch drum torque required;
b) the theoretical power.
Winch Details: Drum diameter: 900 mm, Drum speed: 5 rpm
6. If the mass shown on the ramp below starts from rest, find:
a) its velocity at the bottom of the ramp;
b) the time taken to reach the bottom of the ramp;
c) its kinetic energy at the bottom of the ramp;
d) the distance the mass travels along the horizontal plane before coming to rest;
e) its velocity and the time taken to reach a point 15m along the horizontal plane from
the base of the ramp.
= 0.12 for both surfaces 500kg
25 o
20m
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7. For the inclined plane shown below:
Mass A starts from rest and slides down the incline and along the horizontal plane where it
collides with mass B, find:
a) the time taken to reach the bottom of the ramp;
b) its kinetic energy at the bottom of the ramp;
c) the velocity of the masses immediately after impact assuming there is no
rebounding.
= 0.12 for both surfaces A
500 kg
B
250 kg
o
25
20 m
8m
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SQUARE THREADS
The square thread can be considered to be an inclined plane. It will be self-locking if > .
To Raise the Load
W = Load on nut
Vector Diagram
F
Force to
turn nut = F
Pitch x Number
R
of starts R W
N
Mean circumference of thread = Dm
where Dm = the mean diameter of the thread
Tan = Tan = Pitch Number of Starts
Dm
From the vector diagram: F = W Tan ( + )
Torque: T =F rm where rm = the mean radius = Dm
T = W rm Tan ( + ) 2
To Lower the Load
W = Load on nut
Vector Diagram
F
F
Pitch x Number
of starts W
R
R
N
Mean circumference of thread = Dm
where Dm = the mean diameter of the thread
From the vector diagram: F = W Tan ( )
Torque: T =F rm where rm = the mean radius = Dm
T = W rm Tan ( ) 2
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Efficiency of a Square Thread
Efficiency when raising: = Work Output 100%
Work Input
= W Pitch Number of Starts 100% (sub for P No of starts ; and F)
F Dm Dm
= W Tan 100% = Tan 100%
W Tan ( + ) Tan ( + )
1. A sluice valve in a graving dock is raised by a vertical square threaded screw shaft. The
valve is 400 mm in diameter and has a mass of 50 kg. The mean diameter of the thread is
50 mm and the pitch of the thread is 10 mm. The coefficient of friction of the screw thread
and for the valve guide are is 0.08 and 0.1 respectively.
The valve has sea water on one side only to a height of 1.5 m above the centre of the valve,
find:
a) the force required to start to lift the valve;
b) the torque on the screw at the commencement of opening.
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BEAMS
Simply Supported Beam – Neglecting the Mass of the Beam
d2
d1 F1 F2
R1 R2
L
For equilibrium: Vertical Forces = 0; Horizontal Forces = 0 Moments = 0
Note in this case there are no horizontal forces as all the forces are acting vertically.
Taking moments at R1: Moments = 0
Clockwise Moments = Anti-clockwise Moments
F1d1 + F2d2 = R2L
Solve for R2 R2 = F1d1 + F2d2
L
Vertical Forces = 0 Forces up = Forces Down
R1 + R2 = F1 + F2
Solve for R1 R1 = F1 + F2 R2
Simply Supported Beam – Including the Mass of the Beam
d2
d1 F1 F2
mg
R1 L R2
2
L
For equilibrium: Vertical Forces = 0; Moments = 0
Taking moments at R1: Moments = 0
Clockwise Moments = Anti-clockwise Moments
F1d1 + F2d2 + mgL = R2L L = 0.5L
2 2
Solve for R2 R2 = F1d1 + F2d2 + 0.5mgL
L
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Vertical Forces = 0 Forces up = Forces Down
R1 + R2 = F1 + F2 + mg
Solve for R1 R1 = F1 + F2 + mg R2
Simply Supported Beam with a “Running Load” (evenly spread)
d2 Running Load in kN/m
d1 i.e. the Load/metre
F1 F2
Total Running
R1 L Load “W” R2
2
L
For equilibrium: Vertical Forces = 0; Moments = 0
Note: Total Running Load (W) = Load/metre × Length = kN/m × m (kN)
W = Load/metre × L
The running load may be spread over only part of the beam and may be split up
and have different values of load per metre
When taking moments an evenly spread running load is considered to act
through its centre of gravity, i.e. in this case 0.5L from R1
The weight of the beam is often neglected, or it can be considered as part of
the running load when the running load is spread evenly across the full
length of the beam
Taking moments at R1: Moments = 0
Clockwise Moments = Anti-clockwise Moments
F1d1 + F2d2 + W × L = R2L
2
Solve for R2 R2 = F1d1 + F2d2 + 0.5W × L
L
Vertical Forces = 0 Forces up = Forces Down
R1 + R2 = F1 + F2 + W
Solve for R1 R1 = F1 + F2 + W R2
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CANTILEVER BEAMS
1. Point Load Only
R
Shear Force Diagram
R F
Bending Moment diagram
Maximum bending moment
occurs at the point of fixture
2. Uniformly Distributed Load (Running Load)
Load in kN/m
R
Shear Force Diagram
Bending Moment Diagram
Max. BM
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BENDING STRESS IN BEAMS
(R+y)
B
R
y
N y
A
D
y= d Stress Distribution:
2 Top in tension
Bottom in compression
Zero stress at NA
(R + y) R = Radius of Curvature
Original Length = R New Length =(R + y)
Change in Length = New Length Original Length
L = [(R + y)] (R) = R + y R
L = y
y
Strain = L
y
= = Modulus of Elasticity = Stress
L R R Strain
= =
Stress y
Strain =
Modulus of Elasticity E R
= E
y R
Where:
= the bending stress (Nm2 or Pa - usually MPa)
y = the distance from the Neutral Axis (NA) to the point considered (m)
E = the Modulus of Elasticity (Nm2 or Pa - usually GPa)
R = the Radius of Curvature (m)
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Note: the maximum stress occurs when y is at a maximum, i.e. at the surface
If E and R are constant then: y
If we consider a rectangular cross section, then:
a = area of strip Stress on strip = Ex
Strip R
x
Load on strip = Ex a
N A R
Moment on strip = Ex a x
R
Total Moment on strip = E ax2
R
The term ax2 is the Second Moment of Area about the Neutral Axis NA (or ) which can be
resolved using calculus. If M is the total bending moment’ then:
M = E NA M = E and previously .= E
R NA R y R
M = = E
y R
Where:
M = the bending moment (Nm)
= the Second Moment of Area about the Neutral Axis (m4)
= the bending stress (Nm2 or Pa - usually MPa)
y = the distance from the Neutral Axis (NA) to the point considered (m)
E = the Modulus of Elasticity (Nm2 or Pa - usually GPa)
R = the Radius of Curvature (m)
NA Values for Regular Cross-sectional Areas
3 3 3
Rectangle NA = BD Rectangle NA = BD bd
(Solid) 12 (Hollow) 12 12
NA = BD bd
3 3
Rectangle
(Hollow) 12
NA = D NA = D d
4 4 4
Circle Circle
(Solid) 64 (Hollow) 64 64
Circle (D4 d4)
NA = 64
(Hollow)
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BEAM EXAMPLES
1. A cantilevered beam 6 m long supports a running load of 20 kN/m over its full length and a
point load or 45 kN at its free end. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams and
determine the values for the maximum shear force and bending moment.
(165 kN; 630 kN)
2. A simply supported beam 9 m long is supported at the left-hand end and 2 m from the right
hand end. It carries 3 fixed loads of 2 kN, 4 kN and 3 kN at 1 m, 4 m and 8 m from the left
hand end respectively.
a) Find the reactions at the supports, and draw the shear force and bending moment
diagrams.
b) Also find the position and magnitude of the maximum bending moment on the beam.
3. A uniform beam 8 m long carries a running load of 4 kN/m and is simply supported at each
end. The beam also carries concentrated loads of 20 kN at 2 m from the left hand end and
10 kN at 5 m from the left hand end.
Calculate the position and magnitude of the maximum bending moment.
4. A beam with a rectangular cross section has a height of 250 mm and a width of 80 mm. It
carries the loads as shown.
Draw the shear force diagram and calculate the position and magnitude of the maximum
bending stress. Neglect the mass of the beam.
20 kN 50 kN
2m 2m
Running Load
5 kN/m
8m
5. A uniform beam 8 m long carries a running load of 10 kN/m and is simply supported at
each end. The beam also carries concentrated loads of 50 kN at 3 m from the left hand end
and 80 kN at 6 m from the left hand end. Calculate:
a) the position and magnitude of the maximum bending moment. (4.125 m; 235.1 kNm)
b) If the beam has a solid rectangular cross-section with a breadth of 100 mm, find its depth if
the maximum allowable bending stress is not to exceed 80 MPa. (420 mm)
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DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
When designing beams the designer must consider several important factors.
1. The strength requirements necessary to resist the static and dynamic loads that will be
imposed on the beam. These loads can produce shear forces and bending moments as well
as tensile, compressive and torsional loads that can result in the beam being subjected to
complex combined stresses, i.e. shear, bending, tensile, compressive and torsional stresses
2. The deflection of the beam, usually the maximum deflection. The beam will deflect when
loaded creating a radius of curvature “R” that is inversely proportional to the bending
moment, i.e. increasing the bending moment decreases the radius of curvature. For the same
beam support, a smaller radius of curvature increases the stress and the deflection.
R = E R =1
M M
Consider the beam loaded as shown with W = the loads and F = the reactions.
W1 W2
LHE RHE
F1 F2
a L a
If W 1 = W 2 and the reactions are placed at equal distance “a” from the respective ends, then
F1 = F2. The mass of the beam is small relative to the loads so it can be neglected.
Working from the LHE, the shear force and bending moment diagrams would be as shown:
Shear Force Diagram
F2 W2
W1 F1
Bending Moment Diagram
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Between the reactions F1 and F2 the bending moment is constant therefore the radius of
curvature “R” is constant. Note: between the ends of the beam and the reactions the bending
moment is changing so the radius of curvature is not constant.
For the beam supported as shown the maximum deflection that occurs at midway between
the two reactions can be found by “the principle of cross chords” as follows:
A Exaggerated curvature of
Deflection “” = OA
the beam
F1 O F2
Now OF1 OF2 = OA OB and OF1 and OF2 = L and OB = 2R – OA
2
L L = OA (2R – OA) OA = (the maximum deflection)
2 2
L2 = ( 2R) – 2 is very small so 2 is extremely small
4 and can be neglected
L2 = R R = E L2 = E
8 M 8 M
2
= ML Note: This formula is only for the beam as supported and loaded.
8E
n
ML
E
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Where: = the maximum deflection in metres
M = the maximum bending moment in Newton metres (force distance)
L = the length in metres (distance between reactions for this case)
E = the modulus of elasticity in Pascals
= the 2nd moment or area for the beam in m4
Calculus is used to establish formula for deflection of beams that have standard support and
loading arrangements. The formula for maximum deflection of beams having these standard
arrangements are given in tables (refer to examples on the following page). In assessments
the formula will be provided in a formula sheet or provided with the question.
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MAXIMUM BEAM DEFLECTION FORMULAE
FOR COMMON BEAM ARRANGEMENTS
3
1. Cantilever with end point load = WL
W 3E
3
2. Cantilever with uniformly distributed load (running load) = WL
W (total) 8E
3
3. Simply supported beam with central point load = WL
W 48E
3
4. Simply supported beam with uniformly distributed load = WL
384E
W (total)
3
5. Rigidly fixed both ends with central point load = WL
W 192E
4
6. Rigidly fixed both ends with uniformly distributed load = WL
W (total) 384E
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7. Simply supported beam with point load between supports = Wa2 b2
W 3E (a + b)
a b
FINDING SECOND MOMENTS OF AREA ABOUT THE NEUTRAL AXIS “NA”
Example 1
Method 1 – This method is easiest as all moments are taken about the Neutral Axis
200 NA = Second Moments
0 50
= NA NA
50 mm =
NA 300 h H
=
b
= 7.29167 10 4 m4
50
x x = 7.29167 10 8 mm4
B
(All dimensions are in mm)
Method 2
NA = Second Moments of 3 separate areas, ie. top, centre and bottom area.
(Done by finding the NA of the centre area and transferring the NA’s of the top
and bottom areas to the Neutral Axis using theorem of parallel axes)
NA = NA1 + (NA2 + A2y22) + (NA3 + A3y32) NA2 = NA3; A2 = A3
and y2 = y3
3 3
NA = b1h1 + 2( b2h2 + Ay2)
12 12
= ( 0.05 0.3 ) + {2[( 0.2 0.05 ) + (0.2 0.05 0.0752 )]}
3 3
NA
12 12
NA = 7.29167 10 4 m4
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Method 3
XX = Second Moments of 3 separate areas, ie. top, centre and bottom area.
(Done by transferring the NA’s of the 3 separate areas to the xx axis, then
transferring the XX to the Neutral Axis using theorem of parallel axes)
XX = (NA1 + A1y12) + (NA2 + A2y22) + (NA3 + A3y32)
= [(0.05 0.3 ) + (0.05 0.3 0.22 )] + [( 0.2 0.05 ) + (0.2 0.05 0.3752 )] +
3 3
XX
12 12
[(0.2 0.05 ) + (0.2 0.05 0.0252 )]
3
12
XX = 2.12917 103 m4
NA = XX Ay2
= 2.12917 103 {[(0.05 0.3) + (2 0.2 0.5)] 0.22}
= 7.29167 10 4 m4
16 mm
Example 2: Find the NA for the “T” section shown, given:
3
NA for a rectangle = bh 52 mm
12
3
xx for a rectangle = bh
3
48 mm 18 mm
NA = xx – Ay 2
(Theorem of Parallel Axes)
Method 1 Working in millimetres and areas divided as shown
Centroid
Centroid from base “d” = First Moments of Areas and
Total Area N A
d
= [16 52 (26 + 18)] + [18 48 9]
[(16 52) + (18 48)]
= 44384
1696
= 26.17 mm (26.16981132 mm accuracy to 8 decimal
points)
y1 = 26 + 18 – 26.17 = 17.83 mm y2 = 26.17– 9 = 17.17 mm
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NA = NA1 + (A1y12) + NA2 + (A2y22)
= [b1h13 + (b1h1y12)] + [b2h23 + (b2h2y22)]
12 12
= [(16 523) + (16 52 17.832) + [(48 183) + (48 18 17.172)
12 12
= 730020.43 mm4 = 730020.43 10–12 m4 = 7.3002043 10–7 m4
Method 2 Working in millimetres and, areas divided as shown
Centroid
Find XX, i.e. about the base, the rectangles have a common base
N A
d
XX = b1h13 + (2 b2h23) = (16 703)+ (2 16 183)
3 3 3 3
= 1,891,541.33 mm4
NA = XX – Ay2 y = 26.17 mm, y = the distance from the base to the centroid
= 1,891,541.33– (1696 26.172) Area: 1696 mm2, calculated above
= 730003.7 mm4
= 7.300037 10–7 m4
The slight difference in the answers is due to the rounding off of the distance to the centroid.
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COMBINED STRESSES
So far we have examined simple stresses where they are considered to be acting alone, i.e.
tensile, compressive, shear, bending and torsional stresses. There are many examples
where two or more stresses act simultaneously on an engineering component. When
components are subject to more than one stress then the stresses have to be combined to
find the maximum stress.
In the more simple cases, where two stresses in the same plane are involved, the total
stresses can be determined by the algebraic summation of the stresses. More complex
stresses where torsional and shear stress, and tensile, compressive and bending stresses
are combined, requires a more involved approach, i.e. where stresses in different planes.
Example 1. A beam subject to bending and axial stresses.
Compressive bending stress F1 (Bending stress)
F2
(Tensile axial
stress) Tensile bending stress
In this example force F1 causes a compressive bending stress in the top surface of the beam
and a tensile bending stress in the bottom surface of the beam. Remembering, that there is a
transition from compressive to tensile stress at the neutral axis which for a uniform beam will
occur at half the depth of the beam and, that the maximum bending stress occurs at the top
and bottom surfaces. Also for a uniform beam the compressive bending stress will equal the
tensile bending stress.
Bending stress: = My
The axial force F2 causes a uniform tensile axial stress in the cross-section of the beam.
Tensile axial stress: = F2
A
For this case, where the axial and bending stresses act in the same plane, the stresses on
the top and bottom surfaces can be found by the algebraic sum of the stresses. Assuming
that the axial stress is greater than the bending stress and, for this condition of loading, i.e.
an axial tensile stress and “sagging” bending stress, then:
Total stress at top surface = Tensile axial stress – Compressive bending stress
Total stress at bottom surface = Tensile axial stress + Tensile bending stress
From these two expressions it can be seen that the stress on the bottom surface is
considerably greater than the stress on the top surface, i.e. the two stresses are added on
the bottom.
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Note 1. The beam may be loaded differently, e.g. compressive axial stress and/or hogging
bending stress, but the same principles apply of using the algebraic sum of the stresses.
Note 2. The beam may not be a uniform beam and therefore the neutral axis will not be at
half depth. In this case the bending stresses top and bottom will not be equal and will have to
be found separately using different “y” values with “y” being the distance from the neutral axis
to the surface considered.
Example 2. A aircraft wheel strut, standing still.
This side is subject to a Weight “mg”
compressive axial stress and This side is subject to a
compressive bending stress compressive axial stress
and tensile bending stress
mg
Wheel Wheel Strut
Reaction “R” = mg x
The strut is subject to an compressive axial stress due to the weight of the aircraft (mg) and,
the strut is subject to a bending moment (mg x) producing a compressive bending stress on
the wheel side of the strut surface and a tensile bending stress on the opposite side of the
strut surface. Again assuming the compressive axial stress is greater than the bending
stress:
Total stress on the wheel side = Compressive axial stress + Compressive bending stress
of the strut surface
Total stress on the opposite = compressive axial stress – Tensile bending stress
side of the strut surface
Example 3. A thin walled pressure vessel when pressurised and subject to an axial load.
Axial stress
Hoop stress
Axial load F P Axial stress
Tensile axial stress due = PD Tensile hoop stress = PD
due to internal pressure 4t due to pressure 2t
Tensile axial stress = F = F
due to axial load “F” A Dt
Total axial stress = Axial stress + Axial stress
= PD + F
4t Dt
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As before where two stresses are involved acting in the same plane, the total stress is the
algebraic sum of the stresses. In the case shown the stresses are be added. Note: the
pressure vessel is loaded differently, i.e. under an axial compressive load, in this case the
two stresses would be subtracted, always subtracting the smaller stress from the larger.
Combined Direct Stress and Bending Examples
1. A clamp is tightened until a force of 400 N is achieved. Calculate the stress at the top and
bottom edge of the Section XX and draw a diagram showing the variation of stress across
this section.
3 mm
x
16 mm
x 3 mm
50 mm 16 mm
Section XX
400 N (Top compression 84.76 MPa)
(Bottom tensile 47.76 MPa)
2. When stationary, an aircraft wheel supports a load of 10 kN through a vertical hollow strut
having a diameter of 50 mm and a thickness of 10 mm. The vertical centreline of the wheel is
120 mm from the vertical centreline of the strut. Calculate:
a) the maximum stress on the strut;
b) the stress on the surface the strut at the far side from the wheel.
Given = (D4 – d4), (120.3 MPa - compressive; 104.3 MPa - tensile)
64
3. A pressure vessel 1 m diameter, with a shell thickness of 10 mm, is subject to an internal
pressure of 700 kPa while an axial load “F” is applied to the vessel,. Calculate:
a) the hoop stress; (35 MPa)
b) the total axial stress if the load F is a 50 kN tensile load; (19.1Mpa)
c) the magnitude of a compressive load F if the axial stress is zero. (550 kN)
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TORSION
When one end of a shaft is rotated relative to the other end, the shaft is said to be under a
torsional load, i.e. it is being twisted. When a shaft transmits power a torque is applied to the
shaft which results in twisting of the shaft or torsion. Torsion produces shear strain and shear
stress in the shaft.
Immagine this
end is fixed
x
Torque F
a
r L
b L
Fixed
Torsional S hear S tress Direct S hear Stress
Shear Strain: = ab radians Shear Strain: = x radians
L L
ab = L (equation )
If = the angle of twist in radians
r = the radius in metres
then = ab
r
ab = r (equation )
therefore L = r (equation + )
= r (equation + = equation )
L
Within the limit of proportionality of the elastic limit:
Shear Stress Shear Strain
Shear Stress = Constant
Shear Strain
The constant is called the Modulus of Rigidity (G)
G = (equation ) = torsional shear stress
G = L (equation + )
r
= G
r L
= Gr (equation) L
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Where: G = modulus of rigidity in N/m2
= angle of twist in radians
= torsional shear stress in N/m2
r = radius of the shaft in metres
For any given length, G, , and L will be constant therefore, r, i.e. the torsional shear
stress at the centre of the shaft is zero while the stress at the outer surface is a maximum.
Torsional cracks generally propagate from the outer surface of the shaft as this is where the
greatest stress occurs.
dr r = the radius of the thin strip
R r R = the radius of the shaft
dr = the width of the thin strip
Torsional Shear Stress on Ring = Gr (equation)
L
Load on Ring = Stress x Area
= Gr x 2r x dr
L
Torque on Ring = Gr x 2r x dr x r
L
T = G x 2r3 x dr
L
= G x 2r3 x dr
L
= G2 r3 x dr
L
R1
= G2 x r3 x dr
R0
L
R1
= G2 x [ r4]
L 4 R0
= G2 x [ R1 4 R0 4]
L 4 4
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= G2 x [ R1 4 0 4]
L 4 4
T = GR1
4
Lx2
R4 = D4 = Second Polar Moment "IP" or "J"
4
(m )
2 32
T = G and = G
J L r L
T = = G
Torsion Formula: J r L
Where: T = torque (Nm)
J = polar second moment (m4)
= torsional shear stress (N/m2)
r = radius of the shaft (m)
G = modulus of rigidity (N/m2)
= angle of twist (radians)
L = length of shaft under twist (m)
For a solid shaft: J =
R4 =
D4
2 32
For a hollow shaft: J = 32
D4 d4
32
J = 32 [D d ]
4 4
or J = 2
R4 r4
2
J = 2
[R4 r4 ]
To convert degrees to radians:
for X: X x 2
radians =
360
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TORSION - STRAIN ENERGY
If a torque is applied gradually to the shaft then:
F1 a
Strain Energy = Work done
F2 For a solid shaft assuming F 1 = 0 and F2 =
maximum applied force 'F'
r b
Strain Energy = F × ab
2
= F × r
D 2
= T × Fr = T
2
= J × L T = = G
2r Gr J r L
= r L
2 4
2r2 2 G
= r L r2 L = volume
2 2
4G
Strain Energy = 2 Volume Joules
4G
1. A steam turbine powered vessel has a propeller shaft having an outside diameter of
500 mm. The shaft material has a Modulus of Rigidity "G" of 80 GPa and the maximum shear
stress is limited to 75 MPa.
Find the maximum power that the shaft can transmit at 120 rpm and the angle of twist of
the shaft over a 6 metre length, if:
a) the shaft is solid; (23.13 MW; 1.29)
b) the shaft is hollow with an inside to outside diameter ratio of 1:2; (21.67 MW; 1.29)
c) the % reduction in power transmitted by using the hollow shaft; (6.24 %)
d) the % reduction in the mass of the shaft by using a hollow shaft; (25 %)
2. A hollow shaft 4 m long with an inside to outside diameter ratio of 3:5 has to transmit
4800 kW at 200 rpm. The shear stress is not to exceed 60 MPa and the angle of twist is not
to exceed 1.5°.
If the material has a Modulus of Rigidity of 80 GPa, find the diameters. (282 mm; 169 mm)
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3. The intermediate shaft of a diesel engine powered vessel transmits 16000 kW at 110 rpm.
For the shaft:
Maximum torsional shear stress: 70 MPa
Maximum angle of twist over 8 metres 1.5
Modulus of rigidity for the material 80 MPa
If the maximum torque transmitted is 18% greater than the average torque, find:
a) the diameter of the shaft if it is solid. (502.5 mm)
b) the diameters of a hollow shaft if the ratio of the outside to inside diameter is 2:1.
(510.7 & 255.35mm)
4. A solid coupling has 8 bolts on a PCD of 200 mm and transmits 600 kW at 750 rpm. If the
maximum shear stress of the bolts is 60 MPa, find the diameter of the bolts. (14 mm)
5. The shaft shown is fixed at each end and has a torque applied to it as shown. The shaft
has a diameter of 100 mm and a Modulus of Rigidity “G” of 80 GPa. Find:
a) the torques at the fixing points; (6.25 & 3.75 kNm)
b) the maximum stress; (31.83 MPa)
c) the angle of twist. (1.0743)
1.2 m
2m
F = 25 kN
0.4 m
Clue: 1 = 2 and Total Torque = T1 + T2
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SPRINGS
SPRING STIFFNESS (SS)
The stiffness of a spring is a measure of the force required to change its length by one metre
i.e. it is the force per unit length. The basic unit for SS is N/m but it is often stated in kNm/m.
SS is a constant within the limit of proportionality (torsional shear stress to strain).
SPRING FORCE (SF)
The spring force is the force exerted by a spring when its free length has been changed i.e.
compressed or tensioned.
Free length of spring Free length of spring
x1 x2 x1
SF 1 = Compressing Force SF 2 = SF 1 + Change in Spring Force
= SS x x 1 = SF 1 + SS x x 2
= SS x ( x 1 + x 2 )
where: x1 = the change in length where: x1 = the initial change in length
x2 = the additional change in length
When a spring which already exerts a spring force (SF 1) is subject to further change in
length, then:
SF2 = SF1 + Change in Spring Force
SF2 = SF1 + SS x2
where: x2 = the new change in length.
Note 1: SF2 = SS (x1 + x2) also applies.
Note 2: The above theory applies equally to springs in compression or tension.
AVERAGE SPRING FORCE
Consider a valve spring on an engine, when installed the spring is compressed and exerts
SF1 when the valve is closed. When the valve opens, further change in length (x 2) occurs as
the spring is compressed i.e. SF2 = SF1 + SS x2 or SF2 = SS (x1 + x2)
The Average Spring Force = SF1 + SF2
2
Work Done Opening Valve = Average Force x2
E.g. An exhaust valve spring having a spring stiffness of 20 kN/m is compressed 10 mm
when initially installed and compressed a further 6 mm when the valve opens, find:
a) the spring force when the valve is closed and open;
b) the work done opening the valve and the power required to open the valve in 1 ms.
a) F1 = SS x1 b) W = Average Force Distance
= 20000 0.010 = (F1 + F2) x2
= 200 N 2
= (200 + 320) 0.006
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F2 = SS x Total 2
= 20000 x 0.016 = 1.56 Joules
= 320 N Power = 1.56 0.001 = 1.56 kW
When a spring is placed under a tensile or compressive load the coils are subject to torsional
loading. Within the limit of proportionality of the spring wire, the torsional shear stress
torsional shear strain therefore the spring stiffness will be constant.
The torsion formulae can be applied to coil springs: T = = G
J r L
Dm Rm
F F
If we imagine the spring to be uncoiled until it is a straight length of wire, then a tensile or
compressive load on the spring would be equivalent to twisting the full length of wire.
F
Fixed x
T
Rm
F = axial force applied to the spring (N)
= angular displacement or angle of twist (radians)
x = linear displacement or total axial deflection of the spring (m)
Dm = mean diameter of spring coils
Rm = mean radius of spring coils
d = diameter of the spring wire
r = the radius of the spring wire i.e. d
2
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L = length of the coiled section of the spring (m) i.e. the length subject to torsion
= mean circumference × number of coils (Nc) in the spring
= × mean diameter (Dm) of spring coils × Nc
= DmNc
= 2RmNc
T = the torque (Nm)
= force × mean radius (Rm)
= FRm
x = Rm
= x
Rm
T = = G
J r L
Where: T = FRm
= x
Rm
J = r
4
2
L = NDm
Work Done = average force × distance
= F1 + F 2 × x (When the initial tension load is zero F 1 = 0)
2
Strain Energy = Work Done
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PARALLEL SPRINGS
1 2
S F1 S F2
F Total
SFTotal = SF1 + SF2 SSTotal = SS1 + SS2 xTotal = x1 = x2
SERIES SPRINGS
Spring 1 Spring 2
F Total
S F1 S F2
1 1 1
SFTotal = SF1 = SF2 SSTotal = SS1 + SS2 xTotal = x1 + x2
SF1 = SS1 x x1 SF2 = SS2 x x2 SFT = SST x xT
x1 = SF1 x2 = SF2 xT = SFT
SS1 SS2 SST
xT = x1 + x2 SFT = SF1 + SF2
SST SS1 SS2
(Divide by SF, i.e. for series springs SF1 = SF2)
SFTotal = SF1 = SF2 1 = 1 + 1
SST SS1 SS2
1 = SS2 + SS1
SST SS1 x SS2 SS1 x SS2
1 = SS1 + SS2
SST SS1 x SS2
SST = SS1 x SS2
SS1 + SS2
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CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION
A body which is rotating (i.e. travelling in a curved path) at constant velocity is accelerating
because it is changing direction, i.e. consider the mass shown:-
M ass V1
Vector Diagram
V
V2 V V
O = Centre of Rotation
It can be seen that although the mass is rotating at constant angular velocity, the linear
velocity is changing direction therefore it must be accelerating.
For a small angle: and For constant velocity:
= V radians X t radians
V
V = t V V Substituting a= V and V = r
V t t
a = x r a = 2r
CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION a = 2r
To produce centripetal acceleration an inward acting force is required, F = Ma
Centripetal Force = ma = m 2r
For the system to be in equilibrium there must also be a force acting outwards which equals
the centripetal force. This outward force is called the centrifugal force.
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CENTRIFUGAL FORCE: CF = m2r
E.g.1. A 10 kg mass attached to a rope is rotated in a vertical plane. If the mass has a linear
velocity of 20m/s and the centre of gravity of the mass is 1.2m from the centre of rotation,
find: a) the speed of rotation in RPM; (159.6 rpm)
b) the tension in the rope:
i) when horizontal; (3333.3 N)
ii) when at the top; (3235.2 N)
iii) when at the bottom. (3431.4 N)
c) At what speed in rpm will the tension in the rope be zero (27.3 rpm)
Neglect the mass of the rope.
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BALANCING
For rotating masses, if the mass is not distributed evenly about its centre of rotation it will be
out of balance. Out of balance mass produces unbalanced forces due to the centrifugal
forces produced.
O M ass 'M '
Radius 'r'
Out of balance Force = CF = m r
2
To balance the system force equal to the out of balance force but opposite in direction has to
be introduced
For a balanced system: CF1 = CF2
O
M2 M1
r2 r1
m2 = Balance Mass
Mass 2 must be at 180° to mass 1 and rotate at the same speed.
m22r2 = m12r1 is constant for both masses and can be neglected.
m2r2 = m1r1 mr force units (kgm) can be used to balance the system.
m2 = m1 r1 or r2 = m1 r1
r2 m2
Note: A larger mass can be used at a smaller radius or a small mass at a larger radius.
E.g. 1. A 2kg mass attached to a rope at a radius of 0.6 m rotates at 1000rpm, find
1) The out of balance force (13.16 kN)
2) The magnitude and position of a balance mass having a radius of 0.3m. (4 kg)
3) The radius if a 1.5kg balance mass is used (0.8 m)
Neglect the effects of gravity
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E.g. 2. Three masses are arranged as shown:
2 kg
600 mm 1200 rpm
500 mm
1.5 kg
o
40
700 mm
3 kg
Find: 1) The out of balance force. (11.48 kN at 214.34 anticlockwise from A)
2) The balance mass required at a radius of 0.4m and its position relative to mass A
(1.82 kg at 34.34 anticlockwise from A)
Balancing can also be accomplished by the removal of mass. If the metal disc shown is to be
rotated about its centre it will produce an out of balance force:
Volume of Hole = d x Thickness of Disc 't'
2
Mass = Volume x Density ()
4
Out of Balance Force = CF = m r1 2
= V x x 2 x r 1
Unbalanced Balanced
d
r1
CF r2
Balance hole
M etal Disc drilled at r2
To balance the system a hole can be drilled 180° opposite the original hole removing mass at
radius r2. The mass removed by drilling the hole cancels the out of balance force, i.e. M 2 r2 =
M1 r1
E.g.3 . A disk 1.2m a diameter and 150mm thick has a 50mm hole drilled through it at a PCD
of 1.00m. If the density of the material is 7.8t/m3, find
1) the out of balance force at 500rpm (3149.1 N)
2) the diameter of a balance hole on a PCD of 800mm. (55.9 mm)
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THREE DIMENSIONAL BALANCING OF ROTATING MASSES
Rotating masses that are in static balance are not necessarily in dynamic balance. Out of
balance couples produced by dynamic loads will impose dynamic loads on the bearings i.e.
bearing reactions.
Solving By Finding Components of Three Dimensional Mass Moments (kgm2)
z
Bearing B
LB
L3
y L1 L2
x
z
Bearing A
Resolve M1 and M3 into horizontal and vertical components (Axx; Ayy; Bxx; Byy = reactions)
z
Bxx
Bearing B
Byy
M 3r3L3yy
M 3r3L3xx
M 1r1L1yy
M 2r2L2yy
M 1r1L1xx
y
Bearing A Axx
x
z Ayy
Taking three dimensional mass moments at A along the zz plane in the xx plane:
Mass x Radius x Length from A = 0
m3r3L3 (xx) m1r1L1 (xx) Bxx rB LB (xx) = 0
Bxx rB LB (xx) = m3r3L3 (xx) m1r1L1 (xx) (kgm2)
(This summation can be arranged in a table)
Taking three dimensional mass moments at A along the zz plane in the yy plane:
Mass x Radius x Length from A = 0
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m1r1L1 (yy) + m3r3L3 (yy) m2r2L2 (yy) Byy rB LB (yy) = 0
Byy rB LB (yy) = m1r1L1 (yy) + m3r3L3 (yy) m2r2L2 (yy) (kgm2)
(This summation can be arranged in a table)
For the xx plane: Horizontal Forces = 0 Mass Moments = 0
m1r1 (xx) + Bxx rB Axx rA m3r3 (xx) = 0
Axx rA = m1r1 (xx) + Bxx rB - m3r3 (xx) (kgm)
(This summation can be arranged in a table)
For the yy plane: Vertical Forces = 0 Mass Moments = 0
m3r3 (yy) + M1r1 (yy) m2r2 (yy) Ayy rA Byy rB = 0
Ayy rA = m3r3 (yy) + m1r1 (yy) m2r2 (yy) Byy rB (kgm)
(This summation can be arranged in a table)
Find the resultant of Axx and Ayy and the resultant of Bxx and Byy and calculate the angles.
Axx Bxx
Ayy Byy
Bearing Bearing
Reaction A Reaction B
Reaction Force A = Reaction A 2 r Reaction Force B = Reaction B 2 r
To balance the system masses would have to be placed so that they each produce a force
equal to but opposite in direction to the bearing reaction A and B.
Example of the table for summation of three dimensional mass moments:
Table 1 Mass Radius Length kgm2 Angle X Components Y Components
=
Mass 1 30 0.5 1.2 18 120 9 15.59
Mass 2 (P R)
etc.
Components of resultant out of balance mass moment (kgm 2) x components y components
Reverse sign for components of equilibrant balance mass moment x components y components
(kgm2)
Use R P to find balance mass moment (kgm2) and the angle at which it must act
Find the balance mass by: Balance Mass = Mass Moment
radius length
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Example of the table for summation of two dimensional mass moments:
Table 2 Mass Radius = kgm Angle X Components Y Components
Mass 1 30 0.5 15 120 7.5 12.99
Mass 2 (P R)
etc.
Components of resultant out of balance mass moment (kgm) x components y components
Reverse sign for components of equilibrant balance mass x components y components
moment (kgm)
Use R P to find balance mass moment (kgm) and the angle at which it must act
Find the balance mass by: Balance Mass = Mass Moment
radius
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THREE DIMENSIONAL BALANCING – MASSES IN SAME PLANE
Rotating masses that are in static balance are not necessarily in dynamic balance. Rotating
masses can produce out of balance couples due to centrifugal force if the mass is not
distributed correctly in a longitudinal plane, i.e. the third dimension. The out of balance
couples will impose dynamic loads on the bearings, i.e. bearing reactions.
Three dimensional balancing problems can be solved either by calculation or by graphical
means as they are vector quantities, i.e. kgm2..
Solving By Finding Components of Three Dimensional Mass Moments (kgm 2)
E.g. A shaft, running in bearings A and B, has two concentrated fixed masses as shown. The
masses and the shaft axis are all in the same plane.
a) Find the dynamic bearing reactions at A and B when rotating at 480 rpm. (876 N, 1400 N)
b) Find the balance mass “mb” required to balance the system dynamically and its distance
“d” from bearing A if the balance mass is in the same plane as the existing masses.
(7.2 kg, 200 mm)
Mass 1 = 4 kg Mass 2 = 6 kg
100 mm
75 mm
A B
100 mm 150 mm 75 mm
“d”
125 mm
“mb”
For static balance: m1r1 + m2r2 = mbrb (Independent of rotational speed)
Balance Mass: mb = m1r1 + m2r2
rb
: mb = (4 75) + (6 100) (mm can be used or metres,
125 length units cancel)
= 7.2 kg
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Taking moments at bearing A:
Bearing Reaction at B: Rb db = m1r1d1 + m2r2d2 (kgm2)
Rb 0.325 = (4 0.075 0.1) + (6 0.1 0.25) (kgm2)
Rb = (4 0.075 0.1) + (6 0.1 0.25) (kgm)
0.325
Rb = 0.55385 kgm
= 0.55385(2 480)
2
but Rb = CF = m2r and mr = 0.55385 kgm Rb
60
= 1399.4 N
Taking moments at bearing B:
Bearing Reaction at A: Ra da = m1r1d1 + m2r2d2 (kgm2)
Ra 0.325 = (4 0.075 0.225) + (6 0.1 0.075) (kgm2)
Ra = (4 0.075 0.225) + (6 0.1 0.075) (kgm)
0.325
Ra = 0.34615 kgm
= 0.34615(2 480)
2
but Ra = CF = m2r and mr = 0.34615 kgm Ra
60
= 874.6 N
Total CF = [4 (2 480) 0.075] + [6 (2 480) 0.1]
2 2
Alternatively:
60 60
= 2274 N (This dynamic load acts on bearings A and B)
Ra = 2274 – 1399.4
= 874.6 N
For dynamic balance:
Balance mass 7.2 kg must be placed distance “d” from bearing A so that it produces a
“balancing couple” (kgm2) exactly opposite in magnitude and direction.
Taking moments at A
Mb rb d = Out of balance couple at B (kgm2 = kgm2)
Mb rb d = 0.55385 0.325
d = 0.55385 0.325
7.2 0.125
d = 0.2 m
= 200 mm
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SOLVING THREE DIMENSIONAL BALANCING USING VECTOR DIAGRAMS
Example. A three throw crank shaft has cranks of 150 mm radius set at 120 o to each other
and equally spaced with a pitch of 500 mm. The rotating masses at the cranks are:-
No.1 = 30 kg; No.2 = 40 kg; and No.3 = 40 kg
Balance is to be effected by Balance Mass 1 in a plane 150 mm outside the plane of crank
No.1 and Balance Mass 2 in a plane 750 mm outside the plane of crank N o.3. The radii of the
balance masses are to be 225 mm and 750 mm respectively.
Determine the magnitude and angular positions of the balance masses relative to crank 1.
No1 at TDC
0.15 m 0.5 m 0.5 m 0.75 m
o
120
Mb1 No1 No2 No3 Mb2
No3 N o2 Position of Rotational Planes
Note: 1. The vector diagram of the dynamic balance couples is drawn first to determine the
magnitude and position of Balance Mass 2
2. The dynamic balance couples (moments – kgm2) are taken about Balance Mass 1.
Balance Mass 1 is therefore eliminated as its distance is zero.
Table of Vector Quantities for Dynamic and Static Balance – Reference Cylinder No. 1
Position Mass Radius Distance from Dynamic Balance Static Balance mass Angle
(kg) (m) Mb1 (m) couple (kgm2) moment (kgm)
Mb1 Mb1 0.225 0 0 0.225Mb1 Mb1
No 1 30 0.15 0.15 0.675 4.5 0
No 2 40 0.15 0.65 3.9 6 – 120o
No 3 40 0.15 1.15 6.9 6 – 240o
Mb2 Mb2 0.75 1.9 1.425Mb2 0.75Mb2 (= 2.842) Mb2
1. Draw the vector diagram for the dynamic balance couples to scale and determine the
resultant couple for the Balance Mass 2. Divide the resultant couple by 1.425 to find Balance
Mass 2 and measure its position relative to Crank N o1.
From the dynamic balance couple vector diagram: Mb2rb2db2 = 1.425Mb2 = 5.4 kgm2 #
Mb2 = 5.4
1.425
Answer 1 = 3.79 kg at 29o clockwise from Crank No1 (+61o from +x)
2. Now calculate Mb2 rb2 = 0.75Mb2 = 0.75 3.79 = 2.842 kgm
3. Draw the vector diagram for the static balance moments to scale and determine the
resultant couple for the Balance Mass 1. Divide the resultant moment by 0.225 to find
Balance Mass 1 and measure its position relative to Crank N o1.
From the static balance mass moment vector diagram: Mb1rb1 = 0.225Mb1 = 1.7 kgm #
Mb1 = 1.7
0.225
Answer 2 = 7.56 kg at 126o anticlockwise from Crank N o1 (+214o from +x)
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CLUTCHES AND BRAKES
N
Clearance Between FF
Centre of Gravity of the
Shoe and Drum 'x'
Shoe When Stopped
Output Drum
r2 CF r1 r3
SF
Where: r1 = radius of the centre of gravity of the shoe when stopped (m).
r2 = radius of the centre of gravity of the shoe when engaged (m).
r3 = internal radius of the clutch drum (or brake drum) (m)
SF = total spring force when engaged (N).
CF = centrifugal force at nominated speed (N)
N = reaction force at the drum surface, i.e. the force normal (N).
x = radial clearance between the shoe and the drum when stopped (m).
Note: 1. Centrifugal force is proportional to the speed and the radius, at engagement
the radius of the centre of gravity will be r2, i.e. shoe has moved outwards a
distance equal to the radial clearance 'x', therefore r2 = r1 + x.
2. r3 is the contact radius of shoe and is therefore used to calculate friction torque.
3. The total spring force SF = Initial spring force + the change in spring force caused
by further compression of the spring as the shoe move outwards a distance equal
to the clearance 'x'.
4. The total spring force is assumed to be constant after the shoe engages the drum
and the effect of centrifugal force on the spring force is neglected.
5. For speeds up to and including the speed of engagement - N = 0. At speeds
greater than the speed of engagement: N = CF SF.
At the Speed of Engagement:
N=0 CF = SF CF = m2r2 SF = SFInitial + (SS x)
At Speeds Greater Than the Speed of Engagement:
N = CF SF FF = N Friction Torque T = FF r3 (Nm)
Friction Power P = T Watts per shoe.
Total Friction Power: P = T Number of Shoes (Watts)
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The friction power is the total power that the clutch can transmit without slip when engaged at
a particular speed. The effect of centrifugal force on the spring will reduce the spring force
thus N will be greater than calculated giving a margin of safety.
Q.1. The centrifugal clutch shown below has two (2) shoes each having a mass of
280 grams. The shoes are restrained by springs having an initial spring force of 140 N. The
coefficient of friction between the shoes and the clutch drum is 0.3. If the clutch starts to
engage at a speed of 860 rpm, find:
a) the spring stiffness of the springs;
b) the maximum power that can be transmitted at 1720 rpm.
Input
12 mm
150 mm
.g
200 mm
Output
2. The centrifugal clutch shown below has four (4) shoes and starts to engage at a speed of
1,060 rpm. The shoes are restrained by springs having a spring stiffness of 16 kN/m and an
initial spring force of 240 N. If the coefficient of friction between the shoes and the clutch
drum is 0.35, find:
a) the mass of the shoes; (0.25 kg)
b) the maximum power that can be transmitted at 2850 rpm. (187.4 kW)
10mm
120 mm
.g
180 m m
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3. The centrifugal clutch shown at rest has a spring stiffness of 10 kN/m and an initial spring
force of 180 N and is designed to engage at 950 rpm.
Calculate the mass of the shoes. (0.1994 kg)
What is the maximum power that the clutch can transmit at 2,850 rpm without slipping if there
are 2 shoes and the coefficient of friction'' =0.3 ? (87 kW)
12 mm
140 mm
.g
180 m m
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FLAT PLATE CLUTCHES
UNIFORM PRESSURE THEORY
When a clutch is new it will not be worn and therefore it can be assumed that the pressure is
the same on all the contact area of plate.
For one pair of contact surfaces:
Clutch Plate
dr Thin Strip
r
R1 = External diameter of contact area of plate
R1
R2
R 2 = Internal diameter of contact area of plate
r = mean radius of the thin strip
Area of Strip = Mean Circumference x Width of Strip
= 2r x dr
Load Normal on Strip "N" = 2rdr x Pressure "P"
Friction Force = N
Friction Force on Strip = x 2rdrP
= 2rdrP
Friction Torque on Strip = 2rdrP x r
= 2r2drP
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The Total Friction Torque can be found by integration, i.e. the integral of 2r2drP
between the limits of R1 and R2.
R2
Total Friction Torque = 2Pr2dr
R1
R2
F T = 2P r2dr
R1
R2
F T = 2P [ r3 ]
3 R1
F T = 2P [ R13 R23 ] * (equation 1)
3
Total Axial Load "W" = Average Pressure x Contact Area (assuming constant pressure)
W = P x x (R12 R22)
P = W * (equation 2)
(R12 R22)
Substitute for P in equation 1 by equation 2
F T = 2W(R1 R2 )
3 3
3 (R12 R22)
F T = 2W(R1 R2 )
3 3
3 (R12 R22)
Where: F T = the maximum torque transmitted by one pair of contact surfaces.
NOTE:
1. A single plate clutch has two (2) pairs of contact surfaces
2. A 2 plate clutch has four (4) pairs of contact surfaces
3. For multi plate clutches the number of contact surfaces = Number of plates x 2.
Each plate has a driving face on each side.
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UNIFORM WEAR THEORY
As the clutch wears the pressure can no longer be assumed to be constant on
all areas of the plate. The surface speeds increase as the diameter of the plate
increases i.e. the outer contact areas of the plate will wear more than the inner
contact areas.
Wear Velocity x Pressure V=r
Wear r x P Velocity r
Constant "C" = r x P P=C
r
Area of Strip = 2rdr
Load on Strip "N" = 2rdr x P
Total Load W = 2rdrP Substitute for P = C
r
W = 2rdr C r cancels out
r
W = 2drC
R2
W = 2C dr
R1
R2
W = 2C [ r ]
1 R1
W = 2C (R1 R2)
C = W (equation 1)
2 (R1 R2)
Friction Torque on Strip = x Load on Strip x r
= x 2r drP x r
= 2r2drP P=C
r
= 2r2dr C
r
= 2rdrC
= 2Crdr
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Total Friction Torque = 2Crdr
R2
= C2 rdr
R1
R2
= C2 [ r2 ]
2 R1
Total F T = C2 (R12 R22) (equation 2)
2
Substitute equation 1 into equation 2, i.e. substitute C in equation 2:
Total F T = W2 (R12 R22) (R12R22) = (R1R2)(R1+R2)
2(R1 R2) 2 (Difference between two squares)
Total Friction Torque = W (R1 + R2) Nm per pair of contact surfaces
2
Total Friction Torque = Wrm Nm per pair of contact surfaces
Where: rm = the mean radius
W = the total axial load
= the coefficient of friction - Mu
W = Average pressure x Area
W = PA x (R12R22) Newtons
Friction Power = T or Friction Power = 2NT
60
Where: = angular velocity in radians per second
T = the friction torque in Nm
N = revs per minute
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DISC CLUTCH EXAMPLES
1. A multi plate clutch has 8 pairs of contact surfaces, the plates each have an outside
diameter of 400 mm and an internal diameter of 280 mm. Assuming uniform pressure theory,
find the total axial force required when transmitting 200 kW at 1800 rpm if the coefficient of
friction '' = 0.36. (2144.9 N)
If there are 10 springs each having a spring stiffness of 16 kN/m and each of the contact
surfaces are worn away by 0.75 mm, what is the maximum power that can be transmitted at
the same rpm, assuming uniform wear theory and the same coefficient of friction (20.75 kW)
2. a) A multi plate clutch has 6 pairs of contact surfaces, the plates each have an outside
diameter of 360 mm and an internal diameter of 240 mm. Assuming uniform pressure theory,
find the total axial force required when transmitting 120 kW at 1600 rpm if the coefficient of
friction '' = 0.34.
b) If there are 8 springs each having a spring stiffness of 10 kN/m and each of the contact
surfaces are worn away by 0.5 mm, find the maximum power that can be transmitted at the
same rpm, assuming uniform wear theory and the same coefficient of friction.
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CONE CLUTCH
Radial Force Vector Diagram
W W
N W
Radial
Force
N
N= W
Sin
For cone clutches use the flat plate clutch formulae with N substitute for W.
Uniform Pressure Theory
3 3
F T = 2N(R1 R2 ) Nm
3 (R12 R22)
3 3
F T = 2W(R1 R2 ) Nm
2 2
3Sin (R1 R2 )
Uniform Wear Theory
FT = N (R1 + R2) Nm
2
FT = W (R1 + R2) Nm
2Sin
Note: 1. There is only one pair of contact surfaces for a single cone clutch.
2. A cone clutch can have two contact surface which has the advantage of
balancing end thrust
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STRESSES IN ROTATING COMPONENTS (from Reed’s)
Stress is the load or force carried by a material per unit of cross-sectional area, thus,
Stress = total load______
Area of cross-section
Referring to the above figure (Fig. 74), considering the equilibrium of a small piece of the
flywheel rim it can be seen from the vector diagram of forces that the outward radial
centrifugal force is balanced the circumferential tensile force in the rim. The tension tends to
snap the material, the stress, expressed by dividing the total tensile force by the area, is
therefore termed the tensile stress or hoop stress.
Let r = radius of rim (metres)
a = axial thickness of rim (metres)
b = radial thickness of rim (metres)
ρ = density of material (kg/m3)
then,
mean length of piece = rθ
area of cross section = ab
Mass of piece (kg) = volume (m3) x density (kg/m3)
Mass of piece = rθ x ab x ρ
C.F. of piece = m ω2 r
= rθ x ab x ρ x ω2 x r newtons
From vector diagram,
Tensile force = C.F
θ
tensile stress = tensile force____
area of cross section
= rθ x ab x ρ x ω3 x r
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θ x ab
= ρ x ω2 x r2 = ρv2 N/m2
Example: Calculate the stress set up in a thin flywheel rim, one metre in diameter, made of
steel of density 7.86 g/cm3, when rotating at 1500 rev/min.
1500 rev/min x 2π = 157.1 rad/s
60
7.86 g/cm3 = 7.86 x 103 kg/m3
Stress due to centrifugal force = ρv2 = ρ ω2 r2
= 7.86 x 103 x 157.12 x 0.52
= 4.85 x 107 N/m2
=48.5 MN/m2 or 4.85 hbar
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MECHANICAL GOVERNORS
Mechanical governors like the simple Hartnell governor shown below, can be used to directly
control the speed of machinery. Modern practice is to use a mechanical-hydraulic, or an
electronic-hydraulic, or an electronic-electric governor. The choice of governor being selected
to suit the particular application and size of the machine. Each type using different speed
sensing and/or fuel regulating methods.
While direct control of speed using a mechanical governor is generally restricted to older,
smaller engines, the principles of their operation can still be utilised in modern mechanical-
hydraulic governors for sensing speed. Modern governors will incorporate a hydraulic control
circuit with mechanical speed feedback, speed and droop settings, and a hydraulic power
piston for fuel regulation.
Operation of a Hartnell Governor
Referring the sketch below:
As the engine speed increases the fly weights move out due to centrifugal force (CF), at the
same time the bell-crank levers move the collar up compressing the spring and increasing
the spring force (SF) acting on the collar. The upwards movement of the collar moves the fuel
regulating shaft reducing the fuel supplied to the engine so that an equilibrium of spring force
moments and centrifugal force moments occurs. At this equilibrium point fuel setting matches
the load at the set speed. The speed setting can be adjusted by adjusting compression of the
spring.
Fly Weights
G
CF
SF b
Bell Cranks
CF = m2r SF = SS x SF2 = SF1 + SS x
For two fly weights:
For Equilibrium: ½SF a = CF b (use ½SF – working with one weight)
Compression of Spring: x = Distance fly weight moves
a b
x = Distance fly weight moves a
b
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The weights are assumed to be close to vertical eliminating moments caused by gravity.
1. A governor as shown runs at a speed of 300 rpm with the flyweight arms in a vertical
position. Each flyweight has a mass of 2.3 kg and a 3% reduction in speed causes a sleeve
movement of 6 mm. Ignoring gravitational effects, determine the spring stiffness.
100 mm
125 mm
62.5 mm (26.03 kN/m)
2. A governor as shown runs at a speed of 1200 rpm with the flyweight arms in a vertical
position. Each flyweight has a mass of 0.25 kg and a 2% increase in speed causes a sleeve
movement of 6 mm. Ignoring gravitational effects, determine the spring stiffness.
G r = 100 mm
a = 60 mm
b
b = 120 mm
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3. A governor as shown runs at a speed of 800 rpm with the flyweight arms in a vertical
position. Each flyweight has a mass of 0.2 kg and a 2% reduction in speed causes a sleeve
movement of 8 mm. Ignoring gravitational effects, determine the spring stiffness.
r
r = 80 mm
G a = 50 mm
b = 100 mm
b
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FLUIDS
VISCOSITY
Viscosity is a measure of a fluids resistance to shear due to internal molecular friction.
Viscosity tends to make a fluid resist flow, i.e. it is a measure of its fluidity. High viscosity
fluids have increased resistance to shear and therefore are more resistant to flow, or are less
fluid. Low viscosity fluids are less resistant to flow, or are more fluid. The viscosity of a fluid
changes as its temperature changes, decreasing as its temperature increases.
Absolute or Dynamic Viscosity
The absolute viscosity of a fluid is the force in newtons (N) required to shear a fluid having an
area of 1 m2, at a distance of 1 m, and at a speed of 1 m/s. The unit for absolute viscosity is
centipoise. 1 centipoise = 10–3 Pa s (Ns/m2 = Pa.s)
F = AV (N)
x
Where: = dynamic viscosity in Ns/m2 or Pa s
A = the area in m2
V = the velocity in m/s
x = distance of separation in m
E.g. Calculate the force required to move a disc 100 mm diameter separated by 3 mm from a
stationary plate by a fluid having a dynamic viscosity of 0.15 Pa s if the discs has a velocity of
5 m/s. Assume linear velocity distribution.
F = AV = 0.15 0.12 5
X 4 0.003
= 1.96 N
Kinematic Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity is a ratio of the absolute viscosity to the density of the fluid at a specific
temperature. Kinematic viscosity is more suitable for practical use and can be expressed as
flow per unit time.
Measuring Viscosity
The kinematic viscosity of fluids can be a measure of the time taken for a set quantity to flow
through a standard orifice. Other methods include: measuring the torque transmitted to a
stationary drum separated by a fluid film from a rotating drum; and measuring the time taken
for a ball, of standard dimensions and mass, to drop a set distance in the fluid.
Kinematic Viscosity Scales
Fuel and lubricating oil are common fluids use on ships where viscosity is an important
property. For fuel oil there are a number of scales used, e.g. Redwood No.1, Saybolt, Engler,
and Centistokes (cSt). The Centistokes scale is now the international standard (SI unit). 1 cSt
= 10–6 m2/s or mm2/s.
Temperature changes the viscosity of oil markedly, as temperature increases the viscosity
decreases. It is therefore necessary to state viscosity at a particular temperature. For the
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Centistokes scale, the viscosity of fuel oil is stated at 50 oC, while lubricating oil is usually
stated at 100oC.
SAE numbers are often used to indicate lubricating oil viscosity, e.g. SAE 30, SAE 15W40,
the later known as a “multi-grade”, are often used for viscosity and viscosity ranges for
lubricating oil and is stated at 68 oC – a typical lubricating oil operating temperature. The
correct viscosity for lubricating oil relates directly to its load bearing capacity.
FLUIDS IN MOTION
TYPES OF FLOW
Laminar Flow
Laminar flow exists when the fluid flows in streamlines. Generally the fluid velocity will be a
maximum at the centre of the pipe reducing at as it approaches the pipe wall. Laminar flow
results a stationary fluid layer on the surface of the pipe wall.
Velocity
Distribution
Laminar flow in piping has the advantages of lower pumping losses and greatly reduces the
risk of impingement attack on the pipe wall. Laminar flow in heat exchangers is not desirable
as it results in a thicker boundary layer having a low fluid film heat transfer coefficient
reducing heat transfer.
Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow exists when eddies form in the fluid stream. The fluid is generally flowing in the
same direction but random eddies result in mixing of the streamlines.
Velocity
Distribution
Turbulent flow in heat exchangers is desirable as the boundary layer is disturbed by the
eddies resulting in higher fluid film heat transfer coefficients and therefore more efficient heat
transfer. Turbulent flow has the disadvantages of higher pumping losses and the possibility of
impingement attack if local velocities are excessive.
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Transitional Flow
Transitional flow exists when laminar flow starts to change into turbulent flow.
AVERAGE FLOW VELOCITY
When considering flow velocity in piping systems and ducts etc., where the velocity is
varying, it is the average flow velocity that is considered. For example when calculating
velocity flow from mass flow, it is the average velocity that is considered.
Mass Flow (kg/s) = Volume Flow (m3/s) Density (kg/m3)
Mass Flow (kg/s) = Cross Sectional Area (m2) Average Velocity (m/s) Density (kg/m3)
Average velocity (m/s) = Mass Flow (kg/s)
Cross Sectional Area (m2) Density (kg/m3)
For Laminar flow the velocity distribution curve is a parabola and the maximum velocity is
twice the average value, i.e. Average velocity = Maximum velocity 2
For turbulent flow the maximum velocity is 1.2 to 1.4 times the average value, i.e. Average
velocity = Maximum velocity 1.2 to 1.4
REYNOLDS NUMBER (Re)
Laboratory experiments on fluid flow conducted by Osborne Reynolds showed there are
three main factors that determine the type of flow.
i) the velocity of the fluid – higher velocities tend to produce turbulent flow;
ii) the viscosity of the fluid – lower viscosities tend to produce turbulent flow;
iii) the diameter of the pipe – larger diameters tend to produce turbulent flow.
Reynolds derived an expression based on his experimental work that gives a dimensionless
number known as the Reynolds number as follows:
Reynolds Number: Re = Ud
Vi
Re = Ud
Where: U = the average velocity (m/s)
D = the diameter of the pipe (m)
= the density of the fluid (kg/m3)
= the absolute or dynamic viscosity of the fluid in centipoises (Pa.s)
Vi = the kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s)
Reynolds number can be used to predict the type of flow produced in a system. Higher
Reynolds numbers indicate a tendency for turbulent flow to exist in the fluid. From
Turbulence is more likely to occur with higher fluid velocities and with lower fluid densities.
Water having a low density can often produce turbulent flow, whereas high viscosity fluids
tend to produce laminar flow – sometimes referred to as “viscous flow”..
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Critical Reynolds Number
Reynolds numbers are important in the designing fluid flow systems so that the desired type
of flow is achieved. To ensure laminar flow Reynolds number should be below 2000, this is
known as the critical Reynolds number. The following table shows Reynolds numbers and
their general relationship to the type of flow:
Reynolds Number Type of Flow
2000 Laminar
2000 to 4000 May be either laminar, turbulent or transitional
4000 Turbulent
Note: In practice the onset of turbulent flow can also be influenced by other factors, e.g. the
internal roughness of the pipe, vibration and sharp changes in diameter.
E.g. 1. Find the Reynolds number and state the type of flow when fresh water at 50 C flows
in a 30 mm diameter pipe at the rate of 3 litres/s, given that water at 50 C has a dynamic
viscosity of 0.544 10–3 centipoise (Pa.s) and a density of 988 kg/m3.
Vol. flow = 3 litres/s = 0.003 m3/s U = Volume flow = 0.003 4 = 4.244 m/s
Area 0.032
Re = Ud = 4.244 0.03 988 = 231,000 Flow would be turbulent
0.544 10–3
E.g. 2. Oil having a kinematic viscosity of 0.2 10 –3 m2/s flows in a 100 mm diameter pipe.
What is the highest average velocity the oil can have while still maintaining laminar flow?
Note: For laminar flow the Reynolds number has to be 2000
Re = Ud U = Re Vi
Vi d
Maximum Average Velocity: U = 2000 0.2 10–3
0.1
= 4 m/s
Any velocity over 4 m/s would have a Reynolds number greater than 2000 and would
possibly result in turbulent flow.
E.g. 3. Oil having a relative velocity of 0.9 and a dynamic viscosity of 0.048 Pa.s flows at a
rate of 10 litres/s in a 150 mm diameter pipe. Find the average velocity and maximum
velocity of the fluid.
U = Vol. flow U = 10 10–3 4
Area 0.152
= 0.566 m/s
Re = Ud = 0.566 0.15 900
0.048
= 1592 1592 < 2000 Flow would be laminar
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Maximum velocity = 0.566 2
= 1.132 m/s
Reynolds Number Examples
1. An SAE 30 oil has a relative density of 0.897 and a dynamic viscosity of 380 centipoise at
16 degrees C.
a) Find the dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity in SI units.
b) If the oil flows in a 200 mm pipe at an average velocity of 4 m/s determine the
Reynolds number
c) State if the flow is laminar or turbulent. (0.38 Pa.s, 424 10–6, 1890, Laminar)
2. Oil having a dynamic viscosity of 60 10–3 Pa.s and a density of 875 kg/m3 has a flow rate
of 5 litres/s in a pipe of 75 mm diameter. The pipe then tapers to a smaller diameter.
Calculate:
a) the Reynolds number and the flow type upstream of the tapered section;
b) the minimum velocity and corresponding pipe diameter downstream of the taper in
order that the flow is fully turbulent. (1238, laminar, 11.8 m/s, 23.2 mm)
Note: For laminar flow Re <2000, and for turbulent flow Re> 4000.
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Steady and Unsteady Flow
Fluid In
Level in Tank
Head “h”
Fluid Out
When the fluid flow into the tank does not equal the flow out of the tank then “unsteady flow”
exists and the level in the tank would increase or decrease with time.
If we consider the flow into the tank to be greater than the flow out, then the level in the tank
would rise, i.e. an unsteady flow condition exists. As the level in the tank rises the head
pressure increases, i.e., Head Pressure = gh.
As the level increases, the head pressure increases, and as a consequence the flow out will
also increase. It is assumed that a level will be reached when the flow in and out would be
equal. Where flow in equals flow out and the level is constant, “steady flow” exists.
Flow Rate
Fluids can exist as liquids, vapours, and gases, and can be combinations of these phases. In
fluid mechanics we generally consider the flow of liquids. Vapours and gases are dealt with in
Thermodynamics where pressure, temperature and volume are all variable.
Liquids are assumed to be non-compressible therefore their volume is directly proportional to
their mass. For example, fresh water having a density of 1 kg/litre flowing at 10 kg/s has a
volumetric flow rate numerically the same, i.e. 10 litres/s.
Mass = Volume Mass = Volume
Specific Volume
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Flow Velocity
When calculating the flow velocity given the mass or volume flow, it is assumed that the
velocity is constant over the cross-section of the pipe, i.e., the average velocity.
For a circular pipe, the velocity can be found as follows:
d2
Area = 4
Velocity
Volume Flow = Area Velocity
d Area Volume Volume Flow = d2 Velocity
4
Velocity = Volume Flow m3 = m/s
Area m2s
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Flow Through an Orifice
When a fluid flows through an orifice the area of the exit stream contracts and its velocity
increases. This is referred to as “Vena Contracta”. The velocity increases as potential energy
is converted into kinetic energy
A1 A2
V1 A1 A2 V2 For the same mass flow
Velocity V2 Velocity V1
Coefficient of Reduction in Area C A
The reduction in area can be expressed as Coefficient of Reduction in Area C A:
CA = A2 Actual Area of Jet A2 = A1 CA
A1
Actual Flow Volume = A1 V CA (m/s)
Theoretical Velocity at Exit:
Ideally all the potential energy(PE) is converted in to kinetic energy(KE):
KE = PE ½mV2 = mgh Vi = 2gh (m/s)
Actual Velocity V = Vi CV Where: V = Actual velocity in m/s
Vi = Ideal Velocity in m/s
CV = Coefficient for Velocity
Coefficient of Discharge
Cv and CA can be combined into one coefficient, the Coefficient of Discharge (C D)
CD = CV CA Actual Flow Volume = A1 V CA
= A1 Vi CV CA
= A1 2gh CD
Actual Flow Volume = CDA1 2gh (m/s)
Also: P = gh h= P
g
Actual Flow Volume = CDA1 2gh
Actual Flow Volume = CDA1 2g P
g
Actual Flow Volume = CDA1 2P (m/s)
E.g. An orifice at the bottom of a tank has an internal diameter of 30 mm. If the tank has
sea water in it to a depth of 12 m, find:
a) the velocity of the jet in m/s;
b) the area of the jet in mm2;
c) the mass flow in kg/s.
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Manometers
Manometers can be used for the measurement positive and negative (vacuums) pressure
and differential pressures.
Positive Pressure Measurement – P1 P2
P1 P2 = Atmospheric pressure
= Zero Gauge Pressure
Datum x x
Hg (Mercury) – Indicating fluid
E.g. Find P1 (gauge pressure) when “h” is 800 mm of Hg
P1 = P2 + (gh) P1 = 0 + (1000 13.6 9.81 0.8) 10–3 kPa
= 106.73 kPa (Gauge)
Negative Pressure or Vacuum Measurement – P1 P2
P1 P2 = Atmospheric pressure
= Zero Gauge Pressure
= 101.325 kPa Absolute
Datum x x
Hg (Mercury) – Indicating fluid
E.g. Find P1 the gauge and absolute pressures when “h” is 500 mm of Hg .
P1 = P2 – (gh) P1 = 0 – (1000 13.6 9.81 0.5) 10–3 kPa
= – 66.71 kPa (Gauge)
= 101.325 – 66.71 (Absolute)
= 34.62 kPa Abs.
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Differential Pressure Measurement Using a Venturi and Manometer
The principle of the Venturi can be used for creating vacuum, e.g. air and brine ejectors, and
bilge and ballast eductors. The Venturi can also be used for measuring flow. An example of
using a Venturi combined with a Differential Pressure Manometer for measuring flow is
shown.
Fluid flow P1 P2
d2
d1 P1 P2
h
Datum x x
Hg (Mercury) – Indicating fluid
For the Left-hand leg: Pressure P at Datum Point = P1 + 1gd1
For the Right-hand leg: Pressure P at Datum Point = P2 + 1gd2 + 2gh
But pressure at the datum point is the same for both legs.
P1 + 1gd1 = P2 + 1gd2 + 2gh
P1 – P2 = 1gd2 – 1gd1 + 2gh
P = 1g(d2 – d1) + 2gh
P = – 1g(d2 –d1) + 2gh d2 –d1 is negative as d1 d2
P = – 1gh + 2gh h = (d2 – d1)
P = gh(2 – 1)
Where: P = the change in pressure in Pa (assuming base units are used)
h = the change in height of the fluid in the manometer in metres
1 = the density of the fluid flowing through the Venturi in kg/m 3
2 = the density of the fluid in the manometer in kg/m3
g = the gravitational force in N/kg
Note: When Mercury (Hg) is used in the manometer its relative density (Rd) is 13.6,
Water has a Rd of 1 therefore Mercury is 13.6 times denser than water.
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E.g. Water flows through a venturi connected to a differential manometer using mercury as
the indicating fluid. The difference in height of the mercury in the two legs is 226 mm and the
mercury in the right-hand leg is 200 mm below the centre line of the venturi, find the pressure
at the throat if the inlet pressure is 600 kPa.
(572.61 kPa)
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Differential Pressure Measurement Across a Filter Using a Manometer
Air flow P1 P2
Datum x x
Indicating fluid
e.g. coloured water
E.g. If P1 is 20 kPa and P2 is 5 kPa, find the height of the indicating fluid if it is:
a) coloured water;
b) oil with a relative density of 0.86;
c) mercury (Hg) with a relative density of 13.6.
Pressure at the datum in each leg must be equal. Neglecting the mass of the air.
a) P1 = P2 + (gh) h = P1 – P2 h = (20 – 5) 10–3
g (1000 9.81)
h = 1.53 m
b) P1 = P2 + (gh) h = P1 – P2 h = (20 – 5) 10–3
g (1000 0.86 9.81)
h = 1.78 m
b) P1 = P2 + (gh) h = P1 – P2 h = (20 – 5) 10–3
g (1000 13.6 9.81)
h = 0.113 m
h = 113 mm
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Eg 1. Fresh water flows through a smooth bore horizontal venturi meter which is
375 mm diameter at the entrance and 125 mm diameter at the throat. If the difference in
pressure between the two points is equivalent to 457 mm of head of , calculate the mass flow
of water in kg/s. (36.97 kg/s)
Eg 2. A sealed tank 1.8 m deep contains fresh water to a depth of 1.3 m below oil with an Rd
of 0.9 to a depth of 0.3 m. An open manometer filled with Hg is mounted with its horizontal
centre-line 200 mm above the base. The left leg has water 50 mm above the datum while the
open right leg has Hg 130 mm above the datum. Find the air pressure in the ullage space
and the pressure at the bottom. (3.41 kPa, 18.8 kPa)
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1. Fluid Jet Impinging on a Perpendicular Stationary Plate
Jet of Fluid
VJ
A Reaction Force “R”
Impulse Stationary Plate: VP = 0
Force “F”
VJ = velocity of jet in m/s VP = velocity of plate in m/s
De-acceleration of the jet imparts an impulse force on the plate. As the plate is stationary
there will be a reaction force equal to the impulse force but opposite in direction, i.e. the jet
effectively stops in the horizontal direction. It is assumed that the jet splits into two equal
streams at right angles to the plate but travelling in opposite directions, i.e. the jet produces
two vertical forces in opposite vertical directions therefore there is zero side thrust on the
plate.
De-acceleration “a” = V a = VJ – VP For 1 sec.: a = VJ – VP
t t
F = ma Impulse Force F = m(VJ – VP) but VP = 0
F = mVJ (N)
Mass Flow per Second: m = Volume/s (m3/s kg = kg/s)
= A VJ m3
F = A VJ VJ
F = AVJ2 (N) Where: A = Area of jet in m2
= density in kg/m3
Note: this formula is only for a stationary plate with a perpendicular jet
E.g. A 25 mm diameter jet of fresh water impinges on a stationary plate held perpendicular to
the jet. If the mass flow of the jet is 5 kg/s, find the reaction force required to keep the plate
stationary.
Reaction Force = Impulse Force but opposite in direction
F = ma a = VJ – VP For 1 sec: a = VJ (VP = 0)
t
or F = mV/s m = AV
F = 5 10.19 (kgm/s2 = N ) V= m V= 54
= 50.93 N A 0.0252 1000
V = 10.19 m/s
Alternatively:
F = AVJ2 F = 1000 0.0252 10.192 = 50.93 N
4
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2. Fluid Jet Impinging on an Inclined Stationary Plate
Force Normal to Plate Inclined Stationary Plate:
FN VP = 0
Jet of Fluid
VJ Angle of Plate
A Inclination
Reaction Force “R”
Impulse
Force “F” Lateral Thrust “T”
The jet impinging on the inclined stationary plate produces a force in the direction of the jet
as well as a force perpendicular to the jet, i.e. lateral thrust “T”. To keep the system in
equilibrium, the reaction force has to be inclined at angle “”, i.e. the reaction force is a vector
quantity equal to, but opposite in direction to, the force normal “F N”.
V1 is the velocity of the jet perpendicular to the plate. VP = 0
V1 R = FN = mV1 V1 = VJ Cos VP = 0
= mVJ Cos
VJ
F Nx = the horizontal component of F N effective
FN force (in the same direction as the jet).
T = FNy
F Ny = the vertical component of FN, i.e. lateral
FNx thrust “T”
If the plate was a blade on a simple turbine rotor, force F Nx would produce useful torque
while force FNy would produce large end thrust on the thrust bearing.
E.g. A 25 mm diameter jet of fresh water impinges on a stationary plate inclined at 30 to
the jet. If the mass flow of the jet is 5 kg/s, find:
a) the force normal to the plate;
b) the effect force in the direction of the jet;
c) the lateral thrust.
a) FN = mVJCos
= 5 10.19 Cos30
= 44.1 N
b) FNx = FNCos
= 44.1 Cos30
= 38.2 N
c) FNy = FNSin
= 44.1 Sin30
= 22.1 N
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3. Fluid Jet Impinging on a Perpendicular Stationary Plate
Moving Away from Jet
Jet of Fluid Reaction Force “R”
VJ
A
Impulse Plate Velocity: VP
Force “F”
The plate is moving away from the jet therefore the velocity of the jet impinging on the plate is
reduced, i.e. V/s = (VJ – VP)
Impulse Force F = ma
= mV/s
= m(VJ – VP) (F = m Relative Velocity)
Also because the plate is moving away from the jet, the mass of fluid impinging on the plate
per second is reduced. The mass impacting the plate is found from:
m = A(VJ – VP) (m = A Relative Velocity)
F = m(VJ – VP) Substituting for “m”
F = A(VJ – VP)2 (N) (F = AV2)
E.g. A 25 mm diameter jet impinges on a perpendicular plate moving away from the jet at 4
m/s. If the flow rate is 5 kg/s, find the force exerted on the plate.
F = A(VJ – VP)2
F = 1000 0.0252 (10.19 – 4)2
4
F = 18.6 N
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4. Fluid Jet Impinging on a Perpendicular Stationary Plate
Moving Towards the Jet
Jet of Fluid Reaction Force “R”
VJ
A
Impulse Plate Velocity: VP
Force “F”
The plate is now moving towards the jet therefore the velocity of the jet impinging the plate is
increased, i.e. V/s = (VJ + VP)
Impulse Force F = ma
= mV/s
= m(VJ + VP) (F = m Relative Velocity)
Also because the plate is moving towards the jet, the mass of fluid impinging on the plate per
second is increased. The mass impinging the plate is found from:
m = A(VJ +VP) (m = A Relative Velocity)
F = m(VJ + VP) Substituting for “m”
F = A(VJ + VP)2 (N) (F = AV2)
E.g. A 25 mm diameter jet impinges on a perpendicular plate moving towards the jet at 4 m/s.
If the flow rate is 5 kg/s, find the force exerted on the plate.
F = A(VJ + VP)2
F = 1000 0.0252 (10.19 + 4)2
4
F = 98.8 N
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BERNOULLI'S EQUATION
Bernoulli's Equation applies the conservation of energy principle to fluid flow and it is based
on the following assumptions:
1. The fluid is incompressible, i.e. a liquid, and therefore there will be no change
in volume or density. No change in volume means no work is done by compression
or expansion of the fluid. W = 0.
2. The fluid has zero viscosity and therefore there is no internal friction.
3. The temperature of the fluid is constant therefore there is no change in internal
energy. U = 0.
4. There is no heat energy transferred into or out of the system. Q = 0.
Values calculated using Bernoulli's Equation are theoretical values neglecting losses.
From the general energy equation:
Energy Before = Energy After
KE1 + PE1 + U1 + P1V1 Q = KE2 + PE2 + U2 + P2V2 W
but U1 = U2 ; Q = 0; W=0
KE1 + PE1 + P1V1 = KE2 + PE2 + P2V2 Volume “V” = m
½mv12 + mgh1 + P1m = ½mv22 + mgh2 + P2m
½v12 + gh1 + P1 = ½v22 + gh2 + P2 (mass cancels)
v12 + h1 + P1 = v22 + h2 + P2 (divide by g)
2g g 2g g (and rearrange)
v12 + P1 + h1 = v22 + P2 + h2
Bernoulli's Equation: 2g g 2g g
(Modified)
Where: v = velocity in metres per second (m/s)
P = pressure in Pascal (N/m2)
h = height in metres (m)
g = gravitational force - 9.81 Newtons per kilogram (N/kg)
= density of fluid in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3)
Note: the units for Bernoulli's Equation as shown are in metres, i.e. each part of the equation
represents an equivalent head in metres, e.g. v12 = m2 x kg x s2 = metres
2g s2 x kg x m
v2 = Velocity Head; P = Pressure Head; h = Potential Head (due to height)
2g g
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1. A horizontal venturi meter with a throat diameter of 50 mm is inserted into a 75 mm
diameter pipe. When fresh water flows through the meter the velocity and pressure upstream
are 4 m/s and 45 kPa respectively. Find the theoretical velocity and pressure at the throat.
(9 m/s; 12.5 kPa)
2. A horizontal pipe 50 mm in diameter is fitted with venturi tube having a throat diameter of
40 mm. When fresh water flows through the meter the velocity and pressure upstream of the
throat are 3 m/s and 30 kPa respectively. Find:
a) the mass flow; (5.89 kg/s; 4.69 m/s; 23.5 kPa)
b) the theoretical velocity at the throat;
c) the theoretical pressure at the throat.
3. Fresh water flows down a sloping pipe which has one end 1.3 meters above the other. The
pipe section tapers from 0.9 m diameter at the top end A to 0.45 m diameter at the lower end
B. The flow rate of water is 9 tonnes/minute.
Find the difference in pressure between A and B. (12.3 kPa)
4. Fresh water flows upwards in a pipe inclined at 30 to the horizontal. The pipe reduces in
diameter through a tapered section 4 metres long having an entry diameter of 500 mm and
an exit diameter of 440 mm. The pressure and velocity at entry to the tapered section are
45 kPa and 5.6 m/s. Find the theoretical pressure at the exit from the taper. (14.9 kPa)
5. The diameter of a pipe tapers gradually in the direction of water flow as the level drops 9 m
from point A to point B. At A the gauge pressure is 210 kPa and the pipe diameter 200 mm;
at B the diameter is 100 mm. Find the pressure at B when the flow rate is 72 litres per
second. Assume fresh water and neglect losses. (259 kPa)
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ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE
SUBMERGED BODIES
When a mass is submerged there will be an apparent loss of weight caused by the upthrust
produced by the liquid. The upthrust is equal to the volume of the mass (volume of liquid
displaced) multiplied by the density of the liquid.
The 'Weight' of a Submerged Body = Weight in Air Volume of Liquid Displaced
E.g. 1 A solid steel block with a volume of 1.2 m3 is suspended from a crane. Given the
density of steel is 7.86 t/m3, find the tension in the crane cable when the block is:
a) suspended in air; (9.432 t)
b) submerged in sea water having a density of 1.025 t/m3. (8.202 t)
FLOATING BODIES
A floating body displaces a mass of the liquid, in which it floats, equal to the mass of the
body. For equilibrium the forces acting downwards must equal the forces acting upwards.
Displacement = the upthrust produced by the liquid
(Mass of Vessel)
Displacement = Underwater Volume Density of Liquid
= (tonnes)
where: = the displacement of the vessel in tonnes (t)
= the underwater volume in cubic metres (m3)
= the density of the liquid in tonnes per cubic metre (t/m3)
Note: The underwater volume is sometimes referred to as the displacement volume
Eg.1 A box barge 20 m in length, having a beam of 6 m, has a displacement of
175 tonnes when floating at an even keel draught in sea water of standard
density.
Find a) the draught of the vessel,
b) the new draught if a cargo having a volume of 80 m3 and a density of
1.6 t/m3 is loaded.
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LOSSES IN PIPING SYSTEMS
HEAD LOSS IN PIPING
The head losses caused by friction in piping can be estimated using Darcy's equation which
is as follows:
Darcy's Equation: HL = L v2 (metres)
2dg
Where: HL = head loss in metres (m)
= frictional coefficient (no units)
L = the length of pipe in metres (m)
v = the average velocity of fluid flow in metres per second (m/s)
d = the diameter of the pipe in metres (m)
g = gravitational force - 9.81 Newtons per kilogram (N/ kg)
HEAD LOSS IN PIPE FITTING
The head losses caused by friction in pipe fittings can be estimated by the "K factor" method
using the following equation:
HL = K v2 (metres)
2g
Where: HL = head loss in metres (m)
K = head loss factor which depends on the type of fitting (no units)
v = the average velocity of fluid flow in metres per second (m/s)
g = gravitational force - 9.81 Newtons per kilogram (N/ kg)
Charts and tables provide K factor for various pipe fittings eg. bends, elbows, unions, Tees,
sudden enlargements or contractions, gate valves, globe valves, check valves etc.
E.g. 1. A piping system consists of the following:
60 m of 100 mm diameter pipe: = 0.0225
1 foot valve: K=2
4 elbows: K = 0.9 } (Note K is for each fitting
4 unions: K = 0.05 } Total K = K x No. fittings)
2 gate valves one open K = 0.2
one ½ closed K=5
1 sudden enlargement K=1
Determine the head loss through the system when the flow rate is 20 litres/second.
(8.45 m)
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PUMPS - FLUID POWER
Frictional head loss in metres head
Fluid flow HL (m)
KE
PE
PV
} Before Pump
KE
PE After
PV
}
Energy transferred by pump
H (m)
to fluid in metres head
The pump increases the pressure head as it transfers energy to the fluid. The energy
transferred to the fluid can be represented by "H" metre increase in the pressure head.
Energy Transferred = mgH
Fluid Power = mgH H = Power (metres)
mg
Where: m = the mass flow in kg/s
g = the gravitational force - 9.81 N/kg
H = the pressure head transferred by the pump metres
Modified Bernoulli's Equation
Bernoulli's Equation can be modified to include the pressure head "H" transferred to the fluid
by the pump. The frictional head losses in the piping and fittings "H L" can also be included.
v12 + P1 + h1 + H = v22 + P2 + h2 + HL
2g g 2g g
Where: v = velocity in metres per second (m/s)
P = pressure in Pascal (Pa or N/m2)
h = height in metres (m)
g = gravitational force - 9.81 Newtons per kilogram (N/kg)
= density of fluid in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3)
H = the pressure head transferred by the pump metres (m)
HL = the total friction head losses for the piping and fittings
in metres (m)
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Pump Efficiency ""
= Output 100% = Fluid Power 100%
Input 1 Input Power 1
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
Vector Diagram
S2 Where:
Vw S2–Vw r1 = impeller inlet radius
Outlet Vector V1 = radial velocity of fluid
Diagram 2 Vr1 = relative velocity of fluid at inlet
V2 V1 Vr2 S1 = linear velocity of vanes at inlet
S2 2 1 = vane angle at inlet
1 r2 = impeller outlet radius
S1 Vr1
1 V2 = absolute velocity of fluid at exit
Inlet Vector Vr2 = relative velocity of fluid at exit
Diagram S2 = linear velocity of vanes at exit
V1 r1 r2 2 = vane angle at exit
Vw = velocity of whirl of fluid
S1
It is assumed that the CSA of the impeller is constant, i.e. the impeller is tapered, reducing in
width as the diameter increases, and therefore the radial flow velocity (V 1) is constant, i.e.
Width radius. Also it is assumed that the fluid at inlet only has radial velocity and that the
vanes are designed for shockless entry, i.e. the relative velocity at inlet (Vr 1) has the same
angle as the vane inlet (1)
Tan 1 = V1 Tan 1 = V1 Width1 r1 = Width2 r2
S1 S2 – Vw
If the fluid enters without shock the fluid has zero tangential velocity at inlet. At exit the
tangential velocity is Vw . If “m” represents the mass flow of fluid per second, then the
tangential momentum imparted to the water is mV w.
Theoretical Power = = Force Distance per second
= Tangential Momentum Linear Velocity of Impeller
P = mVw S2 (kg/s m/s m/s = kgm/s2 m/s = Nm/s = W)
Pump Power = mgH Where: m = mass flow in m/s
g = gravitational force in N/kg
H = head of fluid in metres
Theoretical Increase in Pump Head: mgH = mV wS2 = Actual Head
Theoretical Head
H = VwS2
g
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E.g. The outer and inner diameters of a centrifugal pump impeller are 450 mm and 150 mm
respectively, and the width of the impeller is 40 mm. When running 500 rpm it discharges 6.8
m3/minute against a head of 8 m. The angle of the vanes at exit is 45 and the water enters
the vanes without shock, calculate:
a) the width of the impeller at inlet; (120 mm)
b) the angle of the vanes at inlet; (27 2)
c) the theoretical head and the efficiency (11.74 m; 68.16%)
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SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)
SHM exists when the displacement-time, velocity or acceleration graph for a body in constant
oscillating motion produces a sine or cosine wave. Examples of SHM are a pendulum, a
vibrating body, and a plunger or similar mechanism driven by eccentric motion not involving a
connecting rod. A reciprocating engine piston closely approximates SHM. The greater the
stroke/bore ratio the closer the engine piston movement resembles SHM.
An Eccentric Cam Imparting SHM to a Plunger
V = 0; a = max.
V = max; a = 0 +x = r V = max; a = 0 V = max; a = 0
-x = r V = 0; a = max.
Plunger
Eccentric
r
1. Mid Stroke - 0 2. Top of Stroke - 90 3. Mid Stroke - 180 4. Bottom of Stroke - 270 5. Mid Stroke - 360
The plunger shown above moves with linear SHM about the point of mid stroke. The plunger
completes one complete cycle as the eccentric rotates through one revolution, 360, or 2
radians. The stroke of the plunger equals 2r, therefore if "x" is the displacement of the
plunger and "r" is the radius of the eccentric, then the maximum displacement of the plunger
from the mid-point is when x = r. The maximum displacement of the plunger from the mid-
point is called the amplitude. The plunger displacement-time graph is shown below
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Displacement - Time Graph for a Plunger
Mechanism Producing SHM
+x
A= r Amplitude "A"
1 x 2 3 4 5 Plunger
Displacement Position
0
from Mid Point
0 90 180 270 360
Sine Wave
-x
1 Cycle (1 Revolution of the Eccentric)
1
Periodic Time "tp" in Seconds =
Frequency (Hz)
tp = 1 (seconds)
f
When the displacement and the acceleration relative to the midpoint are plotted on a graph
they follow a sine wave form. A plot of the velocity would follow a cosine wave form.
Note: when SHM exists, the acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement ie.
ax a1 = x1
a2 x2
Amplitude "A"
The maximum displacement from the mid-point is called the amplitude "A" and is measured
in millimetres or radians. Therefore at the ends of the stroke A = r, ie. at 90 and 270:
A = r = x.
Displacement "x"
The displacement "x" is the distance the body is from mid-point at any time and for a sine
wave, can be found from: x = r Sin , where equals an angle in degrees between 0 and
360, ie. one revolution of the eccentric or one complete cycle.
If x = r Sin then: When = 0, x = 0; when = 90 x = r = A; when = 180, x = 0;
when = 270, x = r = A; when = 360, x = 0; when = 30, x = r Sin 30 = 0.5r.
Periodic Time "tp"
The periodic time is the time required to complete 1 cycle. It is the time for the plunger to
move up from the mid-point to TDC, travel down to BDC and return to the midpoint again.
Frequency "f"
The frequency is the number of cycles completed per second. Frequency is measured in
Hertz (Hz) ie. cycles per second.
____ ____
a = 2 r = a 1 a
2 x
f = 2 f= (Hz)
x
Relationship between Periodic Time and Frequency
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tp = 1 (s) f = 1 (Hz)
f tp
Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagram for SHM
2
Vy
Top: V = 0; a = max. 90 V 2 r ay
3
Q
P
1
+a x -a
r
Mid point
180 0 V = max.
O a=0
r2 x2
-a +a
Bottom: V = 0; a = max. 270
For the preceding diagram, if we consider point "P" at radius "r" rotating about "O" with an
angular velocity of "" radians per second, with the point "Q" being where a horizontal line
through "P" intersects the vertical diameter, then Q will move along that diameter with SHM.
The displacement for P will follow a sine wave in the vertical plane and a cosine wave in the
horizontal plane ie. the vertical displacement of Q about the midpoint follows a sine wave.
The following formula are based on the sine wave.
For angular motion of point P:
V = r (m/s) and Centripetal Acceleration = 2 r (rads/s2), are constant.
Also = r (rads)
For the point Q moving along the vertical diameter with SHM:
Displacement from O: x = r Sin (triangle 1),
x = vertical component of r)
x = r Sin t ( t = rads/s s = rads)
Vertical component of Velocity "Vy": Vy = V Cos (triangle 2)
Vy = r Cos (V = r)
______
Cos = r x
2 2
but
r
______
V =rr x
y 2 2
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r
______
Vy = r2 x2
Vertical component of Centripetal Acceleration " 2 r":
ay = 2 r Sin (triangle 3)
ay = 2 r Sin t
ay = 2 x (x = r Sin t)
SHM Formula
For SHM in a plane at right angles to the mid-point (or 0) axis and producing the sine wave
for displacement and acceleration, the following formula apply.
Displacement "x" x = r Sin (m)
x = r Sin t (m)
Linear Velocity "V"
(perpendicular to r) V=r (m/s)
Linear Velocity "Vy" Vy = V Cos (m/s)
(perpendicular to axis)
Vy = r Cos (m/s)
__________
Vy = r2 x2 (m/s)
____
Angular Velocity "" =a (rad/s)
x
Acceleration "a" a = 2 r Sin (m)
(perpendicular to axis)
a = 2 x (m)
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Periodic Time "tp" tp = 1 (s)
f
tp = 2
(s)
___
tp = 2 x (s)
a
Frequency "f" f= 1 (Hz)
tp
(Hz)
f = 2
____
f= 1 a (Hz)
2 x
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SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION & SPRING SYSTEMS (from Reed’s)
If a mass is fixed to the end of a spring & then lowered gently so that the spring accepts the
mass gradually, the spring will stretch to an amount of static deflection & remain motionless.
If this arrangement is now disturbed by pushing the mass up or down, the spring/mass
combination will vibrate in a vertical direction in a simple harmonic form.
Instead of allowing the spring to gradually take up the load, imagine the mass is fixed to the
spring & then suddenly released. At the instant of release the spring is carrying none of the
weight & the mass will begin to fall with an acceleration g because the accelerating force is
the weight of the mass. At any instantaneous position of the mass between the beginning of
its fall & the position of static deflection the spring carries a portion of the load proportional to
its stretch with the remainder of the load causing acceleration & this is proportional to the
displacement from
the mid-travel point as illustrated above. At the point of static deflection the spring carries the
full weight of the mass. Therefore there is none available to create acceleration & therefore it
passes this point with no acceleration but with maximum velocity.
Up to this point the work done to stretch the spring, or the energy absorbed by the spring, is
equal to the average force multiplied by the distance = 1/2mg x deflection, but the potential
energy lost by the mass in falling this distance is mg x deflection. The difference between the
potential energy lost & the energy absorbed by the spring is converted into kinetic energy
which carries the mass an equal distance beyond the normal static deflection until, at the
bottom of its travel, the spring is stretched to twice its normal amount.
So the instantaneous effect of a suddenly-applied load on anybody, spring or solid bar is to
strain the material to twice what it would be if the same load was gradually applied, causing
twice the normal stress.
Let the normal static deflection = ξ metres.
At the instant the mass is first placed on the spring hook:
Displacement from mid-travel = ξ metres
Acceleration = g m/s2
Applying the expression,
Periodic time of oscillation t = 2π √(displacement/acceleration)
t = 2π√(ξ/g) seconds
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Compare this with the expression for the periodic time of oscillation for a simple pendulum &
you can see that ξ which is the normal static deflection in metres takes the place of l which is
the length of the pendulum in metres.
So the periodic time of a helical spring is the same as a simple pendulum whose length is
equal to static deflection of the spring.
Example: A helical spring stretches one mm for every 1.4 newtons of axial force. If a mass of
10kg is hung on the end & set vibrating, find the periodic time of one oscillation & the number
of oscillations made per minute.
Weight of mass = 10 x 9.81 = 98.1 N
Static deflection = 98.1 = 70.07mm
1.4
t = 2π√(ξ/g) = 2π√(0.0707/9.81)
= 0.531 seconds
Frequency = 60 = 113 oscillations/min
0.531
The Effect of the Mass of the Spring.
The end coil of the spring adjacent to the load hook moves at the same velocity as the load,
but the velocity of the other coils is lower, in proportion to their distance from the fixed end. It
can be shown that the effect of the mass of the spring is equivalent to one third of its mass if
relocated to the hook end. This must be taken into account when the mass of the spring is
such as not to be negligible in comparison with the load that it carries.
Example: The mass of a helical spring is 0.7kg & it deflects one mm for every 0.35 N of axial
force. Calculate the value of the mass to be hung on the end of the spring so that it will make
90 oscillations/min.
Let m = equivalent mass (kg) on end of spring to give 90 oscillations/min.
Weight of mass = mg newtons
Static deflection = m x 9.81 metres
0.35 x 103
Frequency = 90 oscillations/min
Therefore, periodic time = (60/90) = 2/3 seconds
t = 2π√(ξ/g)
2/3 = 2π√((m x 9.81)/(0.35 x 103 x 9.81))
m = 22 x 0.35 x 103
32 x 2 2 x π 2
= 3.941 kg
Mass to hang on end = 3.941 – 1/3 of 0.7
= 3.941 – 0.233
= 3.708 kg
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LIFTING MACHINES
Various machines are available to allow heavy loads to be lifted with a relatively small applied
force or effort, e.g. rope pulleys, screw jacks, chain blocks, hydraulic jacks etc.
The work input to a machine can never be less than the work output, in fact slightly more
work has to be put in to overcome friction losses and “windage”.
Work Input = Work Output + Work Done Overcoming Friction
Work Output = Work Input Work Done Overcoming Friction
Work Input
Work Input = Effort x Distance Effort Moves
Work Output
Work Output = Load x Distance Load Moves
Velocity Ratio (VR)
The ratio of the distance the effort moves to the distance the load moves is called the velocity
ratio:
Distance Effort Moves
Velocity Ratio VR = Distance Load Moves
The velocity ratio of a particular machine is a constant for that mechanism.
Mechanical Advantage (MA)
The mechanical advantage of a machine is used to express the ratio of the effort put in to the
load lifted:
Mechanical Advantage MA = Load
Effort
Efficiency ()
The efficiency of a machine is expressed as a percentage and is a ratio of the work output to
the work input.
Efficiency = Work Output
Work Input.
= Load x Distance Load Moves x 100 %
Effort x Distance Effort Moves 1
but
Distance Effort Moves
Mechanical Advantage = Load and Velocity Ratio = Distance Load Moves
Effort
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Mechanical Advantage
Efficiency = Velocity Ratio
MA
= VR
Rope Pulley Blocks (Block and Tackle)
Block A Block B
Load
Effort
For rope pulleys the velocity ratio is equal to the number of ropes supporting the load block.
For the block shown the velocity ratio is 5. If block A and B were reversed the velocity ratio
would be 4. When lifting the velocity ratio is equal to the number of pulleys in the blocks.
E.g. a) A block tackle is used to drag a mass of 500 kg across a deck. The coefficient of
friction between the deck and the mass is 0.3 and the efficiency of the blocks is 80%. If the
blocks have two pulleys in each block find:
i. the effort required if the effort is applied in the opposite direction to the movement of
the load.
ii. the effort required if the effort is applied in the same direction as the movement of
the load.
b) Find the effort required if the mass is then lifted vertically with the effort applied
downwards..
a) i. Friction Force = N = the load on the hook when dragging the load
= Mg
Velocity ratio is 4 when the effort is applied in the opposite direction to the movement of the
load.
MA x 100
= VR 1 %
Load
0.8 = Effort X VR
Mg
0.8 = Effort x 4
Effort = 0.3 x 500 x 9.81
0.8 x 4
Effort = 459.8 N
ii. Velocity ratio is 5 when the effort is applied in the same direction as the movement of the
load.
Effort = 0.3 x 500 x 9.81
0.8 x 5
Effort = 367.9 N
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b) The velocity ratio is 4 when lifting the load (effort moves in opposite direction to the load),
4 pulleys and therefore four rope supporting the load block.
Mg
0.8 = Effort x 4
500 x 9.81
Effort = 0.8 x 4
Effort = 1532.8 N
Axle and Wheel
Wheel
Axle
Axle
d r
D
Crank
Handle
Load Load
Effort
Firure 1 Figure 2
Referring to Figure 1, for one revolution:
VR = Distance Moved by Effort
Distance moved by Load
=D
d
= D = R
d r
Referring to figure 2, the axle and crank handle is a similar machine to the wheel and axle.
VR = L
r
where: L = the length of the crank handle
r = the mean radius of the rope coil
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Snatch Blocks
Fixed Lifting Rope
A snatch block can be used to connect a lifting machine to the load. If the lifting rope moves 2
metres then the load moves 1 metre.
Using a snatch block with a lifting machine doubles the velocity ratio.
Worm and Worm Wheel
Worm and Worm Wheel
D
Load
Effort
For 1 revolution of the load axle and assuming a single start worm:
Distance moved by the effort = DN where: N = the number of teeth in the wheel
Distance moved by the load = d
VR = DN VR = DN
d d
If a snatch block is used: VR = 2DN
d
Screw Jack
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L
For a single start thread and for one revolution of the thread:
VR = Distance effort moves = 2L
Distance load moves Pitch
Warwick Screw (Bottle Screw)
LH Thread RH Thread
2L
VR = Pitch RH + Pitch LH
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Hydraulic Jack
L1
Load "W" Effort
L2
a = area of actuating piston
Oil Reservoir A = area of load piston
a
A
Hydraulic Fluid
Volume displaced by actuating piston = Volume created by load piston movement
Area of actuating piston x its stroke = Area of load piston x its stroke
a x stroke 1 = A x stroke 2
stroke 1 = A = 4D2 = D2
2
stroke 2 a 4d2 d
2
VR = D2 L1
d L2
E.g. A hydraulic jack has a load piston 50 mm diameter and a actuating piston of 12 mm
diameter. The operating lever has a total length of 200 mm and the pivot point is 15 mm from
the actuating piston. Find the effort required to lift a load of 20 kN if the jack has an efficiency
of 85%.
Effort = W = W d2 x L2
x VR x D2 L 1
2 x 0.015
= 20000 x 0.012
0.85 x 0.052 x 0.200
= 101.65 N
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SI Units
Length (l): Basic Unit:- metre (m)
Multiples:- decimetre (dm):- 1/10 of a metre = 0.1 m = 10-1 m.
centimetre (cm):- 1/100 of a metre = 0.01m = 10-2 m.
millimetre (mm): - 1/1000 of a metre = 0.001 m = 10-3 m.
micro metre (m):- 1/1000,000 of a metre = 0.000001 m = 10-6 m.
Kilometre (km):- 1000 metres = 103 m = 1 km.
Area (A): Basic Unit:- square metre (m2)
1 m2 =100 dm2 = 10,000 cm2 = 1,000,000 mm2
Conversion:-
cm2 to m2 = cm2 x10-4 i.e. m2 by 10,000 or x by 0.0001.
m2 to cm2 = m2 x104 i.e. x m2 by 10,000 or by 0.0001.
mm2 to m2 = mm2 x10-6 i.e. m2 by 1,000,000 or x by 0.000001.
m2 to mm2 = m2 x106 i.e. x m2 by 1000,000 or by 0.000001.
Volume(V): Basic Unit:- cubic metre (m3)
1 m3 =1000 dm3 = 1000,000 cm3 = 1,000,000,000 mm3
=103 dm3 = 106 cm3 = 109 mm3
3
1000 litres (l) = 1 m
1 litre = 1000 ml = 1000 cm3 (cc) 1cc = 1 ml
Conversion:-
cm3 to m3 = cm3 x10-6 i.e. m3 by 1,000,000 or x by 0.000001.
m3 to cm3 = m3 x106 i.e. x m3 by 1000,000 or by 0.000001.
mm3 to m3 = mm3 x10-9 i.e. m3 by 1,000,000,000 or x by 0.000000001.
m3 to mm3 = m3 x109 i.e. x m3 by 1,000,000,000 or by 0.000000001.
Time (t): Basic Unit:- second (s)
60 s = 1 minute (min.) = 1 hour (h).
Temperature (T): Basic Unit:- degrees Celsius (C)
(datum based on the "freezing point" of water.)
Other Scales: Kelvin (K) - based on datum of absolute zero and with the same
increments per degree as the Celsius scale.
Conversion: absolute zero occurs at approximately 273 C, therefore:
Kelvin = Celsius + 273 (K = C +273)
i.e. water freezes at 273 K and boils at 373 K.
Mass (m): Basic Unit:- kilogram (kg)
Multiples:- milligram (mg) = 1/1000,000 of a kg = 0.000001 kg = 10-6 kg.
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gram (g) = 1/1000 of a kg = 0.001 kg = 10-3 kg.
tonnes (t) = 1000 kg = 103 kg.
Speed: Basic Unit:- metres/second ( m/s) Same units as velocity but without direction
Velocity (v): Basic Unit:- metres/second (m/s)
(usually with a particular direction given or understood)
Multiple:- kilometres/hour (km/h)
Conversion: 1 km/h = 1000 m/s = 0.278 m/s
3600
Note: Knots or nautical miles/hour, while not a SI unit is retained for ship speeds
1 nautical mile = 1852 m 1 knot = 1852 m/h = 1.852 km/h = 0.5144 m/s
Velocity is a vector quantity as it has both speed and direction.
Linear Acceleration (a):
Basic Unit:- metres/second squared (m/s2)
Definition:- a body is accelerating if it is changing its velocity ie. it is accelerating
if its speed or direction are changing..
Acceleration can be + or , i.e. increasing speed (accelerating ) or
decreasing speed (deceleration)
Angular Displacement ():
Basic Unit:- radian (rad)
(degrees, seconds and minutes are also used)
Definition:- 1 radian is the angular displacement of a point on the circumference of
a circle when it is rotates through a distance equivalent to 1 radius.
There are 2 radians in one revolution or 360, 1 radian = 57.3
Angular Velocity ():
Basic Unit:- radian second (rad/sec)
revolutions/minute (rpm) is also used.
Angular Acceleration ():
Basic Unit:- Radians/second squared (rad/s2)
Force (F): Basic Unit:- Newton (N)
Definition: a Newton is the force required to accelerate a mass of 1 kg at 1 m/s2.
Multiples: 1000 N = 1 kN ; 1,000,000 N = 1 MN ; 1,000,000,000 N = 1 GN
1000 kN = 1MN ; 1000 MN = 1 GN.
Fluid Pressure:
Basic Unit:- Pascal (Pa) = Newton/square metre (N/m2)
Multiples:- 1000 Pa = 1 kPa ; 1,000,000 Pa = 1 MPa
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Other Units: bar. 1 bar = 100,000 Pa (105 Pa) or 100,000 N/m2.
= 100 kPa or 100 kN/m2.
kilogram /centimetre squared (kg/cm2) - approximately = to 1 bar.
standard atmosphere (atm) = 1.01325 bar = 101.325 kPa
Definition:- pressure is the force per square metre created by a fluid acting on an area.
Force = Pressure x Area Pressure = Force Area
Work (W): Basic Unit:- Joule (J)
Definition:- Work energy is consumed when a force moves through a distance
ie Work = Force in Newtons x Distance in metres
W = F x D (Newtons x metres = Nm = Joules).
Multiples:- 1000 J = 1 kJ; 1,000,000 J = 1 MJ; 1000 kJ = 1 MJ
1000 Nm = 1 kNm; 1,000,000 Nm = MNm.
Heat Energy: Basic Unit:- Joule (J)
Work energy and heat energy are mutually convertible and therefore have the same units.
Power(P): Basic Unit:- Watt (W)
1 Nm/s= 1 J/s = 1 W
Definition:- Power is the rate at which energy is consumed, i.e. it is the work done
Per second. The same work done twice as fast requires twice the power.
Multiples: 1000 W = 1 kW; 1,000,000 W = 1 MW; 1000 kW = 1 MW.
Quantity: kilowatt hour (kWh) = 1 kW of power for 1 hour
= 1 kJ/s x3600
= 3600 kJ
Standard Gravitational Force (g):
Basic Unit:- Newtons/kilogram (N/kg)
Standard gravity exerts a gravitational force of 9.81N per kilogram.
Weight: Basic Unit:- Newton (N)
Weight = Mass x gravity
= mg (kg x N/kg = N)
Note: Weight is often expressed in mass units i.e. kilograms. Weight is a force and
therefore should be expressed in Newtons i.e. force units.
Mass Density ():
Basic Unit:- Kilogram/cubic metre (kg/m3)
Definition:- Density is the mass per unit volume.
Mass = Volume x Density
m =Vx
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Relative Density (Rd):
Basic Unit:- No Units - ratio only.
Definition:- The relative density of a substance is its mass divided by the mass of an
equal volume of water. Fresh Water has an Rd of 1.
Acceleration Due to Gravity:
Basic Unit:- Metres/second squared (m/s2).
Gravity will accelerate a body at 9.81 m/s2.
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COMMON GREEK LETTERS
Lower Case Upper Case Lower Case Upper Case
alpha lambda
beta mu
gamma pi
delta theta
epsilon rho
phi sigma
eta omega
PREFIX FOR SI UNITS
Prefix Symbol
T tera 1,000,000,000,000 10 12
G giga 1,000,000,000 10 9
M mega 1,000,000 10 6
k kilo 1000 10 3
h hecto 100 10 2
da deca 10 10 1
Base unit 1 10 0
d deci 0.1 10-1
c centi 0.01 10-2
m milli 0.001 10-3
micro 0.000001 10-6
n nano 0.000000001 10-9
p pico 0.000000000001 10-12
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USING POLAR/RECTANGULAR FUNCTIONS ON THE CALCULATOR
Polar Value: 100 kN at 30º (acting outwards)
+y
100 kN
o
30
x +x
y
Rectangular Components:
Rectangular Components of the polar value 100 kN at 30º:
100 kN
F V = 100 Sin 30o
o = 50 kN
30
F H = 100 Cos 30o
= 86.6 kN
FH (Fx) and FV (Fy) are the rectangular components of the force 100 kN at 30º.
The conversion of polar values to rectangular components and vice versa can be done on a
calculator using the Rec or PR function or the Pol or RP function depending on the
calculator.
Converting Polar Values to Rectangular Components (Rec)
The following procedure is for a Casio fx-82AU Plus calculator.
Using the polar value 100 kN at 30º, find its rectangular components.
Note 1: All forces should be treated as acting outwards from their point of application, i.e. are
positive, and all angles are measured anti-clockwise from the +x axis, again positive.
Note 2: All calculators are not the same, e.g. some calculators will require the use of the
Shift, 2nd Function, or Inverse button to carry out the process.
1. Press [Shift] and select “Rec” function by pressing the [] Minus button.
2. Enter the force, i.e. 100 kN on the display.
3. Press [Shift] and select “,” (separator) function by pressing the [)] Right Bracket button.
4. Enter the angle, i.e. 30º, and press [)] to close the brackets
5. Press [=] button to display the horizontal component (x component), i.e. +86.6025 kN, then
scroll right to display the vertical component (y component), i.e. +50 kN.
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Note: the ± sign indicates the direction of the force, in this case both positive.
Converting Rectangular Components Back to Polar Values: (Pol)
For the rectangular components: x = +86.6025 kN and y = + 50 kN:
1. Press [Shift] button and select “Pol” function by pressing the [+] Plus button.
2. Enter the horizontal component * (x component) of the force, i.e. +86.6025 kN on display.
3. Press [Shift] and select “,” (separator) function by pressing the [)] Right Bracket button.
4. Enter the vertical component (y comp.) +50 kN on the display
5. Press [=] button to display force, i.e. 100 kN, then scroll right to display angle, i.e.+30º #.
* Note 3 : the horizontal component (x component) must always be entered first followed
By the vertical component (y component).
#
Note 4 : the calculator may display the angle as a negative angle, i.e. the angle is
measured clockwise from the +x axis, i.e. +30º = 330º (and 30 º = + 330 º)
Exercise 1. Find the rectangular components of 150 kN at 210º (force acting outwards).
(Answer : 129.904 kN; 75 kN).
Exercise 2. Convert the rectangular components, x = 129.904 kN, y = 75kN, to their polar
form. (Answer : 150 kN at 150 i.e. 150 kN; +210).
Note: Force Acting Inwards:
An inward acting force should be treated as acting outwards from the point of application.
The force is then regarded as being positive. In the example below the 100 kN force is
treated as acting outwards and therefore it is considered positive, the angle is then measured
anticlockwise from the +x axis, i.e. +330, Note: an angle of 30could also be used, i.e.
measured clockwise.
+y
100 kN
o
30
x +x
o
+330
y
Components: H (x) V (y)
+86.6 50
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Note: the same components can be obtained by calling the inward acting force a "negative"
force and using an angle of +150, i.e. 180º 30º = 150º.
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