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EVERY DAY SCIENCE BY MISS MEHWISH

NADEEM
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THE UNIVERSE AND ITS COMPOSITION

Universe Totality of all matter and energy presently exists or has existed in both space and time.
Astronomy The study of the star, planets and space.
Astrology Astrology is the study of movement of stars
Cosmology The study of how the universe began, what it is made of and how it continues to evolve and change
is known as cosmology.

COMPOSITION OF UNIVERSE

Sr. # NAME %AGE DETAILS

1. Ordinary Matter 5 Ordinary Matter contains Hydrogen & Helium Gas, Star, Neutrino and
Heavy elements.
2. Dark Matter 23 Matters not visible to us because it emits no radiation that we can observe,
but it is detectable gravitationally.
3. Dark Energy 72 A mysterious (hypothetical) form of energy which is spread out uniformly
throughout space and which has anti-gravitational proper

DETAILS OF ORDINARY MATTER

 Hydrogen & Helium Gas:

Hydrogen & Helium are the most abundant elements in the universe.
 Star:
A ball of mostly hydrogen and helium gas that shines extremely brightly. Sun is a star.
 Neutrino:
A small particle that has no charge and is thought to have very little mass.
 Heavy elements:
Planets like Earth, Venus.
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THEORIES ABOUT ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE

Scientists have proposed different theories about the origin of universe, some of them are as under:
Sr .# NAME DETAIL
1. Creation Theory It states that the universe is created by God.
2. Big bang Theory  It is the most widely accepted. This theory state that the universe started as a big
ball in which the entire energy, force of nature, matter, and space were warped
up. 15 to 20 billion years ago, this ball exploded with a gigantic explosion known
as big bang. Since then the Universe is expending.
 Georges Lemaitre proposed this theory. According to big bang theory, life
of earth is 13.8 billion years.
 The echo of Big Bang can be heard in the form of microwave radio signals
called CMB (Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation)
3. Oscillating Theory In this theory it is assumed that there is continues expansion and contraction in
universe. The universe continues to expand and collapse.
4. Steady State  The theory was proposed by Sir Fred Hoyle.
Theory  It opposes the big bang theory. It states that universe had been in same condition
before and now.
 The theory stating that new matter is always created to fill the space left by
the universe.

MEASURING THE AGE OF UNIVERSE

Astronomers measure the age of universe in two ways.

i. By looking at the oldest stars.
ii. By measuring the rate of expansion of the universe and extrapolating back to the big bang.
The age of universe is 13 billion years.

ASTRONOMICAL UNIT (AU)

 One astronomical unit (AU) represents the mean distance between the Earth and our sun.
 An AU is approximately 93 million miles (150 million km). Therefore, astronomical unit is smaller than light
year.

GALAXY
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 Galaxy is grouping of million and billions of stars kept together by gravity.
 Shape of our Milky Way galaxy is spiral.
 'Milky Way' is the galaxy to which the solar system belongs
 Our galaxy Milky Way is shaped like a large thick concave lense with a large central bulge.
 Hubble Classification is a Classification of galaxies.

SOLAR SYSTEM

 The solar system is the only part of universe, which we can explore.
 It is made up of ONE STAR (Sun) EIGHT PLANETS (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune) and various lesser bodies, such as satellites, asteroids, comets and meteoroids.
 The age of earth is known to be 4.6 billion years and the solar system must be older than this.

1) SUN

 The Sun is a normal star, but it is the supreme controller of the solar system.
 The sun is the central and most important parts of the solar system.
 Sun is the star and star is stationery.
 Scientists estimate that it is 4.5 billion years old.
 It accounts for 99.8% of the mass of the entire solar system.
 Earth is about 150 million Km from the sun.

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

Sr. # CONSTANTS DETAILS

1. Mass 2x1030 (330,000 times that of earth)
2. Diameters 1.3914 Million KM which is 109 times that of earth
3. Mean Distance from earth 149.34 Million KM
4. Temperature 5500 centigrade
5. Average Density 1.4 g/Cm3

STRUCTURE OF THE SUN

Sr. # LAYERS OF SUN DETAILS

1. The Core  The temperature is tremendously high in the core of the sun.
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 Here the temperature is roughly 15 million Centigrade. At such a temperature
nuclear fusion reaction occurs.
2. The Photosphere  Photosphere is known as lower atmosphere of the sun. Its thickness is about
500 miles.
 Temperature in the photosphere is 5500 Centigrade.
3. The Chromosphere  Chromosphere is the reddish layer of the sun, which lies outside the photosphere.
Here the Temperature ranges from 600 Centigrade to 50,000°C.
 Its thickness is few thousand miles.
4. The Corona  The outer layer of the sun’s atmosphere is known as corona. It extends
millions of miles from sun’s surface.
 Temperature in this region is 1 million centigrade.

FISSION AND FUSION

Fission  In a fission nuclear reaction, a heavy nucleus breaks up into smaller nuclei.
 Nuclear Fission is the process that involves the breaking up of heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei.

Fusion  Two or more than two possibly nuclei are fused to form heavy nucleus. This nuclear reaction is
called Fusion Nuclear reaction.
 Nuclear fusion is the process when two lighter nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus.

2) PLANETS

 Our solar system comprises 8 planets.

 “Planet” here refers to all bodies revolving around the system.
 Earth is a planet and plant revolves around the sun.
 Moon is satellite and revolves around the earth
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 Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, and Mercury planets easily visible from earth

DETAILS OF INNER PLANETS

Inner planets are mostly made of rocks. They are much smaller as compared to outer planets.

Sr. # NAME DETAILS

1. Mercury  Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun and the smallest and fastest revolving
planet in the Solar System.
 It is a dead planet.
 Mercury and Venus are between the sun and earth.
 Orbital period of the plant mercury around the sun is 88 days.
 No moon.
2. Venus  Brightest, hottest, and slowest rotating planet.
 Crossed the face of the sun (in transit) after 122 years in this decade.
 Longest rotation time around its axis is 243 Earth days.
 It rotates East to West (all other planets rotate West to East).
 No moon.
3. Earth  Earth is the largest and densest of the inner planets, the only one known to have
current geological activity, and the only place where life is known to exist.
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 Watery planet and also Bios planet. 5 in size.
th

 Number of natural satellite orbiting around earth is 1, which is moon.

 One daylight of moon is equal to 15 days of earth.
4. Mars  Red planet. Mars is smaller than Earth and Venus.
 Mars has 2 moons

DETAILS OF OUTER PLANETS

Outer planets have ring around them. So, FOUR planets have ring.
Sr. # NAME DETAILS
1. Jupiter  Jupiter is 2.5 times the mass of all the other planets put together.
 Diameter of Jupiter is 11 times of earth’s diameter.
 Largest planet, fastest planet rotating planet.
 Largest no of satellites (Moon), total 95 moons.
 Smallest day time.
 105 times larger than earth.
 Shortest rotation time around its axis is 9.9 Earth hours.
2. Saturn  2nd largest planet, lightest planet also called ring planet.
 Saturn has 60% of Jupiter's volume. Saturn is the only planet of the Solar System that
is less dense than water. Floating on water due to less density than water.
 62 satellites (Moon), and largest of them is known as Titan. Titan is the only moon
which has its own atmosphere.
3. Uranus  Uranus is known as green planet.
 It has 27 moon.
4. Neptune  Neptune though slightly smaller than Uranus, is more massive (equivalent to 17
Earths) and hence denser.
 Coldest, slowest to move round the sun.
 Largest year, it takes 165 earth year to complete a single orbit.
 It has 13 moons, its biggest moon is Triton. Triton is the 6th largest in solar system.
5. Pluto  According to IAU Pluto has been stripped off the status of planets in 2006. Now our
solar system is consisted of only eight planets instead of nine

3) EARTH
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Earth

Crust Mantle Core

Oceanic Continental Upper Lower Outer Inner

CRUST

Crust is richer in silicon (silicon is called earth maker), less dense than mental. Earth's crust is between
(3 and 43.5) miles (5 and 70 km) deep. The thickest parts are under the continents and the thinnest parts are
under the oceans.

There are two different types of crust: oceanic crust and continental crust.

TYPES DETAILS
Continental crust It is under the land.
Oceanic crust It is under the ocean.
Mantel  Mental is denser then the crust as it comprises mainly manganese and iron.
 The mantle under the crust is about 1,800 miles deep (70_2,890 km), it is a thickest
layer of the earth.
 The mental can be divided into two portions, the upper mantle and the lower mantle.
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 The upper mantle is also known as the asthenosphere, the upper mantle is liquid rock, and
very hot.
 The upper mantle actually moves large areas of crust, called tectonic plates, very slowly.
 When tectonic plates move, they can form volcanoes, mountains, or earthquakes.1-2 cm
each year these tectonic plates move.
 The lower mantle is also known as Mesosphere.
Core  Core comprises iron and Nickel.
 Core is divided into two different zones.
 The inner core is solid and outer core is a liquid.
 Earth is made up of several difficult layers each with unique chemical composition and
physical properties.

PAST PAPER QUESTIONS

 Shape of earth is Elliptical.

 Total area of earth is 510,064,472 Sq. km.
 Temperature of earth about 2000 million year ago is freezing.
 First western scientist to suggest that the earth revolved around the sun was Nicolaus Copernicus.
 Total diameter is 12756 Km (Radius 6378).
 Al-Bairuni discovered the radius is 6338 Km of Earth.
 Circumference of the Earth is around 40, 075 KM.
 The earth revolves around the sun at a speed of 30 km / sec
 Earth's orbital speed averages 29.78 km/s (107,208 km/h; 66,616 mph),
 In the year 14000 A.D, due to the earth’s precession, the axis of rotation of earth will point towards Vega.
 The 3 compositional layers are Core, Mantle and Crust.

ROTATION AND REVOLUTION

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Revolution  In astronomy, revolution is used when body moves around another.
 For example, Moon revolves around the earth, and Earth revolves around the sun.
 Revolution refers to the movement of the earth around the sun.
 The earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical path. It revolves in a counter- Clockwise
direction. The revolution takes 365.25 days. To make things easy, the calendar assign 365
days to each year. This is the reason why every fourth year has 366 days. This is known as
a leap year. (Leap year is the year with an extra day).
 The earth revolves around the sun at a speed of 30 KM /sec or 1800 km per minute.
Rotation  In astronomy, Rotation is used to mean the movement of body around its own axis.
 For example rotation is the movement of the earth on it axis.
 The earth rotates in a west to east direction. One rotation takes approximately 24 hours (23 hours
56 mints 4 sec actual time) and it is the basis of the time system. Alteration of days and nights
apparent movement of stars, including the sun.

PAST PAPER QUESTIONS

 24 times zones have the world divided.

 On 3 January sun is closest to earth and on 3 July Sun is Farthest from Earth
 1.3 Second required by moon light to reach the earth.
 The time taken by Sun light to reach the Earth is 8 Minutes 20 Seconds
 Light travels from Sun to Earth in 499.0 Second.
 The distance between Earth and Moon is 384, 400 Km (Average distance)
 Moon complete a one revolution around earth in 27.322 days called Sidereal Month
 21 or 22 June is the longest day in a year
 On June 21, the sun is vertically overhead the tropic of Cancer.
 21 or 22 December is the shortest day of year
 Day and night equal on 23st Sep, and 21st march.
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SECTION I

BIOLOGY
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A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

Human Physiology: Human physiology mainly consists of FIVE levels of structural organization.

Sr.# LEVELS DETAILS

1. Cellular Level It is the simplest level of organization.
Cells are the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms.
Cells of varying size of and shapes carry out unique function in human body.
The examples include blood cells.
2. Tissue Level Group of similar cells performing a common function constitute a tissue.
There are four major types of tissue present in the human body. Connective tissue,
epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, and nerve tissue.
3. Organs Group of tissues having different function makeup on organ. Examples are lungs,
kidney, liver etc. largest internal organ is liver.
There are five vital organs, brain, heart, lungs, liver, and kidneys.
4. Organ System  One or more organs work together in harmony to form an organs system.
 Examples are circulatory system, urinary system.
5. Organisms  All the organ systems working together constitute an organism.
 Examples are human beings animals.
 There are different systems in the human body.

SYSTEM IN HUMAN BODY

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Cardiovascular
system

Immune Circulatory
System System

System in
Lymphatic Human Body Digestive
System System

Urinary Respiratory
System System

1) CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

Cardiovascular system consists of heart, blood vessels, and circulatory fluid (blood). Our bodies actually
have TWO circulatory systems:

PULMONARY CIRCULATION SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION

The pulmonary circulation is a short loop from the heart The systemic circulation (the system usually thinks of as our
to the lungs and back again. circulatory system) sends blood from the heart to all other
parts of our bodies and back again.

STRUCTURE & PHYSIOLOGY (FUNCTION) OF HUMAN HEART

Size of Heart The human heart is a muscular organ of the size of a clenched fist.
Function of Human Heart It pumps the blood into blood vessels, which transport oxygen to all the cells of the
human body. The oxygen is essential for the survival of these cells.
Chambers of human heart  The human heart has four chambers: the upper two Auricles of Atria and the
lower two ventricles. The whole heart is divided into left and right parts by a
wall made up of tissues called as septum.
 The right auricle/atrium receives deoxygenated blood from all over the body by
superior vena cava and inferior vena cava.
 From the right atrium/auricle, the blood passes on to the right ventricle.
 The right ventricle contracts and empties itself in to the Pulmonary artery.
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 Blood is then carried on to the lungs, from where it picks up oxygen.
 This oxygen rich blood is taken back to the left atrium by pulmonary veins.
 From here, the blood is passed on the left ventricle. The left ventricle empties itself
in the aorta, which branches into small arteries and transport blood to all part of the
body.
 After one circulation is completed, the blood loses all of its oxygen. This
deoxygenated blood is taken back to the right side of the heart by superior and
inferior vena cave the circulations continues.

VALVES

 There are FOUR valves limiting the direction of flow of blood to one side only.

VALVES DETAILS
Tricuspid Valve The one located between right atrium and right ventricle is the Right atrio-ventricular valve
also called as tricuspid valve, as it is made up of three flaps of tissues. It prevents the flow of
blood back to atrium during systole.
Bicuspid/mitral Left atrio-ventricular valve is called bicuspid/mitral valve because it contains two flaps of
Valve tissues. It prevents the flow of blood back to atrium during systole.
Pulmonary Valve Right semi-lunar valve is located between right ventricle and pulmonary artery and is called
as pulmonary valve.
Aortic Valve Left semi-lunar valve is located between left ventricle and aorta and is called as aortic valve.
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Average Heart beat  The closure of atrio-ventricular valve during systole produces a ‘lub’ sound and the
closure of pulmonary and aortic valves makes a ‘dub’ sound.
 This lub-dub together forms the heartbeat.
 A normal person has heart rate of 60-100 beats per minute. Average heart rate of an adult
human is 72 per min.

CAUSES OF HEART ATTACK

1. HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE:

 The excess strain and resulting damage from high blood pressure (Hypertension) causes the coronary
arteries serving the heart to slowly become narrowed from a buildup of fat, cholesterol and other
substance that together are called plaque. This slow process is known as ATHEROSCLEROSIS.
 As arteries harden with plaque, blood clots become more likely to form.
 When an artery becomes blocked due to an accumulation of plaque or a blood clot, the flow of blood
through the heart muscle is interrupted, starving the muscle of oxygen and nutrients.
 The damage or death of part of the heart muscle that occurs as a result is called a HEART ATTACK.

BLOOD

 Blood is the circulating fluid composed of different constituents. It transports nutrients to and from the cells.
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COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

Blood

Blood Formed
plasma Elements
(55%) (45%)

other platelets Red Blood

Cells White Blood
Protiens(7%) solutes Water(91.5%) 150,000- 4.8-5.4 5000-10000
(1.5%) 400,000 millions

Here is a brief description of blood components: plasma, blood cells, and platelets:

1) PLASMA

 PLASMA is a clear yellowish fluid portion of blood, which contains fibrin and other soluble clotting
elements.

2) BLOOD CELLS

 These are of two types: Red Blood Cells and White Blood Cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen.

Chart

Blood cells Number/ Size Life Function Deficiency Excess Site of

mm3 span production

Red blood 4.8-5.4 7-8 120 Transport Anemia Polycythemia Bone

cells millions micrometers days oxygen to marrow
in diameter the tissues
White blood 5000- 5-24 13-20 Defense & Leucopenia Leukemia Bone
cells 10,000 micrometers days Immunity marrow and
in diameter lymph nodes
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Platelets 150,000- 2-4 10 days Blood Thrombocy Thrombocytosis Bone
400,000 micrometers Clotting topenia marrow
in diameter

Blood Groups

i. A+, A- ii. AB+, AB-

iii. B+, B- iv. O+, O-
 Blood group O- universal donor.
 Blood group AB+ is universal recipient.


BLOOD PRESSURE (BP)

 “Pressure (force per unit area) exerted by the blood on the walls of blood vessels is called as blood pressure”.
 The blood pressure is the pressure of the blood is arteries.
 The systolic blood pressure (110-140 mmHg) is higher than the diastolic blood pressure (60-90mmHg).
 The standard value for blood pressure in human is 120/80 mmHg.
 Increased blood pressure value in humans is called as hypertension whereas decreased value of BP is called as
hypotension.

HEART BEAT RATE

Tachycardia Increased heart rate of more than 100 beats per minute is called as Tachycardia.
Bradycardia A slow heart rate of less than 60 beats per minute is called as Bradycardia.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The system, which helps in digestion of food, is called digestive system. Digestion generally involves:

Absorption –
extraction of Defection –
Ingestion –eating Digestion – break
nutrients from the removal of waste
food. down of food.
food into the products
blood.

 Digestive system consists of mouth (buccal cavity), salivary gland, pharynx, esophagus, stomach,
liver, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus.
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1) Buccal Cavity

 It comprises mouth, tongue, and teeth.

 Food enters mouth and is chewed by teeth.
 Mastication is also known as chewing of food.

2) Stomach

 Food from esophagus goes to stomach.

 Acid (HCI) in the stomach Kills Bacteria.
 Increased production of hydrochloric acid causes acidity leading to heartburn.

3) Small Intestine

 From stomach, food enters into small intestine.

 It is 7m long tube and consists of three parts: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Maximum digestion takes
place in small intestine.
 Digestion in small intestine depends on pancreas, liver, and gall bladder secretions.
 Pancreas: It is connected to duodenum and produces pancreatic juice.
 Liver: It acts as a filter for blood and metabolizes carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. It
produces bile.
 Gall Bladder: It stores and concentrates the bile that emulsifies (breaks down) the fats.
4) Large Intestine

 From small intestine, food enters large intestine. It is 1.5m long and consists colon, caecum, appendix, and
rectum.
 Most of the water is absorbed here which was secreted by glands.

5) Rectum:

Indigestible food or waste materials are stored here temporarily, to be ultimately removed out of the body.

6) Anus:

Indigestible food is expelled out from body through anus.

IMPORTANT ENZYMES OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

SITE SECRETION ENZYME FUNCTION

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Mouth Saliva Salivary amylase Saliva softness food and amylase digest starch in food
Stomach Gastric acid Pepsin and HCL HCI lowers pH, pepsin digests protein
Liver Bile Multiple enzymes Bile emulsifies fat
Pancreas Pancreatic juice Pancreatic amylase Amylase digest starch and lipase digest fast
and lipase

DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE

1. Appendicitis Inflammation of appendix

2. Hepatitis Inflammation of liver cells
3. Diarrhea Inability to absorb liquids, leading to watery stools
4. Constipation Excessive is absorption of fluid leading to dry, hard stools

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 Respiration includes:
 Inhalation__ intake of oxygen
 Exhalation ___ expulsion of carbon dioxide.
 Air is taken inside through upper airways (Nasal cavity, pharynx, and larynx) to lower airways
(trachea, bronchi, Bronchioles, and alveoli). The pathway of respiration is:

Oxygen-rich
Alveoli of
air from Nasal cavity Trachea Bronchi Bronchioles
Lungs
environment

CO2-rich air CO2-rich air

to Nasal Cavity Trachea Bronchi enters in Exchange of
environment Bonchioles O2 &CO2

 The Respiratory System helps you breathe.

 During inhalation, the human body breathes air, which is suck ed through the nasal cavity or the mouth.
Then it goes through the trachea (windpipe).
 The trachea divides into tubes called bronchi, which carry the air on to alveoli of each lung.
 The diaphragm pulls the oxygen down to the bronchi and into the lungs. Then, it goes into a million moist
air sacks (alveoli) which expand and contract like a sponge with water.
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 Oxygen from alveoli diffuses into blood capillaries and carbon dioxide from blood diffuses into alveoli and
is expelled out via expiration. Hence, blood is purified (oxygenated) and alveoli receive carbon dioxide
from the blood. Exhalation is due to elasticity of lungs due to which they relax expelling carbon –dioxide
gained from the blood.
 Lung is the lightest organ of the body.

PAST PAPER QUESTIONS

 The part of the body directly affected by Pneumonia is Respiratory system

 Lungs are situated in the thoracic cavity
 Diaphragm in human body assists in respiratory system
 22, 000 times human breathes in a day
 Human breathe 11000 liters of air (388 cubic feet) in a day
 Lungs are concerned with respiratory and excretory system
 The left lung has two lobes while the right lung has three lobes.

DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:

Sr. # DISORDERS CAUSES

1. Asthma Allergic disorder
2. Pneumonia Bactria, virus
3. TB Mycobacterium tuberculosis
4. Lung Cancer Smoking
5. Pulmonary Edema Exposure to certain toxins, heart problems, lung injury

NERVOUS SYSTEM

 The nervous system is the highway along which your brain sends and receives information about what is
happing in the body and around it.
 If the brain is like a central computer the control all the function of your body.
 It is a system that coordinates all body function and is composed of Neurons (Nerve Cells) and Neuroglia
(supporting cells). Because Neurons are extremely specialized cells that are essential to body function and
almost never reproduce, neuroglia are vital to maintaining a functional nervous system.

1) NEURON
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 Study of Neuron is called Neurology
Main Points  Neuron also known as nerve cells, communicate within the body by transmitting
electrochemical signal.
 Neuron consists of Soma (cell body) axons and dendrites (fibers).
Cell body Cell body is a simple cell like structure, consisting of cytoplasm and nucleus.
Axon  It is a long process with myelin sheath and conducts impulses away from the body.
 Long transmitting process called axons extends from the cell body to send signal onward to the
other neurons of effectors cells in the body.
Dendrites Mall tree-like structures called dendrites extend from the cell body to pick up stimuli from the
environment other neurons, or sensory receptor cells.

2) NEUROGLIA

 Neuroglia are supporting cells and supply nutrients to neurons that maintain its electric potential.
 Neuroglia also known as Glial Cells, acts as the “helper” cells of the nervous system.
 Each neuron in the body is surrounded by anywhere from 6 to 60 neuroglia that protect, feed and insulate the
neuron.

TYPES OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

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Hind brain
Nervous system
Brain
Mid barin
Central Nervous system
(bodys master control unit)
Spinal cord (colomn of Nerves
between brain & PNS) Forebrain
Peripheral nervous
System( body link to outside
world)

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The central nervous system is divided into two parts:

1. The brain (90%water) 2. The spinal cord.

BRAIN

The brain a soft, winkled organ that weight about 3 pounds, is located inside the cranial cavity where the bones
of the skull surround and protect it. The approximately 100 billion neurons of the brain form the main control
center of the body. The brain spinal cord together form the central nervous system (CNS), where information
is processed, and responses originate.

TYPES OF BRAIN

The brain is mainly divided in 3 regions (Forebrain, Mid brain, Hindbrain).

1. FOREBRAIN

Parts of fore brain are Thalamus, hypothalamus and cerebrum.

Thalamus Thalamus is involved in pain perception and consciousness (Sleep and awakening)
Hypothalamus Hypothalamus area of the brain is responsible for control of the body temperature. It also
controls feelings such as rage, pain, pleasure, and sorrow.
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Cerebrum  Cerebrum controls the listening, Writing and intelligence.
 In mammals, the part of the brain that has reached highest level of development and that
has enabled humans to grow their own crops, invent machines, develop language and art
is Cerebrum.
 In brain, the site for intelligence, memory, and emotion is present in Cerebrum.
 The surface of the cerebrum is called the cortex.

2. HIND BRAIN

The parts of Hind Brain are: MEDULLA OBLONGATA, CEREBELLUM, PONS

Medulla oblongata  Respiratory center is situated in Medulla oblongata.
 Blood pressure, heart rate, and swallowing also controlled by Medulla oblongata.
Cerebellum Cerebellum control the movement
Pons Pons is present on top of medulla. It assists medulla in controlling breathing.

3. MID BRAIN

 Midbrain lies between hindbrain and forebrain and connects the two.
 Mid brain controls the hearing and touch.

PAST PAPER QUESTIONS

 Average male brain weighs 49 ounces (1.4 kg)

 Average female brain weighs 44 ounces (1.25 kg)
 An average adult brain volume of 1260 cubic centimeters (cm3) for men and 1130 cm3 for women.
 The total number of bones in human’s skull 22
 Smallest gland in the human body is Pineal (Gland in brain)
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4. SPINAL CORD

 The spinal cord is part of the central nervous system (CNS) which extends caudally (towards lower limbs)
and is protected by the bony structure of the vertebral column.
 The spinal cord about 43 cm (17 inches) long in adult women and 45 cm (18 inches) long in adult
men and weight about 35-40 grams.

DISORDERS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

Sr. # DISORDERS DETAILS

1. Epilepsy Repeated seizures and fits
2. Brain tumor Tumor of brain,
3. Migraine Localized headache
4. Dementia Loss of memory

URINARY SYSTEM

 It is the system responsible for the elimination of nitrogenous waste such as urea and uric acid in urine.
 The body takes nutrients from food and converts them to energy. After the body has taken the food components
that it needs, waste products are left behind in the bowel and in the blood.
 The kidney and urinary systems help the body to eliminate liquid waste called urea, and to keep chemicals, such
as potassium and sodium, and water in balance.
 Urea is produced when foods containing protein such as meat, poultry, and certain vegetable are broken down in
the body.
 Urea is carried in the bloodstream to the kidneys, where it is removed along with water and other wastes in the
form of urine.

FIVE SENSES

Sr. # SENSE DESCRIPTION ORGANS INVOLVED

1. Sight/ vision Sense of seeing Eyes
2. Olfaction Sense of smell Nose
3. Gustation Sense of taste Tongue
4. Audition Sense of hearing Ears
5. Tactile sense Sense of touch Skin
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EYE

 Human eye is the organ, which gives us sense of vision.

The eyeball can be divided into 3 layers: OUTER, MIDDLE, INNER.

Outer Layer It consists of sclera (white portion of the eye) and cornea (clear, dome-shaped covering at the
front of the eye that lets in light.
Middle Layer It consists of iris (present between the cornea and the lens. The iris opens and closes the pupil (the
small central opening) to changes the amount of light entering the eye),
Inner Layer It consist of Retina (where is formed on a point called fovea). Information sent from retina to brain
via optic nerve, retina contains two types of cells.
Cones Responsible for colour vision
Rods For night vision, when it is dark.

PROCESS OF VISION

Light rays fall on cornea, pass through lens reach retina. An inverted image is formed. Information is sent to
the brain. Then the brain erects the image and the information is perceived as a visual of the object being seen.

Light Optic
Cornea Lens Retina Brain
rays nerve
 26
EYES DISORDERS

Cataract Clouded lens leading to blurred vision

Myopia / near sightedness Difficulty seeing distant objects
Hyperopia/farsightedness Difficulty seeing near object
Colour blindness It is not blindness rather inability to distinguish between red, blue and green colour

EAR

 Ear is the organ which gives us the sense of hearing. It has two functions: hearing and maintaining
balance of the body.
 Ear has three parts outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.

Outer Ear  It consist of pinna (the part we see) ear canal and eardrum.
 The function of the pinna to collect sound waves and pass it on to ear drum via ear canal.
Middle Ear  It consists of three bones- incus, malleus, and stapes.
 Vibrations from eardrum are passed on to these tiny bones. (Stapes is the smallest bone of human
body).
Inner Ear.  It consists of three semi-circular Canals, Cochlea, vestibular and cochlear nerves.
 Vibrations from the bones are transferred to the inner ear from where information is sent to the
brain via cochlear (auditory) nerve.
 The vestibular nerve maintains balances of the body

PROCESS OF HEARING
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Sound auditory
Pinna Ear canal ear drum Ear bones Cochela brain
wavesd nerve

NOSE

 Nose is the organ, which gives, is sense of smell/olfaction. It is also part of respiratory system.
 The two opining in the nose are called nostrils. They lead to two Nasal cavities that are separated by the septum.
 Nasal cavities lead into throat (Pharynx). From throat into voice box (larynx) and then into trachea and
finally into lungs.
 Hairs in the nose clean the air of foreign particles. As air moves through the nasal passages, it is warmed and
humidified before it goes into the lungs.

TONGUE

 Tongue is the organ of taste.

 It is a muscular organ used for tasting licking swallowing and producing speech.
 The tongue has nerves that help detect and transmit taste signals to the brain.
 Different parts of the tongue detect different tastes.

TEETH

The teeth are the hardest substances in the human body. There is two general categorization for teeth.

1. Primary (deciduous/milky teeth): They are 20 in number.

2. Secondary (permanent teeth): They are 32 in number.

CLASSIFICATION OF TEETH

Teeth are classified into 4 major group Incisors, canines, premolars and molars.

CLASSIFICATION DETAILS
Incisors (central & lateral) They are 8 in number. They function as cutting or shearing instruments for food.
Canines (Cupids); They are 4 in number and the sharpest teeth and are used for ripping and tearing.
Premolars (bicuspids): They are 8 in number and used for chewing and grinding of food.
Molars They are 8 in number and also used for chewing and grinding food.
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NUTRIENT SOURCES CALORIE RELATED DISORDERS ENERGY RELEASED
REQUIREMENT
Proteins Meat, fish, egg, 50 to 60 grams per Kwashiorkor, One gram of proteins
white, pluses, day, at least 10% of Marasmus gives energy of the
liver total intakes amount 4.0 K Calories
Carbohydrates Wheat, oats, 300 frames per day, Diabetes, lactose One gram of
barley, potato, 50-70% of total Intolerance carbohydrates gives
mango, sugars, intake energy of the amount 4.1
fruits K Calories

Lipids Butter, ghee, 90-130 grams per Excess leads to heat 1.0 gram of fats gives
cheese, milk, day, at least 10% of attack, high blood energy of 9.3 K Calories
vegetable oil, total intake pressure, liver disorders,
fish oil Deficiency leads to dry
scaly skin, hair loss, poor
growth poor immunity,
cold intolerance
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FUNCTIONS AND SOURCES OF VITAMINS

VITAMIN SOURCES FUNCTION DEFICIENCY NOTES

Vitamin A Milk, butter, ghee egg Night vision, growth, Night blindness, Lack of Carrot is good source of Vitamin A
yolk, liver, vegetable immunity, Anti-cancer. growth
Vitamin D Sunlight, milk, milk Strengthens bones and teeth Rickets in children,  Most easily synthesized
product, fish oil (Cod osteomalacia in adults (produced) in human body
Liver oil) (softening of the bones)  High dose can destroy the kidney.
Vitamin E Vegetable, wheat, oats, Antioxidant, important in Risk of abortions in female,. Contains traces of selenium
pulses and almonds pregnancy Muscular, Nervous Disorder
Vitamin K Cabbage, cauliflower Blood clotting , Uncontrolled bleeding The only vitamin which the human
milk, egg. Prevents from Hemorrhaging body can manufacture
Vitamin B vegetables, nuts, poultry, Important for metabolism, Part Anemias due to B12  Vitamin B is capable of formation
Complex (B1, milk, eggs of various enzymes deficiency, nervous of blood
B2 B3, B6, B12) disorders ,metabolic  Ground Nut has maximum vitamin
disturbance B3
Vitamin C Citrus fruits, green Wound healing, antioxidant Scurvy (bleeding gums),  Chemical name is ascorbic Acid,
chilies, guava Essential for growth & repair Vitamin C gets destroyed by heating
of tissue  Vitamin C is generally excreted
by humans in urine.
 Not stored in human body
 .
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BASIC CONCEPTS

Sr. # BASIC TERM DETAILS

1. Chemistry The branch of science, which deals with the composition, structure, properties, and
reactions of matter, is called chemistry.
2. Physical Physical chemistry is defined as the branch of chemistry that deals with the relationship
chemistry between the composition and physical properties of matter.
3. Organic  Organic chemistry is the study of carbon and hydrogen and their derivatives.
Chemistry  Scope of this branch covers petroleum, petrochemical and pharmaceutical
industries
4. Inorganic Inorganic chemistry deals with the study of all elements and their compounds except
Chemistry those of compound of carbon and hydrogen and their derivate.
5. Matter  Anything that has mass and occupies space. Matters can exist in four forms: Solid,
Liquid, Gas and plasma.
 Quark is the name of the smallest part of the matter discovered by the scientists.
6. Mixture  When two or more elements or compounds mix-up physically without any fixed
ratio, they form a mixture.
 On mixing up, the component substances retain their own chemical identities and
properties.
7. Compound Compound is a substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined
together in a fixed ratio by mass.
8. Molecule  It is the smallest particle of an element or compound which can exist independently
and shows all the properties of that compound.
 It is formed by the combination of atoms. It is a stable unit.
9. Elements  Now 118 elements have been discovered, out of which 92 are naturally
occurring elements.
 Modern definition of element is that is a substance made up of same type of
atoms, having same atomic number and it cannot be decomposed into simple
substances. It means that each element is made up of unique type of atoms have
very specific properties.
10. Symbols The elements are represented by symbols. Like Iron is represented as Fe.
11. Valency  The unique property of an element is valency. It is combining capacity of an
element with other elements.
 31
 It depends upon the number of electrons in the outermost shell.
12. Atomic Number  The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons present in
the nucleus of its atoms.
 It is represented by symbol ‘Z’.
 Atomic number discovered by Moseley.
13. Mass Number  The mass number is the sum of number of protons and neutrons present in the
nucleus of an atom.
 It is represented by symbol ‘A’.
 Atomic mass discovered by. J.Berzelius.
14. Isotopes  Isotopes are defined as the atoms of an element that have same atomic number
but different mass numbers.
 They have same electronic configuration and number of protons but they differ in the
number of neutrons.
15. Isotopes of  The naturally occurring hydrogen is combination of its three isotopes, present in
Hydrogen different abundances.
 The three isotopes of hydrogen are named as Protium (11H), deuterium (21 H, or
D) and tritium (31 H or T).
16. Isotopes of  There are three isotopes of uranium i.e. 23492U ,23592U and 23892U.
uranium  The 23892U is nature nearly 99%.
17. Isotopes of  There are two stable isotopes of carbon 12C and 13C and one radioactive isotope 14C.
Carbon  The isotope 12C is present in abundance of 98.9 %, while 13C and 14C are both
present only 1.1 % in nature.
18.
19. 
20.
21. 
22. 
23. Combustion  Oxygen gas helps in burning.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) gas is produced when wood burns.
 Emission of Carbon Monoxide (CO) happened when there is less oxygen to be burned
off.
 Cooking gas is a mixture of oxygen (O2) and methane (CH4).
 Oxygen constitutes approximately 1/5th of the atmosphere.
 32
 Combustion is the other name of burning.
 During combustion of petrol in car engine, energy is converted in: Mechanical

OCCURRENCES BY WEIGHT % OF SOME MAJOR ELEMENTS NATURAL

CRUST OF EARTH OCEANS ATMOSPHERE

Oxygen(Gas) 47% Oxygen 86% Nitrogen 78%
Silicon (metalloids 28% Hydrogen 11% Oxygen 21%
Aluminum(Metal) 7.8% Chlorine 1.8% Argon 0.9%
Iron 5% CO2 0.04%

THEORIES AND EXPERIMENTS RELATED TO STRUCTURE OF ATOM

Sr. # CONCEPT DETAILS

1. Discovery of  In 1886, Goldstein discovered positively charged particles called protons.
Protons  The mass of a proton is 1840 times more than that of an electron.
2. Discovery of In 1897, J.J. Thomson found in an atom, the negatively charged particles known as
Electrons electrons.
3. Discovery of  Eventually in 1932 Chadwick discovered neutron, when he bombarded alpha particles
Neutron on a beryllium target.
 He observed that highly penetrating radiations were produced. These radiations were
called neutron.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURTION

Energy levels are represented by ‘n’ values 1, 2, 3 and so on. They are designated by the alphabets K, L, M
and so on. A shell closer to the nucleus is of minimum energy. Since K shell is closest to the nucleus, the
energy of shells increases from K shell onwards, Such as:
 1stenergy level is K shell; it has lowest energy.
 2nd energy level is L shell; it has more energy than K shell.
 3rdenergy level is M shell; it has more energy than K and L shell.
 4th energy level is N shell; it has more energy than K, L and M shell.
A shell also consists of subshells the number of subshells in a shell is equal to its n value. Each subshell is
designated by a small alphabetical latter s, p, d, f etc.
“n” value Shell Subshells No. of Electron in Shells
 33
1 K Only s 2 electrons
2 L s, p 8 electrons
3 M s, p, d 18 electrons
4 N s, p, d, f 32 electrons

GROUPS

Elements of some groups have their collective names called family.

Sr # GROUPS DETAILS
1. Alkali Metals  Elements of group IA are called alkali metals. Alkali metals are Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs
and Fr.
 Slaked Lime is an Alkali.
 All Alkali metals react with water to form hydroxides (OH).
2. Alkaline Earth Elements of group IIA are called alkaline earth metals. They consist of Be, Mg, Ca, Sr,
Metals Ba and Ra
3. Halogen Family  The elements of group VIIA are called halogens or salt forming group. They consist
of F, Cl, Br, I and At.
4. Noble Gases or Elements of group O or group VIIIA are called noble gases. Noble gases consist of He,
Inert Gases Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn.

METALS, NON-METALS AND METALLOIDS

Elements of the periodic table can also be classified as metals, non-metals, and metalloids.

CHARACTERISTICS OF METALS

 All metals have luster and good shine.

 All metals are malleable (can be drawn into sheets) and ductile (can be drawn into wires).
 All metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
 All metals have tendency to lose electrons easily and form positive ions.
 Majority of the elements of periodic table are metals.

CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-METALS:

1. Non-metals have no luster or shine.

2. Solid non-metals are brittle can be broken down into pieces by applying pressure in nature.
3. All non-metals are poor or non-conductors of heat and electricity.
 34
4. Some non-metals gain electrons and form negative ions.
5. All the gases are non-metals.
6. Element from group IVA to VIIIA top right of periodic table, above the stepped line is non-metals.

BOYLES LAW

 For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, if we decrease volume, the pressure will increase
1
𝑉𝛼 𝑃 At Constant temperature
 Volume of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure Volume become half when pressure is doubled

CHARLES LAW

The volume of an ideal gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature

𝑉𝛼 T At Constant Pressure

PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER

Sr. # STATE DETAILS

1. GASES  Matter in gaseous state does not have definite shape and volume. Therefore, gases occupy
all the available space.
 Their intermolecular forces are very weak.
 Pressure is a significant property of gases.

SCALES OF THERMOMETRY

1. The zero of a Fahrenheit is equals to -18°C.

2. Fahrenheit is used to measure human body temperature.
3. The most suitable thermometer for measuring the boiling point of water is mercury thermometer
4. -40 degree temperatures is the reading on both the Fahrenheit and the Centigrade scales the same
 35

BASIC CONCEPTS

Sr.# CONCEPTS DETAILS

1. Physics Physics is that branch of science which study of properties of matter energy and their
mutual relationship.
2. Rest The body is said to be at rest if it does not change its state (position) with respect to the
things in its surroundings.
3. Motion The body is said to be in motion if it change its sate (position) with respect to the things
in its surroundings.
4. Scalars The physical quantities, which are completely described by the help of their magnitudes
with proper units, is call scalar quantity. For example, mass, time, distance, pressure.
5. Vectors  The physical quantities which are completely described by their magnitude with
proper units and directions also are called vector quantities.
 Pointing vector is closely related to intensity of field.
6. Distance The length of path traveled by a body is called its distance covered. This path may be of
zig - zag shape.
7. Displacement  The shortest directional distance from initial position to the final position of a body,
is called “displacement.”
 It is vector quantity and its direction is from initial to final position. Displacement
in a circle is zero.
8. Speed  The distance covered, by a moving body, in one second, is called its speed.
 It is scalar quantity. Its units are m s-1.

9. Velocity  The time rate of change of the displacement of a moving body is called its velocity.
 36
 It is vector quantity.
10. Acceleration  The time rate of change of velocity of a moving body is called acceleration. It is a
vector quantity.
 Its direction is along the direction of change of velocity.
 Its SI units are ms-2
11. Force  The agency which moves or tries to move (or stops or tries to stop) a body is called
force.
 It is used to change the direction of motion of a moving body.
12. 1st Newton’s law  It states that if a body is at rest then it will remain at rest. And if a body moves then
of motion it will continue to move along straight line with uniform velocity until unbalanced
or external force acts.
 The Newton’s first law of motion is also called “law of Inertia” because its statement
contains the definition of inertia.
 Newton ‘s 1st law states the need to wear seatbelts.
13. Newton’s 2nd It states that if force is applied on a body, then body is accelerated. The acceleration is
law of motion directly proportional to force applied and it is inversely proportional to mass of the body.
F=ma
Unit is NEWTON (1 Newton=1kgms-2)
14. Newton’s third  It state that to every action force there is an equal and opposite reaction force.
law of motion  Example: Rocket propulsion is based on Newton’s third Law

SPEED OF SOUND IN VARIOUS MEDIA

MEDIUM SPEED
GASES Air (0 C) 331
Air (25 C) 346
Air (100 C) 386
SOLIDS AT 25 °C Aluminum 6420
Brass 4700
Nickel 6040
Iron 5950
Steel 5960
Flint Glass 3980
 37
DEVICES

NAME DETAILS
Telephone Alexander Graham Bell is 1876 gave a simple telephone model to send voice in the form of
electric signals from one place to another
Mobile phone Radio technology is used in the working of a mobile phone. In phone microphone converts the
sound into electrical signals
Television Television signals are converted in to light signals by photo diode. TV remote control unit use
Micro waves to operate a TV set
Optical fibers  “Optics” means related to “light” and “Fiber” means “Thread”
 Optical fiber is a strand of glass or plastic not much thicker than human hair uses light
signals to transfer information from one end to other
 Optical fiber is work on the principal of total internal reflection
 Fiber Optics Cable carries data in the form of light.
Optical Devises  Distant object can be seen by telescope.
 The device used for the measurement of current, voltage and resistance is Multimeter
 Galvanometer is used for detecting and measuring small electric current.
 Refractometer is used for precise measurement of refractive indices.

SPHERICAL LENSES

 In general, there are two types of spherical lenses. convex lenses AND concave lenses.
 Magnifying power of a single microscope can be increased by decreasing focal length of the lens

CONVEX LENS:

THE MAGNIFYING GLASS

 The Magnifying Glass is a convex lens, produces a magnified (larger) image of an object.
USED TO FOCUS SUNLIGHT AT ONE POINT
 Convex lenses are thicker at the middle. Rays of light that pass through the lens are brought closer together (they
converge). A convex lens is a converging lens.
 When parallel rays of light pass through a convex lens the refracted rays converge at one point called the principal
focus.
 The distance between the principal focus and the center of the lens is called the focal length.
 Camera uses convex lens to form an image.
 38
 Light of sun can be focused by convex lens.

CONCAVE LENS

 A concave lens is thinner at the center than at the edges.

 Rear view mirror for driving is concave
 Diverging lens.

CONDUCTION, CONVECTION AND RADIATION

Conduction  When boiling water over a stove heat is mostly being transferred to water by conduction
 While conduction is the transfer of heat energy by direct contact, convection is the movement
of heat by actual motion of matter; radiation is the transfer of energy with the help of
electromagnetic waves.
Convection  The phenomenon of land and sea breeze is as a result of convection
 A gas heater gives us heat by convection
Radiation  A person seated in front of fire receives heat through Radiation.
 The silvered surface of thermos flask prevents transfer of heat by radiation.
 The silvered surface of thermos flask prevents transfer of heat by: Radiation.
 Heat reaches earth from the sun by means of radiation
 Emissive power is the energy of thermal radiation emitted in all directions per unit time per
unit area of a surface at any given temperature.
 Water is heated by kettle, the inside water is heated by convection. A person sitting the fire
receives heat by Radiation.
39