Chapter3

ATOMS AND MOLECULES

Ancient Indian and Greek philosophers have much experimentations by Lavoisier and
always wondered about the unknown and Joseph L. Proust.
unseen form of matter. The idea of divisibility
of matter was considered long back in India, 3.1.1 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
around 500 BC. An Indian philosopher
Maharishi Kanad, postulated that if we go on Is there a change in mass when a
chemical
dividing matter (padarth), we shall get smaller change (chemical reaction) takes
place?
and smaller particles. Ultimately, a stage will
come when we shall come across the smallest Activity ______________ 3.1
particles beyond which further division will

• Take one of the following sets, X and Y

not be possible. He named these particles of chemicals—
Parmanu. Another Indian philosopher, X Y
Pakudha Katyayama, elaborated this doctrine (i) copper sulphate sodium carbonate
and said that these particles normally exist
in a combined form which gives us various (ii) barium chloride sodium sulphate
forms of matter.

Around the same era, ancient Greek (iii) lead nitrate sodium chloride

philosophers – Democritus and Leucippus

suggested that if we go on dividing matter, a • Prepare separately a 5% solution of

any one pair of substances listed

stage will come when particles obtained

under X and Y each in 10 mL in water.

cannot be divided further. Democritus called

• Take a little amount of solution of Y in

these indivisible particles atoms (meaning a conical flask and some solution of
indivisible). All this was based on X in an ignition tube.
philosophical considerations and not much • Hang the ignition tube in the flask
experimental work to validate these ideas carefully; see that the solutions do not
could be done till the eighteenth century. get mixed. Put a cork on the flask

By the end of the eighteenth century, (see Fig. 3.1).

scientists recognised the difference between
elements and compounds and naturally
became interested in finding out how and why
elements combine and what happens when
they combine.

Antoine L. Lavoisier laid the foundation

of chemical sciences by establishing two
important laws of chemical combination.

3.1 Laws of Chemical Combination

The following two laws of chemical Fig. 3.1: Ignition tube containing solution of
X, dipped
combination were established after in a conical flask containing solution of Y
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• Weigh the flask with its contents conservation of mass and the law of
carefully. definite proportions.

• Now tilt and swirl the flask, so that the

solutions X and Y get mixed. John Dalton was born in

• Weigh again. a poor weaver’s family in

• What happens in the reaction flask? 1766 in England. He
• Do you think that a chemical reaction began his career as a

has taken place? teacher at the age of

• Why should we put a cork on the mouth twelve. Seven years later

of the flask? he became a school

• Does the mass of the flask and its principal. In 1793, Dalton

contents change? left for Manchester to

teach mathematics, John Dalton

Law of conservation of mass states that physics and chemistry in

mass can neither be created nor destroyed in

a college. He spent most of his life there

a chemical reaction.

teaching and researching. In 1808, he

3.1.2 L presented his atomic theory which was a

AW OF CONSTANT PROPORTIONS

turning point in the study of matter.

Lavoisier, along with other scientists, noted
that many compounds were composed of two According to Dalton’s atomic theory, all
or more elements and each such compound matter, whether an element, a compound or
had the same elements in the same a mixture is composed of small particles called
proportions, irrespective of where the atoms. The postulates of this theory may be
compound came from or who prepared it. stated as follows:

In a compound such as water, the ratio of (i) All matter is made of very tiny
particles
the mass of hydrogen to the mass of oxygen is called atoms, which participate in
always 1:8, whatever the source of water. Thus, chemical reactions.
if 9 g of water is decomposed, 1 g of hydrogen (ii) Atoms are indivisible
particles, which
and 8 g of oxygen are always obtained. cannot be created or destroyed in a
Similarly in ammonia, nitrogen and hydrogen chemical reaction.
are always present in the ratio 14:3 by mass, (iii) Atoms of a given element are
identical
whatever the method or the source from which in mass and chemical properties.

it is obtained. (iv) Atoms of different elements have

This led to the law of constant proportions dif ferent masses and chemical

which is also known as the law of definite properties.

proportions. This law was stated by Proust as (v) Atoms combine in the ratio of
small

“In a chemical substance the elements are whole numbers to form compounds.

always present in definite proportions by (vi) The relative number and kinds of
atoms are constant in a given

mass”.
The next problem faced by scientists was compound.

You will study in the next chapter that all

to give appropriate explanations of these laws.

atoms are made up of still smaller particles.

British chemist John Dalton provided the
basic theory about the nature of matter.
Dalton picked up the idea of divisibility of uestions
matter, which was till then just a philosophy. 1. In a reaction, 5.3 g of sodium
He took the name ‘atoms’ as given by the Q carbonate reacted with 6 g of
Greeks and said that the smallest particles of acetic acid. The products were
matter are atoms. His theory was based on the 2.2 g of carbon dioxide, 0.9 g
laws of chemical combination. Dalton’s atomic water and 8.2 g of sodium
theory provided an explanation for the law of acetate. Show that these

ATOMS AND MOLECULES 27

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observations are in agreement We might think that if atoms are so

with the law of conservation of insignificant in size, why should we care about
mass. them? This is because our entire world is made
sodium carbonate + acetic acid up of atoms. We may not be able to see them,
→ sodium acetate + carbon but they are there, and constantly affecting
dioxide + water whatever we do. Through modern techniques,

2. Hydrogen and oxygen combine in we can now produce magnified images of

the ratio of 1:8 by mass to form surfaces of elements showing atoms.
water. What mass of oxygen gas
would be required to react
completely with 3 g of hydrogen
gas?

3. Which postulate of Dalton’s

atomic theory is the result of the
law of conservation of mass?

4. Which postulate of Dalton’s

atomic theory can explain the law
of definite proportions?

3.2 What is an Atom?

Have you ever observed a mason building
walls, from these walls a room and then a Fig. 3.2: An image of the surface of
silicon
collection of rooms to form a building? What
is the building block of the huge building?
What about the building block of an ant-hill? 3.2.1 WHAT ARE THE MODERN DAY
It is a small grain of sand. Similarly, the

SYMBOLS OF ATOMS OF DIFFERENT

building blocks of all matter are atoms.

ELEMENTS?
How big are atoms?

Dalton was the first scientist to use the

Atoms are very small, they are smaller than

symbols for elements in a very specific sense.

anything that we can imagine or compare

When he used a symbol for an element he

with. More than millions of atoms when

also meant a definite quantity of that element,

stacked would make a layer barely as thick

that is, one atom of that element. Berzilius

as this sheet of paper.

suggested that the symbols of elements be

Atomic radius is measured in nanometres. made from one or two letters of the name
of

1/10 9 m = 1 nm the element.

1 m = 109 nm

Relative Sizes

Radii (in m) Example

10–10 Atom of hydrogen

10–9 Molecule of water

10–8 Molecule of haemoglobin

10–4 Grain of sand

10–3 Ant
Fig. 3.3: Symbols for some elements as proposed by

10–1 Apple Dalton

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In the beginning, the names of elements passage of time and repeated usage you will
were derived from the name of the place automatically be able to reproduce
where they were found for the first time. For

the symbols).
example, the name copper was taken from
Cyprus. Some names were taken from
specific colours. For example, gold was taken 3.2.2 ATOMIC MASS

from the English word meaning yellow. The most remarkable concept that Dalton’s
Now-a-days, IUPAC (International Union of

atomic theory proposed was that of the atomic

Pure and Applied Chemistry) is an
international scientific organisation which mass. According to him, each element
had a

approves names of elements, symbols and characteristic atomic mass. The theory
could
units. Many of the symbols are the first one explain the law of constant
proportions so well
or two letters of the element’s name in that scientists were prompted to measure
the
English. The first letter of a symbol is always atomic mass of an atom. Since
determining the
written as a capital letter (uppercase) and the

mass of an individual atom was a relatively

second letter as a small letter (lowercase).

difficult task, relative atomic masses were

For example determined using the laws of chemical

(i) hydrogen, H combinations and the compounds formed.

(ii) aluminium, Al and not AL Let us take the example of a compound,
(iii) cobalt, Co and not CO.

carbon monoxide (CO) formed by carbon and

Symbols of some elements are formed from oxygen. It was observed experimentally
that 3

the first letter of the name and a letter, g of carbon combines with 4 g of oxygen
to
appearing later in the name. Examples are: (i)

form CO. In other words, carbon combines

chlorine, Cl, (ii) zinc, Zn etc.

Other symbols have been taken from the with 4/3 times its mass of oxygen. Suppose

names of elements in Latin, German or Greek. we define the atomic mass unit
(earlier
For example, the symbol of iron is Fe from its abbreviated as ‘amu’, but according
to the
Latin name ferrum, sodium is Na from natrium, latest IUPAC recommendations, it is
now
potassium is K from kalium. Therefore, each written as ‘u’ – unified mass) as equal
to the
element has a name and a unique

mass of one carbon atom, then we would

chemical symbol.

Table 3.1: Symbols for some elements

Element Symbol Element Symbol Element Symbol

Aluminium Al Copper Cu Nitrogen N

Argon Ar Fluorine F Oxygen O
Barium Ba Gold Au Potassium K
Boron B Hydrogen H Silicon Si
Bromine Br Iodine I Silver Ag
Calcium Ca Iron Fe Sodium Na
Carbon C Lead Pb Sulphur S
Chlorine Cl Magnesium Mg Uranium U

Cobalt Co Neon Ne Zinc Zn

(The above table is given for you to refer to assign carbon an atomic mass of 1.0 u
and
whenever you study about elements. Do not oxygen an atomic mass of 1.33 u. However,
it
bother to memorise all in one go. With the is more convenient to have these numbers
as

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whole numbers or as near to a whole numbers mass of the atom, as compared to 1/12th
the
as possible. While searching for various mass of one carbon-12 atom.
atomic mass units, scientists initially took 1/
16 of the mass of an atom of naturally Table 3.2: Atomic masses of
occurring oxygen as the unit. This was a few elements
considered relevant due to two reasons:
• oxygen reacted with a large number of Element Atomic Mass (u)

elements and formed compounds.

• this atomic mass unit gave masses of Hydrogen 1

most of the elements as whole numbers. Carbon 12

However, in 1961 for a universally Nitrogen 14

accepted atomic mass unit, carbon-12 isotope

Oxygen 16

was chosen as the standard reference for

measuring atomic masses. One atomic mass Sodium 23
unit is a mass unit equal to exactly one-twelfth Magnesium 24
(1/12th) the mass of one atom of carbon-12.

Sulphur 32
The relative atomic masses of all elements
have been found with respect to an atom of Chlorine 35.5
carbon-12. Calcium 40

Imagine a fruit seller selling fruits without

any standard weight with him. He takes a
watermelon and says, “this has a mass equal 3.2.3 HOW DO ATOMS EXIST?
to 12 units” (12 watermelon units or 12 fruit
mass units). He makes twelve equal pieces of Atoms of most elements are not able to
exist
the watermelon and finds the mass of each fruit independently. Atoms form molecules
and
he is selling, relative to the mass of one piece ions. These molecules or ions
aggregate in
of the watermelon. Now he sells his fruits by large numbers to form the matter that
we can
relative fruit mass unit (fmu), as in Fig. 3.4. see, feel or touch.

uestions

Q 1. Define the atomic mass unit.

2. Why is it not possible to see an

atom with naked eyes?

3.3 What is a Molecule?

A molecule is in general a group of two or
more atoms that are chemically bonded
together, that is, tightly held together by
attractive forces. A molecule can be defined

Fig. 3.4 : (a) Watermelon, (b) 12 pieces, (c) 1/12 of as the smallest particle of
an element or a
watermelon, (d) how the fruit seller can compound that is capable of an independent
weigh the fruits using pieces of watermelon existence and shows all the properties
of that

substance. Atoms of the same element or of

Similarly, the relative atomic mass of the different elements can join together to
form

atom of an element is defined as the average molecules.

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3.3.1 MOLECULES OF ELEMENTS Table 3.4 : Molecules of some

The molecules of an element are constituted compounds

by the same type of atoms. Molecules of many Compound Combining Ratio

elements, such as argon (Ar), helium (He) etc. Elements by
are made up of only one atom of that element. Mass

But this is not the case with most of the non- Water (H O) Hydrogen, Oxygen 1:8
2

metals. For example, a molecule of oxygen Ammonia (NH ) Nitrogen, Hydrogen 14:3
3

consists of two atoms of oxygen and hence it

Carbon

is known as a diatomic molecule, O . If 3

2 dioxide (CO ) Carbon, Oxygen 3:8

2
atoms of oxygen unite into a molecule, instead
of the usual 2, we get ozone, O3. The number
of atoms constituting a molecule is known as Activity ______________ 3.2
its atomicity.

• Refer to Table 3.4 for ratio by mass of

Metals and some other elements, such as atoms present in molecules and Table

carbon, do not have a simple structure but 3.2 for atomic masses of elements. Find
the ratio by number of the atoms of

consist of a very large and indefinite number

elements in the molecules of

of atoms bonded together. compounds given in Table 3.4.

Let us look at the atomicity of some • The ratio by number of atoms for a

non-metals. water molecule can be found as follows:

Element Ratio Atomic Mass Simplest

Table 3.3 : Atomicity of some by mass ratio/ ratio

elements mass (u) atomic

mass

Type of Name Atomicity

Element 1

H 1 1 =1 2
1

Non-Metal Argon Monoatomic

8 1

Helium Monoatomic O 8 16 = 1
16 2

Oxygen Diatomic
• Thus, the ratio by number of atoms for

Hydrogen Diatomic
water is H:O = 2:1.

Nitrogen Diatomic

Chlorine Diatomic 3.3.3 WHAT IS AN ION?

Phosphorus Tetra-atomic Compounds composed of metals and non-

Sulphur Poly-atomic metals contain charged species. The charged

species are known as ions. Ions may consist
of a single charged atom or a group of atoms
that have a net charge on them. An ion can be
negatively or positively charged. A negatively

3.3.2 MOLECULES OF COMPOUNDS charged ion is called an ‘anion’ and the

Atoms of different elements join together positively charged ion, a ‘cation’. Take,
for
in definite proportions to form molecules example, sodium chloride (NaCl). Its
of compounds. Few examples are given in constituent particles are positively
charged
Table 3.4. sodium ions (Na+) and negatively charged

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chloride ions (Cl–). A group of atoms carrying learn the symbols and combining
capacity of
a charge is known as a polyatomic ion (Table the elements.
3.6). We shall learn more about the formation The combining power (or capacity) of
an
of ions in Chapter 4. element is known as its valency. Valency can

be used to find out how the atoms of an

Table 3.5: Some ionic compounds

element will combine with the atom(s) of

Ionic Constituting Ratio another element to form a chemical compound.
Compound Elements by The valency of the atom of an element can be

Mass thought of as hands or arms of that atom.

Calcium oxide Calcium and Human beings have two arms and an

oxygen 5:2 octopus has eight. If one octopus has to catch

hold of a few people in such a manner that all

Magnesium Magnesium
the eight arms of the octopus and both arms

sulphide and sulphur 3:4

of all the humans are locked, how many

Sodium Sodium humans do you think the octopus can hold?

chloride and chlorine 23:35.5 Represent the octopus with O and humans

with H. Can you write a formula for this

combination? Do you get OH as the formula?

3.4 Writing Chemical Formulae 4

The subscript 4 indicates the number of

The chemical formula of a compound is a humans held by the octopus.

symbolic representation of its composition. The The valencies of some common ions
are
chemical formulae of different compounds can given in Table 3.6. We will learn more
about
be written easily. For this exercise, we need to valency in the next chapter.

Table 3.6: Names and symbols of some ions

Vale- Name of Symbol Non- Symbol Polyatomic Symbol

ncy ion metallic ions

element

1. Sodium Na+ Hydrogen H+ Ammonium NH+

4

Potassium K+ Hydride H- Hydroxide OH–

Silver Ag+ Chloride Cl- Nitrate NO –

3

Copper (I)* Cu+ Bromide Br- Hydrogen

Iodide I– carbonate HCO–

2. Magnesium Mg2+ Oxide O2- Carbonate CO 2–

3

Calcium Ca2+ Sulphide S2- Sulphite SO 2–

3

Zinc Zn2+ Sulphate SO 2–

4

Iron (II)* Fe2+

Copper (II)* Cu2+

3. Aluminium Al3+ Nitride N3- Phosphate PO 3–

4

Iron (III)* Fe3+

* Some elements show more than one valency. A Roman numeral shows their valency in
a bracket.

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The rules that you have to follow while writing 3. Formula of carbon tetrachloride
a chemical formula are as follows:
• the valencies or charges on the ion

must balance.
• when a compound consists of a metal and

a non-metal, the name or symbol of the

metal is written first. For example: calcium
oxide (CaO), sodium chloride (NaCl), iron
sulphide (FeS), copper oxide (CuO), etc.,
where oxygen, chlorine, sulphur are non- For magnesium chloride, we write the
metals and are written on the right, symbol of cation (Mg2+) first followed by the
whereas calcium, sodium, iron and symbol of anion (Cl-). Then their charges are
copper are metals, and are written on criss-crossed to get the formula.
the left.

• in compounds formed with polyatomic ions, 4. Formula of magnesium chloride

the number of ions present in the
compound is indicated by enclosing the
formula of ion in a bracket and writing the
number of ions outside the bracket. For
example, Mg (OH)2. In case the number of
polyatomic ion is one, the bracket is not Formula : MgCl

required. For example, NaOH.

3.4.1 F Thus, in magnesium chloride, there are

ORMULAE OF SIMPLE COMPOUNDS

two chloride ions (Cl-) for each magnesium

The simplest compounds, which are made up ion (Mg2+). The positive and negative
charges
of two different elements are called binary

must balance each other and the overall

compounds. Valencies of some ions are given

structure must be neutral. Note that in the

in Table 3.6. You can use these to write
formulae for compounds. formula, the charges on the ions are

While writing the chemical formulae for not indicated.

compounds, we write the constituent elements

and their valencies as shown below. Then we Some more examples
must crossover the valencies of the (a) Formula for aluminium oxide:
combining atoms.

Examples

1. Formula of hydrogen chloride

Formula : Al O

2 3

(b) Formula for calcium oxide:

Formula of the compound would be HCl.

2. Formula of hydrogen sulphide

Here, the valencies of the two elements

are the same. You may arrive at the formula
Ca O . But we simplify the formula as CaO.

2 2

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(c) Formula of sodium nitrate:
following formulae:
(i) Al (SO )

2 4 3

(ii) CaCl
2

(iii) K SO
2 4

(iv) KNO
3

Formula : NaNO (v) CaCO .

3 3

3. What is meant by the term

(d) Formula of calcium hydroxide: chemical formula?

4. How many atoms are present in a

(i) H S molecule and

(ii) PO 3– ion?
4

Formula : Ca(OH)
2 3.5 Molecular Mass

Note that the formula of calcium

3.5.1 MOLECULAR MASS

hydroxide is Ca(OH) and not CaOH . We use

2 2

brackets when we have two or more of the In section 3.2.2 we discussed the concept
of
same ions in the formula. Here, the bracket atomic mass. This concept can be
extended
around OH with a subscript 2 indicates that to calculate molecular masses. The
molecular
there are two hydroxyl (OH) groups joined to mass of a substance is the sum of the
atomic
one calcium atom. In other words, there are masses of all the atoms in a molecule
of the
two atoms each of oxygen and hydrogen in substance. It is therefore the relative
mass of
calcium hydroxide. a molecule expressed in atomic mass units (u).

(e) Formula of sodium carbonate:

Example 3.1 (a) Calculate the relative

molecular mass of water (H O).

2
(b) Calculate the molecular mass of
HNO .

Solution:
Formula : Na CO

2 3
(a) Atomic mass of hydrogen = 1u,

In the above example, brackets are not needed

oxygen = 16 u

if there is only one ion present.

So the molecular mass of water, which

(f) Formula of ammonium sulphate: contains two atoms of hydrogen and one
atom of oxygen is = 2 × 1+ 1×16

= 18 u
(b) The molecular mass of HNO = the

atomic mass of H + the atomic mass of

Formula : (NH ) SO

4 2 4 N+ 3 × the atomic mass of O

uestions = 1 + 14 + 48 = 63 u

1. Write down the formulae of

Q 3.5.2 FORMULA UNIT MASS

(i) sodium oxide
(ii) aluminium chloride The formula unit mass of a substance is a sum
(iii) sodium sulphide of the atomic masses of all atoms in a formula
(iv) magnesium hydroxide unit of a compound. Formula unit mass is

2. Write down the names of calculated in the same manner as we calculate

compounds represented by the the molecular mass. The only difference is that

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we use the word formula unit for those uestions

substances whose constituent particles are
ions. For example, sodium chloride as 1. Calculate the molecular masses
discussed above, has a formula unit NaCl. Its Q of H , O , Cl , CO , CH , C H ,

2 2 2 2 4 2 6
formula unit mass can be calculated as– C H , NH , CH OH.

2 4 3 3
1 × 23 + 1 × 35.5 = 58.5 u 2. Calculate the formula unit

masses of ZnO, Na O, K CO ,
Example 3.2 Calculate the formula unit 2 2 3

given atomic masses of Zn = 65 u,

mass of CaCl .

2 Na = 23 u, K = 39 u, C = 12 u,
Solution: and O = 16 u.

Atomic mass of Ca
+ (2 × atomic mass of Cl)
= 40 + 2 × 35.5 = 40 + 71 = 111 u

What
you have
learnt
• During a chemical reaction, the sum of the masses of the

reactants and products remains unchanged. This is known

as the Law of Conservation of Mass.

• In a pure chemical compound, elements are always present

in a definite proportion by mass. This is known as the Law
of Definite Proportions.

• An atom is the smallest particle of the element that cannot

usually exist independently and retain all its chemical
properties.

• A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a

compound capable of independent existence under ordinary
conditions. It shows all the properties of the substance.

• A chemical formula of a compound shows its constituent

elements and the number of atoms of each combining
element.

• Clusters of atoms that act as an ion are called polyatomic

ions. They carry a fixed charge on them.

• The chemical formula of a molecular compound is

determined by the valency of each element.

• In ionic compounds, the charge on each ion is used to

determine the chemical formula of the compound.

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Exercises
1. A 0.24 g sample of compound of oxygen and boron was found

by analysis to contain 0.096 g of boron and 0.144 g of oxygen.

Calculate the percentage composition of the compound by
weight.

2. When 3.0 g of carbon is burnt in 8.00 g oxygen, 11.00 g of

carbon dioxide is produced. What mass of carbon dioxide will
be formed when 3.00 g of carbon is burnt in 50.00 g of
oxygen? Which law of chemical combination will govern your
answer?

3. What are polyatomic ions? Give examples.

4. Write the chemical formulae of the following.

(a) Magnesium chloride

(b) Calcium oxide
(c) Copper nitrate
(d) Aluminium chloride
(e) Calcium carbonate.

5. Give the names of the elements present in the following

compounds.
(a) Quick lime
(b) Hydrogen bromide
(c) Baking powder
(d) Potassium sulphate.

6. Calculate the molar mass of the following substances.

(a) Ethyne, C H

2 2

(b) Sulphur molecule, S

8

(c) Phosphorus molecule, P (Atomic mass of phosphorus

4

= 31)
(d) Hydrochloric acid, HCl
(e) Nitric acid, HNO

Group Activity
Play a game for writing formulae.
Example1 : Make placards with symbols and valencies of the

elements separately. Each student should hold two

placards, one with the symbol in the right hand and
the other with the valency in the left hand. Keeping
the symbols in place, students should criss-cross their
valencies to form the formula of a compound.

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Example 2 : A low cost model for writing formulae: Take empty

blister packs of medicines. Cut them in groups,
according to the valency of the element, as shown in
the figure. Now, you can make formulae by fixing
one type of ion into other.

For example:

Na+ SO 2- P0 3-
4 4

Formula for sodium sulphate:

2 sodium ions can be fixed on one sulphate ion.
Hence, the formula will be: Na SO

2 4

Do it yourself :
Now, write the formula of sodium phosphate.

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