Unit-3 Flight Theory
Unit-3 Flight Theory
ENGINEERING
UNIT -3
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
Airfoil and its Nomenclature
Symmetrical Airfoil
• LIFT: Lift is the upward force created by an airfoil when it is moved through the air.
• DRAG: Drag is the rearward acting force, which resists the forward movement of the airplane
through the air.
• GRAVITY (WEIGHT): Gravity is the downward force, which tends to draw all bodies
vertically toward the center of the Earth.
• THRUST: The forward force produced by the ebgine that pulls (pushes) the airplane through
the air.
AIRFLOW OVER THE WING SECTION AND GENERATION OF LIFT
Induced Drag
• The airflow around the wing tip
is deflected downward, producing
a rearward component to the lift
vector
• Formed due to wing tip vortices
Parasite drag
Parasite drag can be further classified into form drag, skin friction, and interference drag.
• Form drag is caused by the frontal area of the airplane components being exposed to
the airstream.
• Skin friction drag is caused by air passing over the airplane’s surfaces and increases
considerably if the airplane surfaces are rough and dirty.
• Interference drag is caused by interference of the airflow between adjacent parts of the
airplane such as the intersection of wings and tail sections with the fuselage.
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ON AN AIRFOIL
Ncos(90–α)
α is the angle of attack is the angle between c and V∞
Hence, α is also the angle between L and N and between D and A. (90 – α)
A change in any of these factors affects the relationship between lift and drag. This
relation can be explained with help of equations given below
Lift L = (1/2) ρV2SCL
Drag D = (1/2) ρV2SCD
EFFECT OF ANGLE OF ATTACK ON LIFT AND DRAG
• The angle of attack is the acute angle between the relative wind (the red line) and
the chord line of the wing
NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) airfoils Series
NACA four-digit series:
Ex: NACA 0012 or 2415 airfoil.
• Here, the first digit is the maximum camber in hundredths of chord
• The second digit is the location of maximum camber along the chord from the LE in tenths of chord
• The last two digits give the maximum thickness in hundredths of chord.
For the NACA 2415 airfoil, For the NACA 0012 airfoil,
The maximum camber is 0.02c located at 0.4c from The No maximum camber and the
the LE, and the maximum thickness is 0.15c. maximum thickness is 0.12c.
That is, 2 percent camber at 40 percent That is, 0 percent camber with 12 percent
chord, with 15 percent thickness. thickness.
NACA 2412 is the Cambered Airfoil
NACA 0012 is the symmetric airfoil.
NACA “five-digit” series
Ex: NACA 23012 airfoil.
• the first digit when multiplied by 3/2 gives the design lift coefficient in tenths
• the next two digits when divided by 2 give the location of maximum camber along the chord from the
leading edge in hundredths of chord
• the final two digits give the maximum thickness in hundredths of chord.
For the NACA 23012 airfoil: the design lift coefficient is 0.3, the location of maximum camber is at 0.15c,
and the airfoil has 12 percent maximum thickness.
NACA “6-series” airfoils
Ex: NACA 641-218.
the first digit simply identifies the series
the second gives the location of minimum pressure in tenths of chord from the LE
The subscript 1 indicates that low drag is maintained at lift coefficients above and below the design lift
coefficient the third digit is the design lift coefficient in tenths
the last two digits give the maximum thickness in hundredths of chord.
For the NACA 641-218 airfoil: the 6 is the series designation, the minimum pressure occurs at 0.5c for the basic
symmetric thickness distribution at zero lift, the design lift coefficient is 0.2, and the airfoil is 18 percent thick.
NACA 7-Series
The 7-Series was a further attempt to maximize the regions of laminar flow over an airfoil differentiating the
locations of the minimum pressure on the upper and lower surfaces.
Ex: NACA 835A216. The 8 designates the series, 3 is the location of minimum pressure on the upper
surface in tenths of chord (0.3c), 5 is the location of minimum pressure on the lower surface in tenths of
chord (50%), the letter A distinguishes airfoils having different camber or thickness forms, 2 denotes the
design lift coefficient in tenths (0.2), and 16 provides the airfoil thickness in percentage of chord (16%).
The moment coefficient about the CG The moment coefficient about the CG
as a function of angle of attack for a as a function of angle of attack for a
longitudinally stable aircraft. longitudinally unstable aircraft.
Directional stability
Lateral stability
AIRCRAFT MANOEUVRES
Sideslip
Dive
Spin
Inverted flight