INTRODUCTION TO AEROSPACE

ENGINEERING
UNIT -3
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
Airfoil and its Nomenclature

Airfoil : The cross sectional shape obtained by the

intersection of the wing with the perpendicular plane
Types of the airfoil

Symmetrical Airfoil

Asymmetrical or Cambered Airfoil

Wing planform geometry
The aspect ratio is a measure of the narrowness of the wing planform. It is denoted by
A, or sometimes by (AR),
WING SWEEP

CHORD VARIATION ALONG SPAN

FORCES ACTING ON THE AIRPLANE IN FLIGHT

• LIFT: Lift is the upward force created by an airfoil when it is moved through the air.
• DRAG: Drag is the rearward acting force, which resists the forward movement of the airplane
through the air.
• GRAVITY (WEIGHT): Gravity is the downward force, which tends to draw all bodies
vertically toward the center of the Earth.
• THRUST: The forward force produced by the ebgine that pulls (pushes) the airplane through
the air.
AIRFLOW OVER THE WING SECTION AND GENERATION OF LIFT

The Basic Principles behind the generation of lift

• The Bernoulli’s principle
• Newton’s Third Law of Motion

A fluid traveling through a The constricted airflow The air is disturbed by

constriction in a pipe formed by two opposed a single wing
airplane wings
The accelerating airflow
Air moving between the over the top surface exerts
wings accelerates less pressure than the
airflow across the bottom
 DRAG:
• Drag is the rearward acting force, which resists the forward movement of the airplane
through the air.
• Drag acts parallel to and in the same direction as the relative wind.

Total drag may be classified into two main types:

• Induced Drag
• Parasite Drag

Induced Drag
• The airflow around the wing tip
is deflected downward, producing
a rearward component to the lift
vector
• Formed due to wing tip vortices
Parasite drag
Parasite drag can be further classified into form drag, skin friction, and interference drag.

• Form drag is caused by the frontal area of the airplane components being exposed to
the airstream.
• Skin friction drag is caused by air passing over the airplane’s surfaces and increases
considerably if the airplane surfaces are rough and dirty.
• Interference drag is caused by interference of the airflow between adjacent parts of the
airplane such as the intersection of wings and tail sections with the fuselage.
 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ON AN AIRFOIL

As incidence is increased from zero the following points are noted:

• The pressure reduction on the upper surface increases both in intensity and extent until, at
large incidence it actually encroaches on a small part of the front lower surface;
• The stagnation point moves progressively further back on the lower surface
• The increased pressure on the lower surface covers a greater proportion of the surface.
RESOLVING THE AERODYNAMIC FORCE
N sin (90 – α)
The resultant R can be split into components,

V∞ is also called the freestream velocity

L ≡ lift ≡ component of R perpendicular to V∞

D ≡ drag ≡ component of R parallel to V∞

N ≡ normal force ≡ component of R perpendicular (90 – α)

to c A ≡ axial force ≡ component of R parallel to c Acosα

Ncos(90–α)
α is the angle of attack is the angle between c and V∞

Hence, α is also the angle between L and N and between D and A. (90 – α)

From the geometrical relation between these two sets of components

A sin α
L = N sin (90 – α) − A sin α = N cos α − A sin α

D = N cos (90 – α) + A cos α = N sin α + A cos α

FACTORS AFFECTING Aerodynamic forces
A number of the factors that influence lift and drag include:
• Angle of Attack (α)
• Wing Area (S)
• Airfoil Shape
• Wing Design
• Airspeed (V)
• Air Density (ρ)

A change in any of these factors affects the relationship between lift and drag. This
relation can be explained with help of equations given below
Lift L = (1/2) ρV2SCL
Drag D = (1/2) ρV2SCD
EFFECT OF ANGLE OF ATTACK ON LIFT AND DRAG

• The angle of attack is the acute angle between the relative wind (the red line) and
the chord line of the wing
NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) airfoils Series
NACA four-digit series:
Ex: NACA 0012 or 2415 airfoil.
• Here, the first digit is the maximum camber in hundredths of chord
• The second digit is the location of maximum camber along the chord from the LE in tenths of chord
• The last two digits give the maximum thickness in hundredths of chord.

For the NACA 2415 airfoil, For the NACA 0012 airfoil,
The maximum camber is 0.02c located at 0.4c from The No maximum camber and the
the LE, and the maximum thickness is 0.15c. maximum thickness is 0.12c.
That is, 2 percent camber at 40 percent That is, 0 percent camber with 12 percent
chord, with 15 percent thickness. thickness.
NACA 2412 is the Cambered Airfoil
NACA 0012 is the symmetric airfoil.
NACA “five-digit” series
Ex: NACA 23012 airfoil.
• the first digit when multiplied by 3/2 gives the design lift coefficient in tenths
• the next two digits when divided by 2 give the location of maximum camber along the chord from the
leading edge in hundredths of chord
• the final two digits give the maximum thickness in hundredths of chord.

For the NACA 23012 airfoil: the design lift coefficient is 0.3, the location of maximum camber is at 0.15c,
and the airfoil has 12 percent maximum thickness.
NACA “6-series” airfoils
Ex: NACA 641-218.
the first digit simply identifies the series
the second gives the location of minimum pressure in tenths of chord from the LE
The subscript 1 indicates that low drag is maintained at lift coefficients above and below the design lift
coefficient the third digit is the design lift coefficient in tenths
the last two digits give the maximum thickness in hundredths of chord.

For the NACA 641-218 airfoil: the 6 is the series designation, the minimum pressure occurs at 0.5c for the basic
symmetric thickness distribution at zero lift, the design lift coefficient is 0.2, and the airfoil is 18 percent thick.
NACA 7-Series
The 7-Series was a further attempt to maximize the regions of laminar flow over an airfoil differentiating the
locations of the minimum pressure on the upper and lower surfaces.

Ex: NACA 747A315.

The first digit denotes the series
The second digit provides the location of the minimum pressure on the upper surface in tenths of chord (40%)
The third digit provides the location of the minimum pressure on the lower surface in tenths of chord (70%).
The fourth character, a letter, indicates the thickness distribution and mean line forms used.
A series of standardized forms derived from earlier families are designated by different letters.
The fifth digit indicates the design lift coefficient in tenths (0.3)
The final two integers are the airfoil thickness in percentage of chord (15%).
NACA 8-Series:
To maximize the extent of laminar flow on the upper and lower surfaces independently.

Ex: NACA 835A216. The 8 designates the series, 3 is the location of minimum pressure on the upper
surface in tenths of chord (0.3c), 5 is the location of minimum pressure on the lower surface in tenths of
chord (50%), the letter A distinguishes airfoils having different camber or thickness forms, 2 denotes the
design lift coefficient in tenths (0.2), and 16 provides the airfoil thickness in percentage of chord (16%).

NACA 1-Series or 16-Series:

To specify the desired pressure distribution over the airfoil (this distribution dictates the lift characteristics of
the shape) and then derive the geometrical shape that produces this pressure distribution.

Ex: NACA 16-212.

The first digit, 1, indicates the series (this series was designed for airfoils with regions of barely supersonic flow).
The 6 specifies the location of minimum pressure in tenths of chord, i.e. 60% back from the leading edge in this case.
Following a dash, the first digit indicates the design lift coefficient in tenths (0.2)
the final two digits specify the maximum thickness in tenths of chord (12%).

Airfoil Database: http://airfoiltools.com

NACA series Advantages Disadvantages Applications
4-Digit 1. Good stall characteristics 1. Low maximum lift coefficient 1. General aviation
2. Small center of pressure movement 2. Relatively high drag 2. Horizontal tails
across large speed range 3. High pitching moment 3. Supersonic jets
3. Roughness has little effect 4. Helicopter blades
5. Shrouds
6. Missile/rocket fins
5-Digit 1. Higher maximum lift coefficient 1. Poor stall behavior 1. General aviation
2. Low pitching moment 2. Relatively high drag 2. Piston-powered bombers,
3. Roughness has little effect transports
3. Commuters
4. Business jets
6-Series 1. High maximum lift coefficient 1. High drag outside of the 1. Piston-powered fighters
2. Very low drag over a small range of optimum range of operating 2. Business jets
operating conditions conditions 3. Jet trainers
3. Optimized for high speed 2. High pitching moment 4. Supersonic jets
3. Poor stall behavior
4. Very susceptible to roughness
7-Series 1. Very low drag over a small range of 1. Reduced maximum lift coefficient Seldom used
operating conditions 2. High drag outside of the optimum
2. Low pitching moment range of operating conditions
3. Poor stall behavior
4. Very susceptible to roughness
16-Series 1. Avoids low pressure peaks 1. Relatively low lift 1. Aircraft propellers
2. Low drag at high speed 2. Ship propellers
Coefficient of lift (Cl)

Coefficient of drag (Cd) Coefficient of Moment (Cm)

EFFECT OF AIRFOIL SHAPE ON LIFT AND DRAG
CENTER OF PRESSURE

Point where the resultant aerodynamic force is located

distance xcp is called center of pressure

Leading Edge Leading Edge

Center of Pressure changes with the Angle of Attack

Aerodynamic Center

the location where the aerodynamic moment remains

constant the aerodynamic center (ac) of the airfoil.
aerodynamic center doesn’t change with the Angle of Attack
 STABILITY AND CONTROL
• Rectangular right-handed coordinate system attached to the aircraft.
• The origin of the axes is at the aircraft’s center of gravity.
• The x axis is along the fuselage, the y axis is along the wingspan, and the z axis
points downward.

• x axis: roll axis, L= Rolling moment,

• y axis: pitch axis, M = Pitching moment,
• z axis: yaw axis, N= Yawing moment,
Airplane control surfaces
CONCEPT OF STABILITY
The tendency of a system to return to its equilibrium condition after being disturbed from that point.
Static Stability:
• All the forces and moments around the aircraft’s CG at a fixed flight condition and altitude are balanced.
• After any small perturbation in flight altitude, the aircraft returns to its equilibrium position.

Statically stable Statically unstable Neutrally stable

If the forces and moments on the body If the forces and moments are such If the body is disturbed but the
caused by a disturbance tend initially that the body continues to move moments remain zero, the body stays
in equilibrium and is neutrally stable
to return the body toward its away from its equilibrium position
equilibrium position. after being disturbed.
Dynamic Stability:
The time history of the vehicle’s motion after it initially responds to its static stability.

Dynamically stable behavior Dynamically unstable behavior

STATIC FORCES AND MOMENTS ON AN AIRCRAFT

Resulting Force on a Wing

There is an aerodynamic force created by the pressure distribution over the wing surface.
The resultant force R can be resolved into two components:
• the lift L (perpendicular to the relative wind V∞)
• the drag D (in the direction of the relative wind V∞).

Resulting Moment on a Wing

The moment coefficient about

the aerodynamic center
 Moment on an Aircraft

The moment coefficient about CG

An airplane is in pitch equilibrium when Mcg = CM,cg = 0

i.e airplane is trimmed
Longitudinal Static Stability:

The moment coefficient about the CG The moment coefficient about the CG
as a function of angle of attack for a as a function of angle of attack for a
longitudinally stable aircraft. longitudinally unstable aircraft.
Directional stability
Lateral stability
AIRCRAFT MANOEUVRES

Mission profile of a civil aircraft

Mission profile of a military aircraft

Inside loop Outside loop

Pull up Pull down

Roll

Sideslip

Dive

Spin

Inverted flight