Powerplant 1

Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

Fernando Air Base, Lipa City, Batangas
Introduction
to Gas
Turbine
Engine
FLEXIBLE LEARNING MODULE 1
AIRCRAFT POWERPLANT II
(PRELIMINARY TERM)
1
AMT 1206 AIRCRAFT POWERPLANT II (TURBO PROP & JET ENGINE)
TABLE OF CONTENT
TIME
TITLE PAGE ALLOTMENT
(minutes)
INTRODUCTION TO GAS TURBINE ENGINE 4 69.84

NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF MOTION 5 69.84
HISTORY OF JET PROPULSION 7 69.84
OPERATING PRINCIPLES 11 69.84
TYPES OF JET PROPULSION 24 69.84

Activity
Enrichment Activity 1 40 60
Quiz 1 60

Video Materials
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5H2MezIUxKE 120
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VEe7NxB5Vo8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ok3K-NQXUqY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wtIhVwPruwY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9A-uUG0WR0w

LEARNING OUTCOME
MODULE
TOPIC LEARNING TOPIC LEARNING
LEARNING
OUTCOME OUTCOMES
OUTCOMES
CLO 1 Discuss the MLO 1 Explain the TLO 1 Recognize the

history and
development of the
background history of a
jet engine
history of jet
propulsion and its
2
AMT 1206aircraft
AIRCRAFTgas turbine II (TURBO MLO
POWERPLANT PROP &2JET
Express
ENGINE)the recent development
engine. operating principles of TLO 2 Illustrate the
operating principles of MLO 3 Restate the a gas turbine engine
a gas turbine engine. different parts of a gas TLO 3 Categorize the
CLO 3 Distinguish the turbine engine. factors that affect
type ofPHILIPPINE
gas turbine STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
MLO 4 Distinguish the thrust produce by a gas
engine Fernando
and howAirit Base, Lipa type of turbine engine.
City, Batangas turbine engine
operates. TLO 4 Differentiate the
CLO 4 Label the types of a jet engine
essential parts of the
aircraft gas turbine
engine and discuss its
functions.
3
INTRODUCTION
Efforts to design a working gas turbine engine started at the beginning of the 20th
century. By the end of World War II, engineers had succeeded in placing a few turbine
engines in combat. The war effort brought about many advances in gas turbine
technology, which proved useful for commercial aircraft design. Turbine engines
offered several characteristics that reciprocating engines could not match including
increased reliability, longer mean times between overhaul, higher airspeeds, ease of
operation at high altitudes, and a high power-to-weight ratio Aircraft such as
Lockheed's Super Constellation represented the practical limits of piston power
technology and required frequent engine maintenance. During the 1950s, a gradual
transition began from piston power to gas turbine jets and turboprops. Classic
workhorses like the Douglas DC-3 and DC-7 gave way to the Boeing 707 and Douglas
DC-8.
4
NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF
Figure 3-1. Many technological developments are made by observations of the natural world. A squid
propels itself through the water by jet reaction.
MOTION
Newton's third law of motion states that for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction. Jet propulsion applies this law by accelerating a quantity of air through an
orifice (or nozzle). The acceleration of the air is the action and forward movement is the
5
reaction. In nature, a squid propels itself through the water using a form of jet
propulsion. A squid takes sea water into its body and uses its muscles to add energy to
the water, then expels the water in the form of a jet. This action produces a reaction that
propels the squid forward. [Figure 3-1]
As early as 250 B.C., a writer and
mathematician named Hero devised a toy
using this reaction principle. The toy,
called the aeolipile, consisted of a
covered kettle of water that was heated to
produce steam. The steam was routed
through two vertical tubes into a spherical
container. Attached to the spherical
container were several discharge tubes
arranged radially around the container. As
steam filled the container, it would escape
through the discharge tubes causing the
sphere to rotate. [Figure 3-2]
Figure 3-2. Hero's aeolipile, invented long before Newton

postulated his laws of Motion, proved that power by reaction
was possible.
6
A modern example of Newton's reaction principle is observed when the end of an
inflated balloon is released. As the air in the balloon rushes out the opening, the balloon
flies wildly around a room. In spite of the everyday examples, scientific efforts to apply
Newton's reaction principle to mechanical designs were largely unsuccessful until the
20th century.
HISTORY OF JET PROPULSION

The history of mechanical jet propulsion
began in 1900, when Dr. Sanford Moss
submitted a thesis on gas turbines. Later,
Dr. Moss became an engineer for the
General Electric Company in England.
While there, he applied some of his
concepts in the development of the turbo-
supercharger. His design used a small
turbine wheel, driven by exhaust gases, to
turn a supercharger. Dr. Moss's research
influenced the development of what

Figure 3-3. Dr. Frank Whittle of England patented the first turbojet
became the first successful turbojet engine, the Whittle W1, in 1930. Its first flight occurred in a Gloster
E28/39 aircraft in 1941.
7
engine. Dr. Frank Whittle of England was granted his first patent for a jet engine in
1930. Eleven years later, the engine completed its first flight in a Gloster model E28/39
aircraft. The engine produced about one thousand pounds of thrust and propelled the
aircraft at speeds over 400 miles per hour. [Figure 3-3]
Figure 3-5. German engineer Hans Von Ohain designed and built the turbojet engine that
powered the Heinkel He-178 in the world's first jet-powered flight in 1939.
While Whittle was developing the gas turbine engine in England, Hans Von Ohain, a
German engineer, designed and built a jet engine that produced 1,100 pounds of thrust.
This engine was installed in a Heinkel He-178 aircraft and made a successful flight on
August 27, 1939. As a result, it is recognized as the first practical flight of a jet-
propelled aircraft. [Figure 3-4]
8
In the United States, research in the field of jet propulsion lagged. Because of its
extensive experience in building electrical generating turbines and turbo-superchargers
the General Electric Company received a contract to research and develop a gas turbine
engine in 1941. The result was the GE-lA engine, a centrifugal-compressor type engine
that produced approximately 1,650 pounds of thrust. Two of these engines were used to
power a Bell XP- 59 "Airacomet." The Airacomet flew for the first time in October
1942 and proved the concept of jetpowered flight. However, it was never used in
combat due to a limited flight time of 30 minutes. [Figure 3-5]
Figure 3-5. First flown in 1942, the Bell XP-59 was the first American
jet-powered aircraft.
9
JET PROPULSION TODAY

Today, the majority of commercial aircraft use some form of jet propulsion. Currently,
several manufacturers produce entire lines of jet-powered aircraft that cruise in excess
of 600 miles per hour and carry up to five hundred passengers or several tons of cargo.
Another step in the progression of commercial and military aviation was the ability to
produce an engine that would propel an aircraft faster than the speed of sound. Today,
several military aircraft travel at speeds in excess of Mach one. Supersonic aircraft are
presently in use in military and research applications. The Concorde, a supersonic
commercial aircraft built collaboratively by a British and French consortium, was in
service from 1976 through 2003. The Concorde was capable of flying at 2.2 times the
speed of sound.
In addition to military and commercial aviation, jet propulsion is widely used in
business jets. The use of twin-engine aircraft has grown in part due to the efficiency and
reliability of the jet engines.
10
OPERATING PRINCIPLES
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
A gas turbine engine is a form of heat engine that converts the chemical energy of fuel
into heat energy. Heat energy causes an increase in gas pressure that is converted into
kinetic energy in the form of a high velocity stream of air. The kinetic energy is
transformed to mechanical energy as the gases rotate a series of turbine wheels to drive
compressor and accessories. In the case of turboprop or turboshaft engines, the
expanding gases can also drive a second power turbine to drive a propeller or gearbox.
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
CYCLE
The energy transformation cycle in a gas turbine engine is known as the Brayton cycle
(or constant pressure cycle) . Similar to the four-s troke Otto cycle, the Brayton cycle
has intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust events. However, unlike a piston
engine, all four events occur simultaneously and continuously in a gas turbine engine. A
gas turbine engine is able to produce power continuously. To support the continuous
production of power, a gas turbine engine must burn a great deal of fuel. [Figure 3-67]
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Figure 3 -67. In a gas turbine engine, air is drawn in through an air inlet, compressed in the compressor, mixed with
fuel and ignited in the combustors, and exhausted through the turbines and exhaust nozzle. A gas turbine engine
performs the same functions as a cylinder and piston in a reciprocating engine. In a turbine engine, these four evets
happen continuously.
The continuous intake event in a gas turbine engine draws ambient air into the engine
through an inlet duct to the first compressor stage. Each compressor stage increases
static air pressure. In the combustor, fuel is sprayed into the incoming airflow and
ignited, resulting in continuous combustion. The resulting release of heat energy
12
increases the volume of the air while maintaining a relatively constant pressure. When
exhaust air exits the combustion chamber, it passes through the turbine where static air
pressure drops and air volume continues to increase. Because the flow of expanding
gases is relatively unobstructed, the velocity increases dramatically. [Figure 3-68]
Figure 13-68 . This chart illustrates the changes in pressure and volume during engine operation. Point A represents
the condition of the air just before it enters the compressor. After it enters the compressor, its pressure increases
and its volume decreases. Point B represents the pressure and volume of the air as it leaves the compressor. At point
C, heat energy expands the volume of the air mass with little or no change in pressure. After it is heated, the air
expands and loses pressure as it flows through the turbine section to point D.
13
PRODUCING THRUST
Recall that a gas turbine engine produces thrust based on Newton's third law of motion:
for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. In a turbojet engine, the
acceleration of a mass of air by the engine is the action, and forward movement is the
reaction.
VELOCITY AND PRESSURE
14
As air passes through a gas
turbine engine, its velocity and
pressure change to produce
thrust. For example, in the
compressor, static air pressure
increases while velocity
remains nearly constant. After
combustion, gas velocity must
be increased again to rotate the
turbine. The most common
way to induce a velocity or
pressure change is an
Figure 3 -69. When air passes through a diverging duct, air velocity
application of Bernoulli's decreases while air pressure and temperature increase. When air
passes through a converging duct, air velocity increases while air
pressure and temperature decrease.
principle. Bernoulli's principle
states that when a fluid or gas is supplied at a constant flow rate through a duct, the sum
of the potential (or pressure) and kinetic (or velocity) energy is constant. Simply stated,
as air velocity increases, air pressure decreases and as air velocity decreases, air
pressure increases. As an example of Bernoulli's principle, consider a quantity of air
flowing through a converging duct. As the duct decreases in diameter, the air must
accelerate if it is to flow through the smaller opening. This increases the kinetic energy
of the air. Because energy cannot be created or destroyed, the air 's potential energy
15
(pressure) decreases. Likewise, if a quantity of air passes through a diverging duct, the
air's potential energy (pressure) increases because its kinetic energy (velocity)
decreases. Remember that, in an air mass, when one form of energy is converted to
another; the temperature of the air mass changes. When air pressure decreases, air
temperature also decreases. [Figure 3-69]
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
A turbine engine's thermal efficiency is the ratio of the actual power that an engine
produces divided by the thermal energy in the fuel consumed. At cruise, a
large gas turbine engine with a 30:1 compression ratio can operate with a thermal
efficiency as high as 50 percent. In comparison, as discussed in Chapter 1, the
thermal efficiency of a typical reciprocating engine is between 30 and 40 percent.
Three primary factors determine the thermal efficiency of a gas turbine engine: turbine
inlet temperature, compression ratio, and compressor and turbine component
efficiencies.
As described earlier, the higher that a
gas turbine engine raises the
temperature of the incoming air, the
more thrust it can produce. The
primary limiting factor to increasing
16
the temperature of the air is the amount of heat the turbine section can withstand.
Therefore, if the turbine inlet temperature limits on a given engine can be increased,
higher thermal efficiencies will result. [Figure 3-70]
Furthermore, the more a gas turbine engine compresses incoming air, the more thrust an
engine can produce. Engines with higher compression ratios force more air into the
engine, which enables more heat energy from the burning fuel to be transferred
to the internal airflow. An increase in
the amount of heat energy transferred
from the fuel to the air improves an
engine's thermal efficiency. High
compressor and turbine efficiencies in
a gas turbine engine promote higher
thermal efficiencies.
Compressor and turbine efficiency
directly affect the compression ratio
of a given engine, which directly
affects thermal efficiency. [Figure 3-

Figure 3-71. Compressor and turbine efficiency near 90 percent
is necessary to reach thermal efficiencies above 20 percent.
71]
17
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THRUST

The amount of thrust that a given engine can produce is affected by a number of
environmental, design, and operational factors. For example, temperature,
altitude, and airspeed directly affect inlet air density, and, consequently, thrust. The
combination of these three variables is sometimes represented by a single variable,
called stagnation density. Operating speed and the efficiency of the fan design are
additional factors that contribute directly to the amount of thrust an engine produces.
TEMPERATURE
The air mass flowing through a turbine engine is the working fluid that an engine uses
to produce thrust. The denser the air passing through an engine, the more thrust the
engine can produce. Air density is inversely related to temperature. In other words, as
outside air temperature (OAT) increases, air density decreases. Anytime the density of
the air entering a gas turbine engine decreases, engine thrust also decreases. Conversely,
thrust output improves with a reduction in outside air temperature. Engine
manufacturers
18
base their thrust calculations on a standard temperature of 59 degrees Fahrenheit or 15
degrees Celsius. This provides a
reference point to use when
calculating thrust and compensating
for temperature variations. In the
field, however, all performance
calculations are adjusted for
nonstandard temperatures. [Figure 3-
72]
Figure 3-72. 3-72. Air density decreases as temperature rises; the
lower the density of the air, the less thrust an engine can
produce.
To counteract the detrimental effects of hot weather on thrust, some early engine
designs included a thrust augmentation system. In a water injection thrust augmentation
system, water, or a mixture of water and alcohol, is injected directly into the compressor
inlet or into the combustion chamber. Not only does Water injection cool the air mass to
enable more fuel to be burned without exceeding turbine inlet temperature limits but the
additional water molecules also increase the density of the air mass. Chapter 7 provides
more information about water injection systems.
19
ALTITUDE
As altitude increases, air pressure drops. Air at standard temperature at sea level exerts a
pressure of 14.69 pounds per square inch. Approximately onehalf of the air in the
atmosphere is below 18,000 feet. Therefore, the pressure at 18,000 feet is about 7.34
psi, or half of what exists at sea level. Above 18,000 feet, air pressure continues
decreasing, but at a higher rate. At 20,000 feet, standard air pressure is 6.75 pounds per
square inch, and at 30,000 feet it is only 4.36 pounds per square inch.
Temperature, like ambient air pressure, also decreases as altitude increases. Normally,
decreasing temperatures result in an increase in air density, leading some to think that
increases in altitude result in
higher air density. The opposite,
however, s true because the
pressure losses at higher altitudes
have a greater effect on air
density than decreasing
temperatures-that is, the pressure
lapse rate is greater than the

Figure 3-73. Air density decreases with altitude; as an aircraft climbs, engine
thrust decreases.
temperature lapse rate. Therefore, as
20
an aircraft climbs, engine performance is adversely affected by decreasing air density,
despite the relatively cooler air.
At approximately 36,000 feet, air temperature stabilizes at -69. 7 degrees Fahrenheit
and remains at that temperature up to approximately 80,000 feet. This layer in the
atmosphere divides the troposphere from the stratosphere and is called the tropopause.
Between these altitudes, the air density no longer increases due to the decreasing
temperatures. As a result, as altitude increases above 36,000 feet, air density decreases
quite rapidly. Because of this, long-range jet aircraft are often flown at an optimal
altitude of 36,000 feet. Below this altitude, dense air creates more aerodynamic drag
and above this altitude, the rapidly dropping density decreases engine thrust output.
[Figure 3-73]
AIRSPEED
As previously noted, when
forward airspeed increases, the
air mass acceleration in the
engine decreases with the result
that less thrust is produced.

Figure 3-74. As airspeed increases, the amount of air that an engine can
However, as the aircraft speeds accelerate decreases. As airspeed increases, ram effect increases. The
resultant effect, called ram recovery, is a slight increase in engine thrust.
21
up, more air is forced into the engine. This is known as ram effect and results in an
increase in air pressure in an engine, producing more thrust. Therefore, increasing
aircraft speed causes two opposing results; a decrease in thrust from the reduction in air
mass acceleration and an increase in thrust from ram effect. The net effect on thrust is
determined by subtracting the thrust lost from thrust realized. This result is referred to
as ram recovery. [Figure 3-74]
ENGINE SPEED
Early turbojet engines had a relatively linear relationship between compressor speed
and thrust. Because of this; engine power output on these engines was set using a
tachometer (or r.p.m. gauge). However, in modern turbofan engines with dual spool
compressors, the relationship between compressor speed and thrust is nonlinear. At low
engine speeds, large increases in speed produce relatively small increases in thrust. At
high engine speeds, a small increase in speed produces a large increase in thrust.
Therefore, power in most modern gas turbine engines is set by reference to an engine
pressure ratio (EPR) indicating system because thrust and EPR have a more
proportional relationship than thrust and engine speed.
Compressor aerodynamics limit engine speed because compressor efficiency begins to
drop when lade tips reach the speed of sound. Therefore, efficient compressor design
22
requires engine operation at a speed that does not let the blades reach supersonic speeds
and produce disruptive shockwaves. The longer a compressor blade is, the higher the tip
rotational speed is for a given speed. This explains why most large-diameter
compressors turn at relatively slow rotational speeds. In contrast, small diameter turbine
engines can rotate at compressor speeds in excess of 50,000 r.p.m.
FAN EFFICIENCY
Turbofan engines have replaced turbojet engines on most transport and business jet
aircraft. The turbofan engine design is quieter and more fuel efficient. For example,
given a turbojet and a turbofan engine with the same rated thrust, the turbofan engine
will
burn less fuel because of the greater propulsive efficiency of the fan. Fan efficiency
directly affects the thrust that an engine can produce.
23
TYPES OF JET PROPULSION

Newton's reaction principle has been applied to several propulsive devices used in
aviation. All produce thrust in the same manner; they accelerate a mass of gases within
the engine. The most common types of propulsive engines are the rocket, the ramjet, the
pulsejet, and the gas turbine.
ROCKET
A rocket is a non-air-breathing engine that carries its own fuel and the oxygen needed
for the fuel to burn. The two types of rockets in use are solid-propellant rockets and
liquid-propellant rockets. Solid-propellant rockets use a solid fuel formed into a specific
shape that promotes an optimum burning rate when mixed with an oxidizer. After the
fuel is Figure 3-6. Rocket assisted takeoff (RATO) devices are small, solid propellant rocket motors
attached to an airplane to provide additional takeoff thrust at high-altitude airports or for
lifting extremely heavy loads.
24
ignited, it produces an extremely high-velo city discharge of gas through a nozzle at the
rear of the rocket body. The reaction to the rapid dis charge is forward motion of the
rocket body. Solid fuel rockets are used primarily to propel some military weapons and
occasionally to provide additional thrust for takeoff of heavily loaded aircraft. In the
latter case, booster rockets attached to an aircraft structure provide the additional thrust
needed for special-condition takeoffs. [Figure 3-6]
The second type of rocket is a liquid-fuel rocket, which uses fuel and an oxidizing agent
such as liquid oxygen. The two liquids are carried in tanks aboard the rocket. When the
liquids are mixed, a violent reaction occurs, which generates a tremendous amount of
heat. The resulting high-velocity gas jet behind the rocket provides enough thrust to
propel it.
25
RAMJET
A ramjet is an athodyd (or aero-thermodynamic duct), an air-breathing engine with no
moving parts. With no rotating compressor to draw air into the engine, a ramjet must be
moving forward at high velocity before it can produce thrust. After air enters the engine,
fuel is injected and ignited to provide the heat needed to accelerate the air and produce
thrust. Because ramjets must be moving forward to produce thrust, their use is limited.
Ramjets are used in some military weapons delivery systems in which the vehicle is
accelerated to a high enough velocity for the ramjet to take over power for sustained
flight. [Figure 3-7]
Figure 3 -7. As a ramjet moves forward, air enters the intake and proceeds to a combustion chamber
where fuel is added and ignited. The heat from the burning fuel accelerates the f low of air through a
venturi to produce thrust.
26
PULSEJET
Pulsejet engines are similar to ramjets except that the air intake duct is equipped with a
series of shutter valves that are spring-loaded to the open position. Air drawn through
the open valves enters a combustion chamber where it is heated by burning fuel. As the
air
Figure 3-8 . (A) In a pulsejet engine, air is drawn into the combustion chamber and mixed with fuel when
the shutter valve is open . (Bl As the fuel burns, air pressure within the chamber increases and forces the
shutter valves to close. After the shutter closes, the expanding air within the engine accelerates through
the exhaust nozzle to produce thrust.
27
within the combustion chamber expands, the increased air pressure increases to force
the shutter valves closed. After it is enclosed aft of the shutters, the expanding air in the
chamber is forced rearward to produce thrust. A pulsejet is typically considered more
useful than a ramjet because pulsejets can produce thrust prior to achieving a high
forward speed. [Figure 3-8]
GAS TURBINE ENGINE

The gas turbine engine is the most practical form of jet engine in use today. In fact, the
turbine engine has become the standard on nearly all commercial (transport category),
business, and military aircraft. The remainder of this section will focus on the gas
turbine engine. The four most common types of gas turbine engines are the turbojet,
turbopropeller (turboprop), turboshaft, and turbofan.
TURBOJET ENGINES
The basic operating principles of a turbojet engine are straightforward. Air enters
through an inlet duct and proceeds to the compressor. After the air is compressed, it
flows to a combustor section where fuel is added and ignited. The heat generated by the
burning fuel causes the compressed air to expand and flow toward the rear of the
engine. As the air moves rearward, it passes through a set of turbine wheels connected
28
to the compressor blades. The expanding air spins the turbines , which in turn drive the
compressor. After it moves past the turbines, the air exits the engine at a much higher
velocity than the incoming air. The difference in velocity between the air entering and
the air exiting the engine produces thrust.
One of the most important aspects of turbojet engine operation that you must be familiar
with is the engine pressure ratio, or EPR. An engine's EPR is the ratio of the turbine
discharge pressure to the engine inlet air pressure. EPR gauge readings are an indication
of the amount of thrust being produced for a given power lever setting. Total pressure
pickups, or EPR probes, measure the air pressure at two points in the engine; one EPR
probe is located at the compressor inlet and a second just aft of the last stage turbine in
the exhaust section. EPR readings are often used to verify power settings or takeoff,
climb, and cruise. EPR readings are affected by and are dependent on pressure altitude
and outside air temperature (OAT) .
TURBOPROPELLER ENGINES
29
A gas turbine engine that delivers power to a propeller is referred to as a turbopropeller,
or turboprop, engine. Turboprop engines are similar in design to turbo jet engines
except that the power produced by a turboprop engine is delivered to a reduction gear
system that spins a propeller. Reduction gearing is necessary because optimum
propeller performance is achieved at much slower speeds than the engine operating
speed. Turboprop engines are used extensively in business and commuter aircraft
because the combination of jet power and propeller efficiency provides good
performance characteristics at speeds between 300 and 400 miles per hour.
Additionally, most turboprop engines operate with the best specific fuel consumption of
any gas turbine engine. [Figure 3-9]
Figure 3 -9. Turboprop powerplants are common on corporate and commuter twin-engine aircraft.
TURBOSHAFT ENGINES
30
A gas turbine engine that delivers power to a shaft that can drive something else is
referred to as a turboshaft engine. The biggest difference between a turbojet and
turboshaft engine is that on a turboshaft engine, most of the energy produced by the
expanding
gases is used to drive a turbine rath er than produce thrust. Many helicopters use a
turboshaft gas turbine engine. In addition, turboshaft engines are widely used as
auxiliary power units and, in industrial applications, to drive electrical generators and
surface transportation systems. The output of a turboprop or turboshaft engine is
measured by shaft horsepower rather than thrust.
TURBOFAN ENGINES
A turbofan engine consists of a multibladed, ducted propeller driven by a gas turbine
engine. Turbofans were developed to provide a compromise between the best features
of the turbojet and the turboprop. Turbofan engines have turbojet type cruise speed
capability, yet retain some of the short-field takeoff capability of a turboprop. Nearly all
present-day airliner s are powered by turbofan engines for these reasons as well as
because turbofans are relatively fuel-efficient.
31
Figure 3-10. (A) A forward-fan turbofan engine uses a relatively large-diameter, ducted fan that produces
thrust and provides intake air to the compressor. (B) An aft-fan turbofan engine has a fan mounted on the
aft turbine. This arrangement is rarely used because an aft fan does not contribute to air compression at
the inlet.
turbofan engine can have the fan mounted either in the front or back of the engine.
Engines that have the fan mounted in front of the compressor are called forward-fan
engines, and turbofan engines that have the fan mounted to the turbine section are called
aft-fan engines. [Figure 3-10]
Inlet air passing through a turbofan engine is usually divided into two separate streams
of air. One stream passes through the engine core, and a second stream coaxially
32
bypasses the engine core. From this bypass stream of air, this powerplant is referred to
as a bypass engine. To discuss bypass engines, you must be familiar with three terms-
thrust ratio,
bypass ratio, and fan pressure ratio. A turbofan engine's thrust ratio is a comparison of
the thrust produced by the fan to the thrust produced by the engine core exhaust. On the
other hand, a turbofan's bypass ratio refers to the ratio of incoming air that bypasses the
core to the amount of air that passes through the engine core. Turbofans in civil aircraft
are generally divided into three classifications based on bypass ratio: low bypass (1:1);
medium bypass (2:1 or 3:1); and high bypass (4:1 or greater). Fan diameter determines
a fan 's bypass ratio and thrust ratio.
Generally, airflow
mass in the fan section
of a low bypass engine
is the same as airflow
mass in the
compressor. The fan
discharge could be
slightly higher or lower
depending on the
engine model, but

Figure 33-11 . (A) Bypass air is ejected directly overboard in forward-fan engines
with a short fan duct. (B) With a ducted fan , bypass air is ducted along the engine's
entire length.
33
bypass ratios are approximately 1:1. In some engines, the bypass air is vented directly
overboard through a short fan duct. However, in a ducted fan , the bypass air is ducted
along the entire length of the engine. Full fan ducts reduce aerodynamic drag and noise
emissions. In either case, the end of the duct usually has a converging discharge nozzle
that increases velocity and produces reactive thrust. [Figure 3-11]
Medium- or intermediate-bypass engines have airflow bypass ratios ranging from 2:1 to
3:1. These engines have thrust ratios similar to their bypass ratios. The fans used on
these engines have a larger diameter than the fans used on low-bypass engines of
comparable power. High bypass turbofan engines have bypass ratios of 4:1 or greater
and use the largest diameter fan of any of the bypass engines. High bypass turbines
offer higher propulsive efficiencies and better fuel economy than low or medium bypass
turbines.
Consequently, they are
the engines of choice on
large airliners used for
long flights. Some
common high-bypass
turbofan engines Figure 3-12. High-bypass turbofan engines use large diameter fans with a bypass
ratio of 4: 1 or greater.
include Pratt and
Whitney's JT9D and PW4000, the Rolls-Royce RB- 211, and the General Electric CF6.
34
One version of the JT9D has a bypass ratio of 5:1 with 80 percent of the thrust provided
by the fan, and only 20 percent by the core engine. [Figure 3-12]
Another term you must be familiar with is fan pressure ratio, which is the ratio of air
pressure leaving the fan to the air pressure entering the fan. The fan pressure ratio on a
typical low bypass fan is approximately 1.5:1, whereas the fan pressure ratio for some
high bypass fans can be as high as 7:1. To obtain high fan pressure ratios, most high
bypass engines are designed with high aspect ratio blades. Aspect ratio is the ratio of a
blade's length to its width, or chord. Therefore, a long blade with a narrow chord has a
higher aspect ratio than a short blade with a wide chord. Although high aspect ratio fan
blades are used most often, low aspect ratio blades are currently coming into wider use.
Technological advances in blade construction have overcome the weight problems
associated with low aspect ratio blades in the past. Weight savings in low aspect ratio
blades have been achieved with hollow titanium blades with inner reinforcements made
of composite materials. Another benefit of low aspect ratio blades is their size, which
makes them less susceptible to foreign object damage, particularly bird strikes.
35
UNDUCTED FAN ENGINES

New engine designs with higher efficiencies than most engines in use are designated as
ultra-high bypass (UHB) propfan and undusted fan (UDF) engines. These new engines
use titanium, lightweight stainless steel, and composite materials to improve fuel
economy over several high-bypass turbofan engines by more than 15 percent. By
incorporating propellers with composite blades between 12 and 15 feet in diameter,
engine designers have
achieved 30:1 bypass ratio.
Composite propeller blades
are lighter and provide safe
operation at tip speeds
higher than conventional
blades. [Figure 3-13] Figure 3-13 . Research in unducted fan engines points to greater fuel efficiency
for future transport aircraft.
Current research and development indicate that these engines have the potential to
produce 10,000 to 15,000 horsepower for an aircraft carrying 10 to 200 passengers at
speeds near 0.8 Mach. Another design encases the propfan in a conventional cowl inlet,
which can achieve Mach 0.9. These engines are known as ducted ultra-high bypass
engines.
36
ENGINE COMPONENTS
Figure 3 -14. The basic components of a gas turbine engine include the air inlet, compressor, combustors, turbines,
and exhaust section. The air inlet and compressor section are sometimes referred to as the engine's cold section. The
combustors, turbines, and exhaust section are sometimes referred to as an engine· s hot section.
All gas turbine engines consist of the same basic components. However, the specific
nomenclature describing each component varies among manufacturers. Nomenclature
differences are reflected in applicable maintenance manuals. The following discussion
uses the most common terminology. The seven basic sections within every gas turbine
engine, as follows:
• Air inlet duct
• Compressor section
• Combustion section
• Turbine section
• Exhaust section
37
• Accessory section
Systems necessary for starting, lubrication, fuel supply, and auxiliary purposes such as
anti-icing, cooling, and pressurization
Additional terms you will likely encounter include hot section and cold section. The hot
section includes the combustion, turbine, and exhaust sections. The cold section
includes the air inlet duct and the compressor section. [Figure 3-14]
38
ACADEMIC HONESTY STATEMENT

For this exam/quiz/activity, I make the following truthful statement:
I understand that acts of academic dishonesty shall be penalized to the full extent as
indicated in the provision of the PhilSCA Student Manual (page 30,No.6.)
__________________________
Signature of Student Over Printed Name
39
Enrichment Activity 01
1. Make a research outline about the Brayton cycle.
Enrichment Activity 02
1. Make a research outline about the type of turbine engine.
40
Call number / e- Materials (textbooks, references, journals, online

provider
ISBN-13: 978-0-
A&P Technician Powerplant Textbook (2nd Edition)
88487-524-6
by Inc. Jeppesen Sanderson
ISBN-10: 0- Paperback, 528 Pages, Published 1997
88487-524-5
JA310108-000 JEPPESEN. (n.d.). PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT. Germany: Atlantic Flight Training

Ltd. Retrieved from
ISBN 0-88487- https://www.scribd.com/document/367849314/Vol-8-Principles-
358-7 of-Flight
Reference list
41

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Republic of the Philippines

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INTRODUCTION TO GAS TURBINE ENGINE 4 69.84

CLO 1 Discuss the MLO 1 Explain the TLO 1 Recognize the

operation at high altitudes, and a high power-to-weight ratio Aircraft such as

Lockheed's Super Constellation represented the practical limits of piston power

NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF

propels the squid forward. [Figure 3-1]

As early as 250 B.C., a writer and

mathematician named Hero devised a toy

using this reaction principle. The toy,

called the aeolipile, consisted of a

covered kettle of water that was heated to

produce steam. The steam was routed

through two vertical tubes into a spherical

container. Attached to the spherical

container were several discharge tubes

arranged radially around the container. As

steam filled the container, it would escape

through the discharge tubes causing the

sphere to rotate. [Figure 3-2]

Figure 3-2. Hero's aeolipile, invented long before Newton

A modern example of Newton's reaction principle is observed when the end of an

HISTORY OF JET PROPULSION

began in 1900, when Dr. Sanford Moss

submitted a thesis on gas turbines. Later,

Dr. Moss became an engineer for the

General Electric Company in England.

While there, he applied some of his

concepts in the development of the turbo-

supercharger. His design used a small

turbine wheel, driven by exhaust gases, to

turn a supercharger. Dr. Moss's research

influenced the development of what

aircraft at speeds over 400 miles per hour. [Figure 3-3]

propelled aircraft. [Figure 3-4]

extensive experience in building electrical generating turbines and turbo-superchargers

combat due to a limited flight time of 30 minutes. [Figure 3-5]

JET PROPULSION TODAY

presently in use in military and research applications. The Concorde, a supersonic

commercial aircraft built collaboratively by a British and French consortium, was in

In addition to military and commercial aviation, jet propulsion is widely used in

reliability of the jet engines.

compressor and accessories. In the case of turboprop or turboshaft engines, the

ignited, resulting in continuous combustion. The resulting release of heat energy

gases is relatively unobstructed, the velocity increases dramatically. [Figure 3-68]

VELOCITY AND PRESSURE

As air passes through a gas

turbine engine, its velocity and

pressure change to produce

thrust. For example, in the

compressor, static air pressure

increases while velocity

remains nearly constant. After

combustion, gas velocity must

be increased again to rotate the

turbine. The most common

way to induce a velocity or